The Roman Forum

Forum Romanum
The Roman Forum or Forum Romanum of Ancient Rome was the bustling religious, administrative, legal, and
commercial heart of the city from the 7th century BC onwards. Made increasingly grandiose and ceremonial in
function by the Imperial Period, the Forum became a monumental symbol in stone and marble of Roman power
and vanity with temples of deified Emperors, dedicatory columns, and massive triumphal arches celebrating
military victories from far corners of the Empire. Although wrecked by earthquake, weathering, pollution, and
centuries of architects robbing it of its stones and columns, the Forum Romanum, nevertheless, remains one of
the most impressive sites surviving from antiquity and a unique window into the once-great glorious world that
was Rome.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
The Forum Romanum is located between the Capitoline and Palatine Hills of Rome. According to Roman
legend, it was the site of a battle between Romans and Sabines in the second half of the 8 th century BC.
Excavations at the Forum Romanum have revealed the presence of Iron Age cemeteries which were in use from
the 11th century BC until the 9th century BC. The area was filled in with a significant quantity of earth and
rubble fill in order to raise it above the level of the River Tiber’s annual flood. The location was then paved,
from the late 8th or early 7th century BC. With early ritual spaces and temples such as the Regia and Temple of
Vesta, the Forum became the public focal point of the city, the location of its most important religious, political,
commercial, and legal activities. Gradually over the centuries, shops were pushed to the extremities or
elsewhere, and the architecture became more imposing and ceremonial in function.
The first Basilicas, used for public gatherings and especially law courts, appeared in the Forum from 184 BC.
Also in the 2nd century BC, colonnaded shops were added on three sides of the Forum. The principal
thoroughfare was the Via Sacra, a paved road which led from the Forum to the Palatine Hill. In 121 BC the first
Triumphal Arch was added, that of Fabius Maximus, Proconsul in Transalpine Gaul. The 1st century BC saw a
great deal of construction activity, and the form of the Forum we see today largely dates from that era. Lucius
Cornelius Sulla (138–78 BC) built a larger Curia building, home of the extended Roman Senate, and paved the
Forum with white travertine.
Various new buildings appeared during the reigns of Julius Caesar (100–44 BC) and Augustus (r. 27 BC–14
AD). The latter, in particular, made extensive renovations to many existing structures and commemorated the
place of Caesar’s funeral pyre with a column, replaced in 29 BC with the Temple of Divus Iulius following
Caesar’s deification. Augustus' reign also saw the Forum repaved using marble and the cleaning out of the
sewers beneath it. In 10 AD the Temple of Concordia Augusta, which was sometimes used for Senate meetings,
was rebuilt, and the sum of this work was to create a shining new monumental Forum enclosed in marble
colonnades which, with regular additions of temples, columns, statues and arches, advertised the power, wealth,
and military successes of the Roman Emperors.
Roman Forum in the 5th Century BC
Throughout the Imperial Period various temples were set up to commemorate deified Emperors, including
Augustus, Vespasian (r. 69–79 AD), and Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161 AD) and his wife, the Empress Annia
Galeria Faustina. Domitian (r. 81–96 AD) added a statue of himself riding a horse in 91 AD. Triumphal Arches
to commemorate military victories were added, notably the Arch of Titus in c. 81 AD and that of Septimius
Severus in 203 AD.
The Forum was devastated by fire in 283 AD which necessitated much rebuilding and restoration work,
including a new Curia and a new monumental colonnade. The Forum eventually fell into decline, even if it was
occasionally used for ceremonial purposes, following the move of the capital of the Roman Empire to
Constantinople in 330 AD. In the mid-6th century AD, the church of Santa Maria Antiqua was built in the
Forum on the slopes of the Palatine Hill but was then buried in a landslide in 847 AD. One of the last additions,
when the Forum had become no more than a Marketplace, was the 13-metre high column of Phocas, the
Emperor of Byzantium and former Centurion, in 608 AD.
Many of the buildings were cannibalized for their stonework or burned for lime, especially in the 15 th and 16th
century AD. This seriously weakened those left standing and made them susceptible to collapse from
earthquakes. The Arch of Titus was incorporated into fortifications built by the Frangipani family in Medieval
Times and suffered as a consequence. The Arch of Septimius Severus was similarly made into a fortress with
towers added to it and once there were shops inside its archways. Weathering and pollution have since
significantly damaged many of the Forum’s buildings and especially their decorative sculpture.
ARCHITECTURAL HIGHLIGHTS – RELIGIOUS BUILDINGS
Regia
First built sometime in the 7th century BC and modified several times over the centuries, the original Regia was
probably a trapezoidal building with a wing and attached courtyard. The name Royal Palace suggests a use as a
throne room for Rome’s early Kings but archaeological evidence of altars and sacrifices point to a religious
function during the 6th century BC. In Imperial Times it was used as offices and a place of meeting by some of
Rome’s most important religious officials such as the Vestal Virgins and Pontifex Maximus. Included in its
precinct were two sacred bay trees and a shrine with the shields and spears of Mars, which Generals were meant
to rattle before they embarked on campaigns. The building was remodeled in 210 BC, 148 BC and 36 BC but
survived the fires of the 1st century AD. Today only the ground plan is discernible.
Map of the Roman Forum
Comitium
The Comitium began in the late 7th century BC as a simple triangular paved space for religious ceremonies but
eventually acquired a stepped platform and ship’s prows were affixed to the speaker’s podium (Rostra). From
the 4th century BC, the general shape of the Comitium took on the circular form familiar from Greek
Ekklesiasteria (Public Assembly Forums). After being repaved at least seven times over time, the Comitium
ceased to exist as a specific monument in the 1st century BC when Julius Caesar eradicated it. There still
remains today at the site a mysterious black stone, the Lapis Niger, which carries an inscription of what seems
to be a set of regulations for a ritual. The late Republican Romans believed the stone marked the grave of
Romulus, the legendary founder of the city.
Temple of Vesta
The circular Temple of Vesta, dedicated to the Roman goddess of the hearth, was first built in the 7 th century
BC. By the late Republic the temple had been transformed into the form of a primitive house with columns
around its perimeter, inside of which was a hearth and other sacred objects but no statue of the goddess. Legend
has it the Palladium, a small wooden statue of Minerva, which was taken from Troy by Aeneas in Roman
mythology, was kept here in an underground chamber. Today only the base and a short elevation of
reconstructed travertine blocks survive.
House of the Vestal Virgins
The House of the Vestal Virgins or Atrium Vestae, located just behind the Temple of Vesta, was a project
begun by Domitian and completed by Trajan c. 113 AD. The structure, with its distinctive three sides of two-
tiered colonnades in green and red marble, was built upon the site of an earlier temple dating to the 2 nd or 1st
century BC. The building was restored c. 150 AD and the enclosed gardens once had many statues, including
figures of Head Vestals such as Flavia Publicia (247-257 AD).
Temple of Saturn, Rome
Temple of Saturn
This temple was dedicated to Saturn, a
somewhat mysterious god in the Roman
Pantheon who was perhaps a version of
the Greek Kronos (Cronus). Saturn was
especially worshipped in the Saturnalia
Festival held every December 17th (from
at least the 5th century BC), a festive
occasion when people gave gifts to one
another, slaves had the freedoms enjoyed
by ordinary citizens, and there was a
general round of partying and
merrymaking.
The surviving version of the Temple of
Saturn dates to sometime between 360 and
380 AD. The temple was built on the site
of the original building dedicated c. 497 BC by the Dictator Titus Tatius, which itself had replaced the god’s
first shrine, the Ara Saturni. During the Republic, the temple also housed the public treasury (Aerarium), a
function it kept, albeit in a more limited capacity, in the Imperial Period.
The temple stands on a pediment of travertine blocks while the eight remaining columns are of the Ionic order.
The shafts of the columns are made from Egyptian granite, the two on the side from pink Aswan, and the six
facade ones from grey Mons Claudianus. The Ionic Capitals are, in fact, the only parts made specifically for the
temple. Within the temple once stood a cult statue of Saturn.
Temple of Castor & Pollux
The Temple of Castor and Pollux (aka Dioscuri) was erected in
the final decade of the 1st century BC, replacing the earlier temple
to the twin sons of Jupiter which had stood on the site since 484
BC. Every July 15th the temple was the focus of a cavalry parade
– The Transvectio – of 5,000 men led by two impersonators of
the demigods who were thought to have guided the Romans to
victory over the Latins at the Battle of Lake Regillus (499 or 496
BC). The twins were seen afterwards watering their horses at the
Juturna Spring, which was the very spot where their temple was
built.
Temple of Castor & Pollux
Today only the large podium survives of the original temple and
the inner concrete core of the podium and three columns of the 1st
century BC version, built by Augustus in 14 or 9 BC after a
devastating fire. Augustus also made the cult an official imperial
one and initiated a new feast day for the pair on the January 27th.
The once massive structure measured 104 x 164 feet and reached
a height of almost 62.34 feet. The facades had eight Corinthian
columns while the sides each had eleven. The original front
entrance was composed of twin staircases with a speaker’s
platform, changed in the 3rd century AD to a single staircase. The
interior of the temple was quite complex and consisted of some 25 small chambers. The temple served as the
office of weights and measures with an additional function as a bank.
Temple of Divus Antoninus Pius & Faustina
The temple dedicated to Emperor Antoninus Pius and Empress Faustina was built c. 140 AD. Six Corinthian
columns of the facade still stand, along with two at each side, behind which lurks the 17th century AD version of
the church of Saint Lorenzo (first installed in the 6th or 7th century AD) in an incongruous mix of religions and
architectural styles. First dedicated by Antoninus to his deified wife, 20 years later it would also be dedicated to
the deified emperor. Inside were once colossal statues of the divine pair, fragments of which have been
excavated from the temple grounds.
Portico Dei Consentes
The Portico Dei Consenetes was a trapezoidal platform built on seven vaulted chambers and topped with a
portico of 12 Corinthian columns in green marble. Dating to the reign of Hadrian (r. 117-138 AD), the structure
was decorated with statues of the Harmonious Gods (a Roman version of the 12 Greek Olympian gods). The
structure was repaired in 367 AD by the city prefect, one Vettius Agorius Praetextatus, who was a rare pagan in
the new Christian world of Rome.
TRIUMPHAL ARCHES
Arch of Titus
The Arch of Titus was erected by Domitian in c. 81 AD to commemorate the victories of his father Vespasian
and brother Titus in the Jewish War in Judaea (70–71 AD) when the great city of Jerusalem was sacked and the
vast riches of its temple plundered. The arch is also a political and religious statement expressing the divinity of
the late Emperor Titus.
Constructed using Pentelic and Luna marble, the arch’s decorative relief panels show the triumph procession
carrying booty from the Temple of Jerusalem and Titus riding a four-horse chariot (Quadriga) and being
crowned by a personification of Victory. The goddess Roma stands in front, holding the bridle of one of the
horses. Originally, a huge bronze Quadriga would have stood on top of the arch.
Arch of Septimius Severus
The Arch of Septimius Severus, erected in 203 AD, commemorates the Roman victories over the Parthians in
the final decade of the 2nd century AD. The larger central archway was used for traffic, whilst the two outer
arches were closed off by steps. The foundations are of travertine and the main structure of Proconnesian
marble, a feature of which is its grey and white bands. The arch was richly decorated with sculpture which
depicted scenes from the military campaigns in Parthia, the triumph procession, the seasons, various deities, and
victories. On top of the structure, as indicated in coins of the period, there would once have been a six-horse
chariot in gilded bronze on which rode a statue of Septimius Severus. The Emperor was also originally flanked
by his two sons on horseback, possibly rendered in silver.
SECULAR BUILDINGS
Curia
The Curia was the most commonly used building for meetings of the Roman Senate. The first building was the
Curia Hostilia, used in the Early Kingdom, then the Curia Cornelia, built by Sulla, and finally, the Curia Julia,
built by Caesar, finished by Augustus and used thereafter. The sessions were open to the public with a literal
open-door policy that allowed ordinary people to sit outside and listen in if they wished. The Curia was restored
by Domitian in 94 AD, and rebuilt, as mentioned, following the fire of 283 AD. The rectangular building
measures 83.9 x 58.4 feet, has a height of 103.6 feet, and was built using brick with a concrete facing. The
flooring has survived well and is an excellent example of Opus Sectile marble mosaic; the doors, in contrast, are
bronze replicas of the originals. The Curia was converted into the Church of Saint Hadrian in 630 AD.
Basilica of Maxentius & Constantine
The New Basilica was begun by Maxentius and finished
by Constantine c. 313 AD. It once measured around 314 x
213.2 feet. The interior was covered in marble panels, had
a colored marble flooring and soaring vaults. The
building was the home of the Urban Prefects, the most
important officials in the city, and the seat of the
Senatorial Court, the Secretarium Senatus. The western
apse once contained a colossal statue of Constantine, the
head, foot and other surviving remains of which are now
on display in the courtyard of the Palazzo dei
Conservatori. Although the building was largely
destroyed by the earthquake of 847 AD, several 82-feet
high vaults are still intact and loom over the other ruins of
the Forum.
Roman Forum: History, Location, Buildings, &
Facts

The Roman Forum, or Forum Romanum in Latin, stands as a timeless testament to the grandeur and cultural
significance of Ancient Rome. Nestled in the heart of the modern-day city of Rome, Italy, this archaeological
site offers visitors a unique opportunity to step back in time and explore the remnants of a once-thriving center
of political, social, and religious life.

Roman Forum History

The Roman Forum’s history is deeply intertwined with the rise and fall of the Roman Republic and Empire. Its
origins date back to the 7th century BC when Rome was a small village. Over time, as Rome expanded, so did
the Forum, evolving from a Marketplace to the epicenter of Roman civic life.
Roman Kingdom (c. 7th –6th century BC)
During the monarchy, the Forum was primarily a marketplace and meeting place for the community. It was a
center for trade and religious activities, with temples dedicated to gods like Saturn and Venus.
Roman Republic (509 – 27 BC)
The Forum evolved significantly during the Republican period. It became a hub of political activity, with the
Senate House (Curia Hostilia) and the Rostra, a platform for public speeches. Temples like the Temple of
Concord, Temple of Castor and Pollux, and Temple of Saturn were constructed.
Roman Empire (27 BC – 476 AD)
The Forum continued to expand during the Imperial Era, adding grand structures like the Arch of Septimius
Severus and the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. It remained the center of political power, but its
significance began to wane as the city expanded and other areas developed.
Decline and Abandonment

As the Roman Empire declined, so did the Forum. It was gradually abandoned, and many of its buildings fell
into disrepair. The Fall of Rome in 476 AD marked the end of the ancient city and further contributed to the
Forum’s decline.

Roman Forum Location

The Roman Forum is situated in the heart of Rome, within the valley between the Palatine Hill and the
Capitoline Hill. Its central location made it easily accessible to Romans of all social classes, emphasizing its
role as a public gathering place. The site is within walking distance of other iconic landmarks like the
Colosseum and the Palatine Hill, making it a crucial stop for tourists exploring Rome’s rich history.
Roman Forum Buildings and Structures

The Roman Forum is home to a collection of remarkable buildings and structures that tell the story of Rome’s
illustrious past. Here is a list of a few key monuments in the Forum, some remains of which have withstood the
test of time and can still be seen today.
1. The Curia Julia: The Curia Julia was the Senate House, where the Roman Senate convened. The
original Curia was built by Julius Caesar, but the one we see today dates from the reign of Emperor
Diocletian.
2. The Rostra: The Rostra was a raised platform from which public speakers addressed the Roman
citizens. It was adorned with the prows of ships (Rostra) captured in Naval Battles, hence the name.
3. The Arch of Septimius Severus: This triumphal arch, built in 203 AD, commemorates Emperor
Septimius Severus and his sons’ victories in Parthia. It features detailed reliefs depicting these victories.
4. The Temple of Saturn: Dedicated to the god Saturn, this temple once housed the Roman State
Treasury. Its iconic columns and pediment are among the Forum’s most recognizable features.
5. The Temple of Vesta: This circular temple was dedicated to the goddess Vesta and her Priestesses, the
Vestal Virgins, who were responsible for maintaining the sacred flame that symbolized the eternal life of
Rome.
6. The Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine: This colossal Basilica, completed in the early 4th century
AD, showcased the grand architectural achievements of the time.
Roman Forum Facts
Below are some of the most intriguing facts about the Roman Forum:
1. Vestal Virgins: The Vestal Virgins, who tended the sacred flame in the Temple of Vesta, were selected
at a young age and took vows of chastity for 30 years. If they broke their vow, they faced severe
punishment, including being buried alive.
2. Julius Caesar’s Assassination: The assassination of Julius Caesar took place at the Theatre of Pompey,
located near the Forum. This event marked a turning point in Roman History, and the exact location
where Caesar died can still be seen today.
3. Christianity’s Influence: Many ancient temples in the Forum were later converted into Christian
Churches. For example, the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina became the Church of San Lorenzo in
Miranda.
4. Excavation and Restoration: The Forum underwent extensive excavation and restoration efforts in the
19th and 20th centuries, allowing us to witness its grandeur today.

Questions and Answers about the Roman Forum

In this section, we explore some of the most frequently asked questions about the Roman Forum, in order to get
a deeper understanding of this key area in Rome.
Who created Roman Forum?
Romulus is traditionally considered to have created the Roman Forum, in cooperation with his rival Titus
Tatius. We can’t say for sure whether this is true, but what we can confirm is that the Forum initially began as a
marketplace in the 7th century BC and expanded under the rule of various Roman Kings, leaders, and emperors
throughout Rome’s history. Its development was influenced by several Roman architects and leaders, such as
Julius Caesar and Emperor Augustus, who contributed to its architectural and structural enhancements.
Why is the Roman Forum so famous?
The Roman Forum is famous for its historical significance as the heart of ancient Rome. It served as the center
of Roman political, religious, and social life for centuries. It witnessed numerous important events, including
speeches by renowned figures like Cicero and the funeral of Julius Caesar. Its ruins also provide a remarkable
glimpse into the grandeur of ancient Roman architecture and culture, making it a renowned archaeological and
historical site.
Why was the Roman Forum ruined?
The decline and ruination of the Roman Forum occurred over centuries due to various factors. One major factor
was the Fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD, which led to neglect and abandonment of
many Roman structures, including the Forum. Additionally, natural disasters, such as earthquakes and fires,
played a role in damaging the Forum’s structures. The removal of valuable materials for use in other
construction projects also contributed to its deterioration.
Did All Roman Cities Have a Forum?
While not all Roman cities had a Forum, many of them did. The Forum was a central feature of Roman
urban planning and typically included a Marketplace, temples, government buildings, and spaces for public
gatherings. The size and grandeur of the Forum could vary depending on the city’s importance and wealth.
Major cities like Rome had grand forums, while smaller towns might have smaller, simpler versions.
Is the Roman Forum Still Used Today?
No, the Roman Forum is no longer used for its original purposes. It ceased to serve as a hub of political and
social activity over a millennium ago. Today, it is primarily a historical and archaeological site, open to
tourists and researchers who want to explore its ancient ruins and learn about its rich history.
What was the difference between the Roman Forum and the Imperial Forum?
The Roman Forum and the Imperial Forum were both important public spaces in ancient Rome, but they served
different purposes. The Roman Forum was the original forum of Rome and served as a multifunctional
center for various civic and religious activities. In contrast, the Imperial Forums were a series of
additional forums built by various Emperors adjacent to the Roman Forum. Each Imperial Forum was
dedicated to a specific purpose or emperor and often included grand temples, monuments, and
commemorative structures. The Imperial Forums expanded the civic and architectural landscape of ancient
Rome, showcasing the grandeur of imperial power.
In conclusion, the Roman Forum, a microcosm of Ancient Roman Civilization, continues to captivate visitors
with its rich history and architectural marvels. As a place where politics, religion, and daily life intersected, it
stands as a symbol of Rome’s enduring legacy. Whether you are a history enthusiast or simply a curious
traveler, a visit to the Roman Forum is a journey through time that promises a deeper understanding of the
grandeur of ancient Rome.
The following sections will delve into a timeline of the Roman Forum’s development, educational sources on its
history, and a fictional diary that makes the Forum come to life.
Roman Forum Timeline
Here is a timeline of the Roman Forum’s development and significant events:
 8th century BC: The Roman Forum’s place of origin as a marshy valley serving as a marketplace and
meeting place for Early Roman Settlers.
 7th century BC: Gradual development with the construction of simple wooden structures and temples.
 509 BC: Founding date of the Roman Republic, marking the Forum’s growing importance as a political
center.
 5th century BC: Construction of the Temple of Castor and Pollux and Temple of Saturn, two of the
oldest temples in the Forum.
 46 BC: Julius Caesar’s renovations, including the Julian Basilica and the Temple of Venus Genetrix.
 29 BC: Further development by Augustus, including the Temple of Divus Julius and the Temple of
Apollo.
 3rd century AD: Arch of Septimius Severus is erected in 203 AD.
 4th century AD: Conversion of some pagan temples into Christian Churches, including the Basilica of
Maxentius and Constantine.
 5th century AD: Decline of the Roman Empire, leading to the gradual abandonment of the Forum.
 9th century AD: The Forum becoming a pasture for cattle and largely forgotten during the Middle Ages.
 19th century: Archaeological excavations and renewed interest in its history and preservation.
 20th century to Present: Ongoing excavations and restoration efforts to uncover more about the
Forum’s history.

Further Reading
Below is a list of recommended readings and resources to aid your exploration and expand your knowledge of
the Roman Forum. These sources will allow you to have a closer look at various aspects of the Forum, from its
architectural marvels to the pivotal historical events that unfolded within its precincts. Whether you are a
history enthusiast, an architecture aficionado, or simply curious about the wonders of ancient Rome, there is a
wealth of material to satisfy your curiosity.
1. “The Roman Forum: A Reconstruction and Architectural Guide” by Gilbert J. Gorski and James E.
Packer. This comprehensive guidebook not only provides a detailed overview of the Roman Forum’s
history but also offers insights into its architectural evolution. It includes detailed reconstructions and
illustrations, making it an invaluable resource for those interested in the Forum’s physical layout.
2. “The Roman Forum” by David Watkin. In this book, David Watkin delves into the history of the
Roman Forum, tracing its development from its humble beginnings to its peak during the Roman
Empire. The book is well-researched and beautifully illustrated, making it a captivating read for history
buffs.
3. “The History of Rome” by Titus Livius (Livy). Livy’s monumental work, “The History of Rome” (Ab
urbe Condita), includes extensive accounts of the Roman Forum and its role in the city’s history.
Reading Livy’s original accounts can provide a firsthand glimpse into the Forum’s significance in
Roman society.

Fictional Diary Entry

Below is an attempt at writing a fictional diary entry from the imagined character Chileos of Athens, in order to
bring the Roman Forum to life. Enjoy!
March 29, 44 BC
Today, I had the extraordinary privilege of visiting the Roman Forum, a place that seems to be at the heart of
the ancient world. As I walked through the bustling streets of Rome, I could feel the city’s pulse, its lifeblood
flowing through the grand monuments and bustling Marketplaces.
The grandeur of the Forum left me in absolute awe. Columns soared towards the heavens, adorned with
intricate carvings and statues of gods and heroes. The Temple of Saturn stood tall, a symbol of Rome’s
enduring strength, while the Rostra, adorned with prows of conquered ships, reminded all who passed of
Rome’s maritime prowess.
I found myself drawn to the Senate House, where the fate of the Republic is debated and determined. The great
orator Cicero’s voice must have once echoed through these hallowed halls, and I couldn’t help but imagine the
heated discussions that took place within.
But the most captivating sight of all was the Temple of Julius Caesar, built to honor the great dictator. It was
an emotional experience to stand in front of this temple, knowing that only a few weeks ago, on the Ides of
March, the very day we commemorate today, Julius Caesar was assassinated not far from here. The tension in
the air was palpable, as though the ghosts of history still lingered, whispering their secrets to those who would
listen.
As I wandered through the Forum, I marveled at the everyday life unfolding around me. Vendors peddled their
wares, citizens debated passionately, and slaves hurried about their duties. It was a bustling center of
commerce, politics, and culture, a true testament to the spirit of Rome.
I couldn’t help but feel overwhelmed by the weight of history that surrounds me here. The Roman Forum is a
living, breathing museum of the past, and today, on this momentous day, I felt as though I had stepped back in
time to witness the glory and tumultuous events of the Roman Republic firsthand. What a remarkable place, and
what a privilege it is to stand here in the heart of Ancient Rome.
Chileos of Athens
Roman Calendar: Origin, Dates, Months
& Seasons
The Roman Calendar is a historical marvel that has played a significant role in shaping
modern-day calendars. Developed by the Romans more than 2,000 years ago, it served
as the primary timekeeping system in the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire.
This calendar laid the foundation for many aspects of our current calendar system and
continues to influence our lives today.
In this article, we will explore the Roman Calendar, its origins, structure, months, and its
connection to the changing seasons.

Origins of the Roman Calendar

The Roman Calendar has its roots in the Early Roman Kingdom, evolving over centuries
to meet the practical needs of the society. Its earliest known version, known as the
Roman Republican Calendar, was believed to have been established by Romulus, the
legendary founder of Rome, in the 8th century BC. This early calendar was lunar-based,
with 10-months totaling 304-days in a year.

Roman Calendar Months

The Early Roman Calendar had 10 different months, each with its own distinct history
and significance. These months, some of which were renamed in honor of historical
figures, laid the foundation for our modern calendar system:
1. Martius (March): Named after Mars, the Roman god of war. Originally the first
month, it marked the beginning of the agricultural season.
2. Aprilis (April): Its name’s origin is uncertain, possibly from the Latin word
“Aperire,” meaning “to open,” signifying the opening of buds and flowers in Spring.
3. Maius (May): Named after Maia, a Roman Earth goddess associated with growth
and fertility.
4. Junius (June): Named after Juno, the Roman goddess of marriage and the well-
being of women.
5. Quintilis (July): Originally the 5th month, it was later renamed in honor of Julius
Caesar.
6. Sextilis (August): Originally the 6th month, it was renamed in honor of Augustus
Caesar.
7. September: Derived from the Latin word “Septem,” meaning “seven.”
8. October: Derived from the Latin word “Octo,” meaning “eight.”
9. November: Derived from the Latin word “Novem,” meaning “nine.”
10. December: Derived from the Latin word “Decem,” meaning “ten.”
The Roman Calendar later underwent significant reforms, including changes in the
number of days and the addition of two more months, January and February, to make a
more accurate Solar Calendar.
The Roman Calendar Structure
The Roman Calendar was a lunar calendar
at its inception, which means it was based
on the moon’s phases. This early calendar
had 10-months, totaling 304-days in a year.
It did not account for the remaining days,
leading to an unaccounted period known as
the “Intercalary Month.”
The Intercalary Month was added
periodically to align the lunar calendar with
the solar year. This month, known as
“Mercedonius,” had an uncertain length and
was inserted by the Pontifex Maximus
(high priest) as needed.
In 45 BC, Julius Caesar introduced the Julian Calendar, a significant reform that brought
the Roman Calendar closer to the modern Solar Calendar. It established the solar year as
approximately 365.25 days and introduced the concept of leap years. This reform
included:
1. Adding 67-days to the year 46 BC to bring the calendar in sync with the solar year.
2. Introducing the leap year system, where an extra day (February 29) is added every
four years to account for the extra 0.25-days in the solar year.
3. Changing the start of the year from March 1st to January 1st.
The Julian Calendar, named after Julius Caesar, was widely adopted throughout the
Roman Empire and remained in use for over 1,600 years, influencing the development of
the Gregorian Calendar we have used since 1582.

Roman Calendar Seasons

2nd century Calendar Mosaic featuring the month of March. Exhibited in the Galleria Borghese – Rome,
Italy.
The Roman Calendar was closely tied to the changing seasons, reflecting the importance
of agriculture and nature in Roman Society. The months of Martius (March), Aprilis
(April), Maius (May), and Junius (June) were particularly significant as they marked the
transition from Winter to Spring and the onset of the agricultural season. Festivals and
celebrations, such as the Festival of Saturnalia in December and the Spring fertility
festival of Floralia in April, were aligned with these seasonal changes.
Important Dates in the Roman Calendar Year

Saturnalia by Antoine Callet (1783)

The Roman Calendar, in its various historical forms, had several important dates and
festivals that were significant in the life of the Roman people. Here is a list of some of
the important dates throughout the Roman calendar year:
1. Kalends (Kalendae): The first day of each month, marked by the announcement
of the month’s religious festivals and the payment of debts.
2. Nones (Nonae): The 7th day (or the 9th day in March, May, July, and October) of
each month, when certain religious observances and festivals occurred.
3. Ides (Idus): The 15th day (or the 13th day in March, May, July, and October) of each
month, marked by important religious events and lunar phases.
4. Martius (March 15th): The Ides of March, famously known for the assassination
of Julius Caesar in 44 BC.
5. Aprilis (April 21-23): The Festival of Parilia or Palilia, celebrating the founding of
Rome, purification, and the beginning of the agricultural season.
6. Maius (May 1): The Festival of Beltane, dedicated to the Roman goddess Maia,
symbolizing growth and fertility.
7. Junius (June 7): The Festival of Vestalia, honoring Vesta, the goddess of the
hearth, and the Vestal Virgins who tended to her sacred fire.
 8. September 13: Ludi Romani, a series of games and celebrations in honor of
Jupiter Optimus Maximus, the chief god of the Roman Pantheon.
9. October 4-19: Ludi Augustales, games and festivals dedicated to Augustus
Caesar.
10. December 17: Saturnalia, a week-long festival celebrating Saturn,
characterized by feasting, gift-giving, and social reversal.
11. December 25: Dies Natalis Solis Invicti, the “Birthday of the
Unconquered Sun,” a festival celebrating the winter solstice and the renewal of the
sun’s power.
12. February 15: Lupercalia, an ancient fertility festival involving purification
rituals, the sacrifice of goats, and the running of the Luperci.
13. March 17: Festival of Liberalia, celebrating the god Liber (Bacchus) and
marking the transition to adulthood for Roman youths.
14. The Roman Calendar also had movable festivals and religious observances
that depended on lunar or seasonal factors, such as the Equinoxes and Solstices.
These dates offer a glimpse into the rich tapestry of Roman life, with its religious,
cultural, and historical celebrations that played a crucial role in shaping the identity and
traditions of Ancient Rome.

Frequently Asked Questions

Below are some clear-cut answers to some of the most frequently asked questions about
the Roman Calendar.
Did the Roman Calendar have 12-months?
No, initially the Roman Calendar had 10-months and a total of 304-days in a year.
These months were Martius (March), Aprilis (April), Maius (May), Junius (June), Quintilis
(July), Sextilis (August), September, October, November, and December. Over time, the
calendar was reformed to include 12-months to better match the Solar Year.
Why did the Romans add two months?
The Romans added two months, January and February, to address the
discrepancy between their Lunar Calendar and the Solar Year. This reform was
attributed to Julius Caesar in 45 BC when he introduced the Julian Calendar. The Solar
Year consists of approximately 365.25-days, while the original Roman Lunar Calendar
was shorter. By adding January and February and adjusting the lengths of some months,
the Roman Calendar was brought closer to the Solar Year. This adjustment also included
the concept of leap years, ensuring better alignment with the changing seasons.
Is the Roman Calendar still used today?
No, the original Roman Calendar, as it was in ancient times, is no longer in use
today. However, it played a pivotal role in the development of subsequent calendar
systems. The Roman Calendar evolved into the Julian Calendar, which, in turn, served as
the foundation for the Gregorian Calendar. The Gregorian Calendar, introduced by Pope
Gregory XIII in 1582, is the most widely used calendar system globally today. It refined
the Julian Calendar to account for leap years more accurately and is now the standard
calendar used for civil and religious purposes worldwide.
In conclusion, understanding the Roman Calendar helps us appreciate the rich history
and influence of Ancient Rome on our contemporary lives, as well as the enduring legacy
of timekeeping systems developed by civilizations of the past.