Unit-2

Operational control
Work Environment
Work environment is. The combination of factors (social support, physical. working
conditions, job characteristics, training and other places.

A work environment is the setting, social features and physical conditions in which you
perform your job. These elements can impact feelings of well-being, workplace relationships,
collaboration, and efficiency and employee health.

Automation meaning
Simple words we can say that Automation means automatic plus operations

Automation is a term for technology applications where human input is minimized. This
includes business process automation (BPA), IT automation, personal applications such as home
automation and more.

The definition of automation is the use of machines and technology to make processes
run on their own without manpower. An example or automation is the technology used in
automobile assembly lines that limits the number of people required to build cars.

Different Types of Industrial Automation Systems

 Fixed Automation. Also referred to as hard automation, fixed automation systems carry
out a single set of tasks without deviation.
 Programmable Automation.
 Flexible Automation.
 Integrated Automation.
1. Fixed Automation. Also referred to as hard automation, fixed
automation systems carry out a single set of tasks without
deviation

Also referred to as hard automation, fixed automation systems carry out a single set of tasks
without deviation. Because of its function, this type of system would typically be used for
discrete mass production and continuous flow systems. An example of a fixed automation
equipment would be an automated conveyer belt system designed to increase efficiency by
moving objects from point A to B without minimal efforts. Just like all other fixed automation
system equipment, automated conveyer belts perform fixed and repetitive operations to achieve
high production volumes.
Manufacturing processes compatible with this system would be:

 Repetitive manufacturing which allows for variations within the manufacturing process
although limited (e.g. in food packaging or the textile industry)

Adopting a fixed automation system such as automated conveyer belts and including value-
added solutions meant to cut both time and labor costs in their installation, eases off competitive
pressure for your business, increases your profit margin, and keeps you one step ahead of the
competition. An example of a value-added solution would be using bundled wire for automated
conveyer systems. This not only cuts down installation time, but also lowers labor costs and
keeps employees safe from injuries associated with pulling wire during installation.

2. Programmable Automation.

As the names suggests, programmable automation runs through commands delivered by a

computer program. This means that the resulting processes can vary widely with changing
instructions given to the computer through a series of code. However, as the programming efforts
are non-trivial, the processes hence the tasks do not change much. This type of automation is
common in mass production settings which produce similar types of products that utilize many
of the same steps and tools like in paper mills or steel rolling mills.
Manufacturing processes compatible with this system would be:

 Repetitive manufacturing whereby the same products are being produced over a long period
of time and in large batches. These types of equipment can keep carrying with very little
human supervision. They are typically used in automobile and machinery manufacturing.

The initial set up of programmable automation equipment may require a high cost but because
the processes are continuous and relatively unchanging, they tend to be less expensive in the long
run.

3. Flexible Automation

Also referred to as soft automation, this type of automation is utilized in computer-controlled

flexible manufacturing systems and allows for a more flexible production. Every equipment
receives instructions from a human-operated computer which means that the tasks can vary
widely with changing code delivered to the computer. This type of automation would typically
be used in batch processes and job shops with high product varieties and low-to-medium job
volume, such as in textile manufacturing.

Manufacturing processes compatible with this system would be:

 Discrete manufacturing which allows for variations within the manufacturing process
although limited e.g. in food packaging or the textile industry.
 Job shop manufacturing which occurs within set production areas and is more labor intensive
compared to other forms of manufacturing. An example would be making custom
machinery.
 Batch process manufacturing whereby raw materials move through the production line in
batches such that there is a pause between each step as a batch moves through (e.g. in the
pharmaceutical industry and in paint manufacturing).
 Continuous process manufacturing which offers consistent processing as the manufacturing
process from beginning to end does not change. This type of manufacturing is commonly
used in food and beverage manufacturing as well as oil and gas manufacturing.

4. Integrated Automation

Integrated automation involves the total automation of manufacturing plants as it is entirely

handled by computers and control processes with minimal human involvement. Computers can
design the necessary parts, test the designs, and fabricate the parts. Integrated automation, like
flexible automation, is compatible with both batch process manufacturing and continuous
process manufacturing.

Technologies that use this type of automation include:

 Computer-aided process planning

 Computer-supported design and manufacturing
 Computer numerical control machine tools
 Computerized production and scheduling control
 Automatic storage and retrieval systems
 Flexible machine systems
 Automated material handling systems, e.g. robots
 Automated conveyor belts and cranes

Advantages and Disadvantages of Automation

Advantages Disadvantages

Increased productivity Needs large capital expenditure

More efficient use of materials Can become redundant

Better product quality Could introduce new safety hazards

Improved safety Still requires human intervention

Applications of Automation
  Manufacturing industry
 Automobile industry
 Pharmaceutical industry
 Electronic industry
 Military defense
 Information technology

Technology Management

Technology management can also be defined as the integrated planning, design,

optimization, operation and control of technological products, processes and services, a
better definition would be the management of the use of technology for human advantage

Waste management
 Waste management is intended to reduce adverse effects of waste on human health,
the environment, planetary resources and aesthetics. The aim of waste management is to
reduce the dangerous effects of such waste on the environment and human health.

The 5 types of waste management

Name a few methods of waste disposal.
 Landfill.
 Incineration.
 Waste compaction.
 Composting.
 Vermicomposting.
Quality Assurance 9https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zSyICkGZ6iM

QA is a series of activities that are determined before production begins. These activities
start together with a project and take place during the whole cycle. QA ensures that all of the
agreed methods, approaches and techniques are implemented without deviations in order to
prevent mistakes and, as a result, satisfy the customer’s needs.

Thus, the main goal of QA is to organize flawless development and to protect the final product
from possible defects. It’s sometimes deemed the “zero defect” approach.

Examples of Quality Assurance Activities

 Establishing standards
 Project planning
 Internal and external audits
 Process analysis
 Process documentation
 Selection of tracking tools
 Checklist inspection
 Training courses for team members
QA makes use of the given specifications, standards, guidelines and other related documents.
It can be performed by managers, clients or third parties. Nevertheless, self-control is more
emphasized and appreciated when every person performs assigned duties according to the norms
and takes responsibility for them. The QA process has both advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages of Quality Assurance

The benefits of quality assurance are significant:

 Final costs reduction — most mistakes are prevented at early stages, so there’s no time and
effort wasted on reworking faulty components afterward.
 Enhanced motivation — employees understand their importance and get recognition for
what they do; it always brings better results.
 No barriers between workers and managers — QA cultivates collaboration rather than
supervision.
 Competitive advantages — a stable level of fine products is the best tool to draw loyal
customers.

Disadvantages of Quality Assurance

 Time-consuming — it requires a lot of time to train the staff to perform QA.

 High initial costs

QA Approaches

The total quality management (TQM) approach is one of the methods in organizing the quality
assurance process. It aims to create a proper culture and behavior throughout the organization.
All employees should be involved in improvement procedures and treat each other as external
clients. This is the way they can guarantee product quality from the very beginning. The most
valuable TQM principles are:

 A customer-focused system
 Total employee involvement
 Integration
 Effective communication
 Continual improvement
The benchmarking approach is based on the comparison of your work with the best practices in
other departments, enterprises, or the whole industry. With benchmarking, you can identify the
weak spots of your business and determine the methods for their elimination. Therefore, you can
greatly enhance the quality of your service.

The defect management approach is mostly used to develop good software. It’s based on client
requirements. All features that don’t correspond to them are considered defects. They are
grouped into categories according to the severity and must be avoided (or eliminated) while in
development.

The attribute approach is also a good instrument for software. It focuses on six characteristics:
functionality, reliability, usability, efficiency, maintainability and portability. A product is
created taking these characteristics into account, and they should be maintained at the stated
level.
In general, QA is a proactive method used to mitigate risks before a project is finished and
monitor the software engineering processes in order to create a solution according to the agreed
standards.

Quality Control
In contrast to QA that concerns the process of production, QC deals with the output. The
main function of this practice is to verify deliverables and detect mistakes if any, so that a
defective solution doesn’t reach a customer.

It is a reactive technique that determines whether a developed product meets the

customer’s expectations and conforms to the defined standards. Thus, QC is a final checkpoint
before the delivery. Now, let’s look at QC’s pros and cons.

Advantages of Quality Control

 You get minimal consumer complaints after the goods are delivered
 Reduced costs — if there are no defects, there is no need to patch solutions.
 Performance improvement — QC reveals common errors and allows for avoiding them in the
future.
 You can introduce updates and changes to the following projects and plans.

Disadvantages of Quality Control

 Increased time-to-market
 More employees needed

Examples of Quality Control Activities

 Measurements
 Inspection
 Check analysis
 Manual and automated testing
 Verification and validation
 Random batches control
 Peer reviews
To sum up, we can say that quality assurance is the prevention of defects, while quality control
is their detection.
Acceptance Sampling

Goal: To accept or reject a batch of items. Frequently used to test incoming materials
from suppliers or other parts of the organization prior to entry into the production process.

Used to determine whether to accept or reject a batch of products. Measures number of

defects in a sample. Based on the number of defects in the sample the batch is either accepted or
rejected. An acceptance level c is specified. If the number of defects in the sample is c the atch is
accepted, otherwise it is rejected and subjected to 100% inspection.

Acceptance sampling involves both the producer (and supplier) of materials and the
consumer (or buyer). Consumers need acceptance sampling to limit the risk of rejecting good-
quality materials or accepting bad-quality materials. Consequently, the consumer, sometimes in
con- junction with the producer through contractual agreements, specifies the parameters of the
plan. Any company can be both a producer of goods purchased by another company and a
consumer of goods or raw materials supplied by another company

Sampling Plans

All sampling plans are devised to provide a specified producer’s and consumer’s risk.
However, it is in the consumer’s best interest to keep the average number of items inspected
(ANI) to a minimum because that keeps the cost of inspection low. Sampling plans differ with
respect to ANI. Three often-used attribute sampling plans are the single-sampling plan, the
double-sampling plan, and the sequential-sampling plan. Analogous plans also have been
devised for variable measures of quality.

Single-Sampling Plan

The single-sampling plan is a decision rule to accept or reject a lot based on the results of
one random sample from the lot. The procedure is to take a random sample of size (n) and
inspect each item. If the number of defects does not exceed a specified acceptance number (c),
the consumer accepts the entire lot. Any defects found in the sample are either repaired or
returned to the producer. If the number of defects in the sample is greater than c, the consumer
subjects the entire lot to 100 percent inspection orrejects the entire lot and returns it to the
producer. The single-sampling plan is easy to use but usually results in a larger ANI than the
other plans. After briefly describing the other sampling plans, we focus our discussion on this
plan
Double-Sampling Plan

In a double-sampling plan, management specifies two sample sizes ( ) and two

acceptance numbers ( ). If the quality of the lot is very good or very bad, the consumer can make
a decision to accept or reject the lot on the basis of the first sample, which is smaller than in the
single- sampling plan. To use the plan, the consumer takes a random sample of size. If the
number of defects is less than or equal to, the consumer accepts the lot. If the number of defects
is greater than, the consumer rejects the lot. If the number of defects is between, the consumer
takes a second sample of size. If the combined number of defects in the two samples is less than
or equal to, the consumer accepts the lot. Otherwise, it is rejected. A double-sampling plan can
significantly reduce the costs of inspection relative to a single-sampling plan for lots with a very
low or very high proportion defective because a decision can be made after taking the first
sample. However, if the decision requires two samples, the sampling costs can be greater than
those for the single-sampling plan.

Sequential-Sampling Plan

A further refinement of the double-sampling plan is the sequential-sampling plan

, in which the consumer randomly selects items from the lot and inspects them one by one. Each
time an item is inspected, a decision is made to (1) reject the lot (2) accept the lot, or (3) continue
sampling, based on the cumulative results so far. The analyst plots the total number of defectives
against the cumulative sample size, and if the number of defectives is less than a certain
acceptance number ( ), the consumer accepts the lot. If the number is greater than another
acceptance number ( ), the consumer rejects the lot. If the number is somewhere between the
two, another item is inspected.

Purchase Function and Procedure

The purchasing functions

 Additional purchasing department functions and roles

 Assessing the needs of their company.
 Conducting research.
 Comparing and negotiating prices.
  Coordinating deliveries.
 Managing supplier relationships.
 Managing competition.
 Monitoring performance.
 Obtaining subsidies and benefits.
The Purchasing Procedure
 Needs Analysis.
 Purchase Requisition to Purchase Order.
 Purchase Order Review and Approval.
 Requests for Proposal.
 Contract Negotiation and Approval.
 Shipping and Receiving.
 Three-Way Matching.
 Invoice Approval and Payment.