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Towards SBE: from Policy to Practice IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 329 (2019) 012048 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/329/1/012048
Climate change and emerging risks. Innovative urban climate
services as a strategy to improve resilience of human systems.
Chiara Bernardini1,3, Giancarlo Paganin2 and Cinzia Maria Luisa Talamo1
1
Department ABC, Politecnico di Milano, Via G. Ponzio 31, 20133 Milano, Italy
2
Department DASTU, Politecnico di Milano, Politecnico di Milano Via Edoardo
Bonardi 3, 20133 Milano, Italy
3
Corresponding Author: chiara.bernardini@polimi.it
Abstract. Climate change and extreme natural events are increasingly threatening human
systems. Even if greenhouse gases emission were reduced to zero today, global warming and the
consequent climate change would continue to affect future generations: as climate is changing,
human systems must learn to adapt. This study focuses on the role, the use and the management
of climate information to overcome the barriers to climate change adaptation action. The article
first addresses the relationship between sustainable development and climate change, regarded
as “two mutually reinforcing sides of the same coin”. After a short section on the
complementarity of mitigation and adaptation strategies, it analyses the barriers to investments
in climate adaptation action by public authorities: the uncertainty about the magnitude and the
frequency of climate change-connected events, the common wrong perception of unlikelihood
of global warming consequences and the intrinsic complexity characterizing human systems are
identified as major constraints. These considerations lead to introduce the concepts of soft-
resilience and low-regret adaptation strategies. The discipline of climate change adaptation based
on soft-approach climate resilience strategies is closely linked to information management,
information technologies, communications, logistics, geographic information services and good
governance. Indeed, information management is here seen as the pillar of soft-approach
strategies. Low-regret strategies are defined as measures that would generate net social and/or
economic benefits both under current climate and a range of future climate change scenarios.
Section 5 explores potential synergies between Climate Services (understood as any service,
equipment, techniques, practical knowledge and skills that can be used to increase climate
resilience of human system) and Urban Facility Management services. This study identifies
Innovative Urban Climate Services, an integrated system of services addressing both climate and
urban issues simultaneously, as an effective, soft-approach and low-regret strategy to overcome
the barriers to adaptation action. These solutions provide a general framework allowing a flexible
and customized support for human systems in adapting to unavoidable impacts of climate
change.
1. Introduction
Earth’s climate has been relatively stable for the past 12000 years, and modern life is tailored to that
climate [1]. In the last century, human systems face emerging physical and social risks arising from
climate change, one of the biggest global challenges of modern world. Climate change has become a
central theme in many political and public debates: in the last decade international and
intergovernmental institutions and scientific community attention was increasingly drawn to this issue.
Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence. Any further distribution
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Towards SBE: from Policy to Practice IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 329 (2019) 012048 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/329/1/012048
Climate change impacts on human systems are beginning to change how urban infrastructure is
designed and located, how populations are settled, and their organization [2].
This paper summarizes the initial phase of a three-years research work on climate adaptation
strategies for built environment funded by the Italian Ministry of Education (Ministero dell'Istruzione
dell'Università e della Ricerca). After a rationale on the link between climate change and sustainable
development, the issue of complementarity between mitigation and adaptation measures is approached,
followed by an investigation on the barriers to climate adaptation action. Section 3 introduces the
concepts of low-regret adaptation strategies and soft-resilience. The aim of the research is then stated:
identifying effective strategies centred on the implementation of services to support human systems in
coping with climate change. The next sections outline the potential synergies between Climate Services
and Urban Facility Management. Lastly, the concept and implementation of Innovative Urban Climate
Services, intended as an effective, soft-approach and low-regret strategy to improve resilience of human
systems, is discussed.
The interest of this study, in line with the multidisciplinary nature of the issue itself, includes all the
aspects of built environment management ranging from tangible to intangible infrastructures
management, risk management, digitization and innovation in products and systems. It offers an original
standpoint on the issue of sustainable built environment and climate change, exploring possible soft-
adaptation solutions to improve resilience of human systems centred on the development of a set of
urban services based on typical Urban Facility Management approaches.
2. Complementarity between climate change, sustainable development and built environment
The definition of sustainable development provided by the Brundtland Report in 1987 reads:
"Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs." [3]. Even if greenhouse gases emission would be
reduced to zero today, global warming will continue to affect future generations in the next centuries
[1][4]. Climate change is the result of the unsustainable industrial production, unsustainable land use,
unsustainable energy consumption, unsustainable resource use globally fostered and accepted by various
stakeholders in the last two centuries.
In the UN agreement addressing climate change and promoting sustainable development are regarded
as "two mutually reinforcing sides of the same coin" [5]: sustainable development cannot be
accomplished without climate action and, vice versa, the Sustainable Development Agenda Goals tackle
the main drivers of climate change by reducing greenhouse gases emissions. Climate change is the
ultimate sustainable development issue [6].
Which role could built environment play in mitigation and adaption to climate change? The building
sector is the main energy-consuming sector worldwide: almost 41% of final energy consumption and
comparable contributions to greenhouse gases emissions are attributable to buildings life cycle [7]. Yet,
this sector has great potential to significantly reduce GHG emissions [8], enable climate adaptation and
enhance resilience of human systems.
3. Emissions mitigation and climate adaptation: adoption of national and local climate plans
among European countries
As reported below, NASA stated that even if greenhouse gases emission would be reduced to zero today,
global warming will continue to affect future generations in the next centuries [1]. Global climate models
and IPCC climate projections support this statement [4]. Even assuming the efforts to reduce emissions
demonstrate their effectiveness, climate change effects are inevitable, and complementary actions to
adapt to its impacts are needed.
Climate adaptation, understood as “the process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its
effects” [4], seeks to mitigate or avoid climate-related impacts and, in the best-case scenario, to exploit
their beneficial opportunities. The Paris agreement proposes a similar and inspiring definition of climate
adaptation, identifying it as “changes to the socio-technical systems that support human living in light
of inevitable climate change” [9].
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Towards SBE: from Policy to Practice IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 329 (2019) 012048 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/329/1/012048
So, ultimately, climate changes human systems must learn to adapt. Despite this evidence, data show
that this commitment continues to be poorly implemented in practice: a voluntary survey launched by
Eurostat and up-to-date as of January 2018 about adoption of national adaptation strategies and plans
across 33 European countries reveals that climate change adaptation efforts have increased, particularly
over the past decade, but only the 50% of the respondent countries dispose of a national adaptation plan
at present (Eurostat, 2018).
What then are the barriers to adaptation action for public administrations and, more in general, for
stakeholders? The next section seeks to examine the factors that interacts to impede adaptation planning
and implementation.
4. Barriers to climate adaptation action
The IPCC identifies the uncertainties about projected climate change impacts as a major constraint,
among others (e.g. limited financial and human resources; limited integration or coordination of
governance; different perceptions of risks; competing values; absence of key adaptation leaders and
advocates): they interact to impede adaptation planning and implementation [4].
Climate change is an extremely uncertain source of hazard and, thus, difficult to describe and model
quantitatively. We need only think of the fact that an integral feature of IPCC reports is the
communication of the strength of uncertainties in scientific understanding underlying assessment
findings: the “IPCC AR5 guidance note on consistent treatment of uncertainties” was published, where
a qualitative level of confidence is expressed for assessment findings (from very low to very high) and,
when possible, they are probabilistically characterized with a quantified likelihood (from exceptionally
unlikely to virtually certain).
Limitations of available measurements, especially for rare events, make the probability, the
frequency of occurrence and the magnitude of such climate change-connected events still partially
unknown. There is evidence from the literature of the lack of reliable statistics based on the past, as we
are currently experiencing a transition phase of ecosystems. Limited knowledge leads to the common
wrong perception of unlikelihood of global warming consequences.
Human systems are complex networks with very specific framework conditions, so the
implementation of adaptation strategies is embedded in a complex frame that is influenced by internal
and external factors. The issue of complexity should be therefore introduced: multiple communities of
people, tangible and intangible infrastructures (built environment) and services characterized by high
interdependency make up what we call a “human system”. Human systems are characterized by different
geographical location, city structure, size and density, urban-rural relationships, socio-economic aspects,
cultural habits and backgrounds, human resources, interests of the involved stakeholders, different
exposure and vulnerabilities to climate change impacts, level of awareness of climate change,
operational capability.
In conclusion, the uncertainty surrounding climate change impacts scenarios, the consequent
common wrong perception of unlikelihood of global warming consequences and the intrinsic
complexity of human systems are major obstacles to long-term, significant investments in adaptation
actions by stakeholders.
In addition to the above constraints, information management-related barriers should be mentioned.
Despite the growing availability of climate data, lack of actionable information can be observed: it may
require tailoring, interpretation, or integration with other information before it can be useful [10]. In this
paper, we seek to identify effective information management-based strategies that facilitate the
implementation of adaption measures.
5. Soft-resilience and low-regret strategies to overcome barriers to adaptation action
Facilitating the investments in climate adaptation action is a major challenge for the international
scientific community. According to the outcomes of many studies carried out by the World Energy
Council, addressing the issue of the reticence of policy makers to invest in climate adaptation measures
would require a shift from the concept of hard-resilience (defined as the direct strengthening of
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Towards SBE: from Policy to Practice IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 329 (2019) 012048 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/329/1/012048
structures or institutions in relation to specific stresses, obtained through specific measures to reduce
their probability of collapse) to an innovative soft-resilience approach [11]. Soft-resilience is here
referred to as the ability of systems to absorb and recover from the impact of disruptive events without
fundamental changes in function or structural-measures, relying on preparedness and systemic
interventions [12].
The discipline of climate change adaptation based on soft-approach climate resilience strategies is
closely linked to information management, information technologies, communications, logistics,
geographic information services and good governance. Indeed, information management is here seen as
the pillar of soft-approach strategies: it is the basis for the operation of Climate Services, as further
explained in the next section.
Hard adaptation strategies rely predominantly on tangible built infrastructures, are resource-
consuming and lack flexibility and adaptability to sudden changes in projections of climate change [13].
Given the high grade of uncertainty characterizing climate models, soft adaptation strategies present a
great advantage considering their flexibility, reversibility and cost-effectiveness.
Table 1. Proprieties of soft-approach adaptation strategies and hard-approach adaptation strategies.
Propriety Soft – approach adaptation strategies Hard – approach adaptation strategies
Flexibility Flexible, adaptable to sudden changes in Inflexible in the short-term, non-adaptable to
climate conditions or projections sudden changes in climate conditions or
projections
Reversibility Reversible in the short term without Reversible in the long time with impacts;
adverse impacts; do not narrow future narrow future choices
choices
Technologies Rely on simple, low-impact technologies Rely on complex technologies and human-
and intangible infrastructures built infrastructures
Time horizon Short-medium term investments Long-term investments
Scale Small-scale measures Large-scale measures; large-scale
disturbances
Compatibility Allow coexistence and synergies with Trade-offs with other measures; narrow future
other measures choices
Resources Resource-saving; cost-effective Resources-consuming; capital intensive
Type of Deal mainly with organizational, Mainly provide for physical interventions
interventions operational and institutional capacity
Adjustability Adjustable to stakeholders needs Difficult to proportion on the basis of
uncertain data
Environmental No environmental drawbacks Medium to high environmental drawbacks
impact
Soft adaptation strategies may be regarded as low-regret solutions. It is worth introducing here the
concept of low-regret adaptation: the IPCC defines it as measures that would generate net social and/or
economic benefits both under current climate and a range of future climate change scenarios.
Summarizing the UK Adaptation Sub-Committee definition this type of solutions can be described as
adaptive measures for which the associated costs are relatively low and for which the benefits, although
primarily realized under projected future climate changes, may be relatively large. The key is
maximizing the positive impacts of climate adaptation measures.
Table 2. Proprieties of low-regret and high-regret adaptation strategies
Propriety Low-regret adaptation strategies High-regret adaptation strategies
Resources Relatively low; resource-saving; cost-effective High investments; resource-consuming;
capital-intensive
Purpose Often multi-purpose; address more than one Specific purpose in specific conditions
societal objective
Benefits Benefits under current climate and a range of Benefits under current specific climate
future scenarios
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Towards SBE: from Policy to Practice IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 329 (2019) 012048 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/329/1/012048
Adjustability Incrementable; often modular solutions Rigid solutions
Typical examples of low-regret strategies are restrictive land use planning; insurance, early warning
and evacuation scheme; green infrastructures; improved building standards. As can be seen from the
tables, soft solutions possess many proprieties that make them potential low-regret strategies.
The aim of this study is here declared: providing a methodology, a conceptual framework for the
development of a set of strategies to enhance human systems resilience, taking into consideration the
principles of soft-approach and low-regret solutions. The proposed strategies are centred on the
enhancement of urban services. The next section first defines what Climate Services and Urban Facility
Management are to then explore potential synergies arising from their integration.
6. Climate Services and Urban Facility Management
6.1 Climate Services
Interest in Climate Services has grown over the past decade, particularly with the launch of the Global
Framework for Climate Services, a global partnership of governments and organizations that produce
climate information and services, in occasion of the 3rd World Climate Conference. The aim was to turn
scientific information into operationally available information and services that would help society to
better cope with climate variability and change [11]. Later on the EU declared in the European Roadmap
for Climate Services, published in 2015, its will to support the development of a market for Climate
Services with and for diverse categories of users. In this direction numerous knowledge platforms and
initiatives were launched, to foster the application of climate information into effective adaptation and
mitigation actions: Copernicus Climate Change Services (C3S), that aims at providing open source
climate information; Climate-ADAPT, presented as “a climate knowledge intelligent portal”; climate-
knowledge and innovation communities like Climate-KIC, supported by the European Institute of
Innovation and Technology (EIT); and many others.
As already mentioned above, Climate Services show limitations in their effectiveness when it comes
to deliver usable information for adaptation measures implementation; making climate information
applicable may require tailoring, interpretation, or integration with other information [10].
The definition of Climate Services provided by the European Commission includes a broad number
of applications obtained from "the transformation of climate-related data - together with other relevant
information - into customized products such as projections, forecasts, trends, economic analysis,
assessments, counselling on best practices development and evaluation of solutions and any other […]
that may be useful for the society at large". It introduces the possibility to integrate climate-related
information with other relevant information from different sources. Kathleen, Swartling et al. broadly
conceptualize the developments of Climate Services as ‘climate knowledge systems” [10], stressing the
importance of the three-phases transformation from data to usable information to knowledge.
For the purpose of this study it resulted extremely useful interpreting a definition provided by the
CTCN (Climate Technology Centre and Network) that identifies climate technologies, in which the
emerging idea of a new, innovative set of Climate Services generated by the synergy with Urban Facility
Management services is well represented by the following adapted definition: any service, equipment,
techniques, practical knowledge and skills that can be used to increase climate resilience of human
system. This concept will be further explained in section 6 of this work, after having delineated what
we intend with Urban Facility Management.
6.2 Urban Facility Management
UNI 11447:2012 defines Urban Facility Management as an integrated management service for the
operation, the serviceability and the valorisation of urban facilities. [14] Urban facilities include: i)
Services for the Territory: monitoring and maintenance of urban green, plants, road network; ii) Services
for buildings, plants, infrastructures: monitoring and maintenance of water systems, sewers,
infrastructure for public transport, security technology installations, telephone and data transmission
networks, availability and emergency intervention; iii) Services for the environment and the community:
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Towards SBE: from Policy to Practice IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 329 (2019) 012048 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/329/1/012048
cleaning and environmental hygiene, waste collection and disposal, space management; iv) Government
services: technical and inventory registers, implementation and management of information systems,
operational centres.
Urban Facility Management is increasingly required not only to satisfy the primary requirement –
guaranteeing an efficient and effective management of urban facilities through conditions monitoring
and maintenance operations – but also to ensure a quick reaction and practical response in case of
extreme natural events. In the light of raising hazard magnitude and frequency due to climate change,
this aspect becomes of fundamental importance.
6.3 Potential synergies between Climate Services and Urban Facility Management
Optimizing Urban Facility Management by integrating it with climatic information through the use of
current ICTs complies with the definitions of soft-resilience and low-regret strategy: this strategy relies
on information management practices and gives back benefits (a better level of service and users
comfort) whatever the climate conditions.
The table below provides some examples of adaptation strategies classified by the definitions
introduced in section 4 of this paper, showing the overlaps between soft/hard regret strategies and
low/high regret strategies.
Table 3. Matrix of adaptation strategies: examples and classification by definitions.
Strategies Soft-approach adaptation strategies Hard-approach adaptation strategies
Low-regret UFM integrated with CS: monitoring and Green infrastructures;
adaptation maintenance practices for urban facilities Improved building standards; Improved
strategies drainage systems
High-regret Soft-approach adaptation strategies are Flood protection walls; Improved irrigation
adaptation not high-regret strategies by definition systems; Improved urban infrastructures
strategies
The heterogeneity of services covering the urban scale requires the formulation of an overall
framework in which each individual service is correctly identified through an accurate mapping of the
package of goods and services and the relationships among them. This allows to identify and analyse
services among which synergies are necessary or convenient.
This is the case of Urban Facility Management and Climate Services. The serviceability of existing
urban facilities can be enhanced by linking the information provided in the form of climate models by
scientific bodies, and elaborated by services providers to deliver Climate Services, with systems of
Urban Facility Management. This allows to anticipate harmful events, raise the grade of preparedness,
enable a quick response in case of emergency and, consequently, improve the resilience degree of human
systems. Section 6 presents the outcome of this integration.
7. Innovative Urban Climate Services as an effective soft-approach and low-regret strategy to
improve resilience of human systems
Despite Climate Services have been broadly investigated in the scientific literature, their grade of
integration in human systems management is still insufficient. The lack of operative tools for their
application is a main limiting factor of such operationalization [15].
The previous section explores potential synergies between Climate Services and Urban Facility
Management systems: integrating the information provided in the form of Climate Services with
operations and procedures typical of Urban Facility Management approaches gives rise to the
implementation of a new model of urban services based on the effective information sharing to support
systematic monitoring and interventions. Human systems needs and requirements for improving their
resilience to the impacts of climate change are highly context specific: much meta-information is needed
to transfer adaptation strategies [16]. Meteorological information as well as maps, risk and vulnerability
analyses, impacts assessments (Climate Impacts Models), and long-term projections and scenarios
(Climate Models) crossed with non-meteorological data (such as settlement in high-risk areas, road and
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Towards SBE: from Policy to Practice IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 329 (2019) 012048 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/329/1/012048
infrastructure maps, urban facilities conditions), may be combined depending on specific user needs
[17].
Figure 1. Synergies between Climate Services and
Urban Facility Management.
The incorporation of a new operational entity responsible for the processing of multiple information
should be envisaged: it will elaborate information making it usable and applicable for various purposes,
tailoring it to specific users’ categories needs.
The outcomes of this work will include improved conventional urban services that enhance the utility
of existing urban facilities and a set of new urban services to cope with climate change trends and
extreme events; these services will allow a constant monitoring of climate conditions and urban facilities
conditions. The set of integrated Urban Facility Management systems may then be “fed” with geo-spatial
and real-time status information extracted from the numerous ICTs systems incorporated in urban space:
this would allow to take a step forward from the conventional management method that usually relies
on manual maintenance following periodical inspection reports [15].
Figure 2. Innovative Urban Climate Services generated from the synergies between UFM and Climate
Services.
This paper does not provide by choice a list of Innovative Urban Climate Services due to the fact
that one-fit-all solutions would be in contrast with the logic of this research itself. The intrinsic
complexity of human systems makes it necessary to consider the specificities of each context and tailor
services on user’s needs. We leave the presentation of a repertoire of case studies and applications for
next publications.
8. Conclusions
This paper seeks to provide an original standpoint to address the issue of how to facilitate the
investments in climate adaptation by stakeholders. It introduces the concepts of soft-approach adaptation
measures and low-regret solutions and it applies them in the identification of effective short-medium
term strategies to be included in the mix of strategies to improve resilience of built environment and
human systems. It identifies Innovative Urban Climate Services, an integrated system of services
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Towards SBE: from Policy to Practice IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 329 (2019) 012048 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/329/1/012048
addressing both climate and urban issues simultaneously, as a strategy to overcome the barriers to
adaptation action (uncertainty, wrong perception of unlikelihood of global warming consequences and
intrinsic complexity of human systems) thanks to their flexibility, reversibility and cost-effectiveness.
Maximizing the positive impacts of climate adaptation measures means promoting sustainable
development. The forecasted side-benefits arising from the implementation of the solution presented are
improved efficiency and effectiveness of urban facilities management, which may entail an improved
urban facilities users’ comfort level and a constant monitoring of climate conditions and urban facilities
conditions; this may ensure an improved emergency response that will lead to improved resilience of
human systems to climate change hazards. This study paves the way to the development of a set of
Innovative Urban Climate Services allowing a flexible and customized support for human systems in
adapting to climate change.
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