Disciplines and Ideas in the

Applied Social Sciences

The Definition, Goals, Scope, Core Values, and Principles of Social Work
Social Work is one of the important government agencies in this time of pandemic, they
can work hand in hand to give support to the people affected by the pandemic because of COVID
-19. But the question is how can we define or search the meaning of social work, various group
made an effort to define social work. Let’s take a look.

Morales & Sheafor (1983) identified the four areas of consideration to define social work.
1. The social worker is concerned with enabling or facilitating change.
2. The social worker is in the business of helping people or social institutions, such as family
change to enhance social functioning.
3. Applying the social systems theory, social work can be viewed as a profession that helps
people interact more effectively with their social environment.
4. The social worker must have handles in fortifying and securing the necessary resources
to attain the goals of the clients.

Definition of Social Work According to Various Groups and Individuals

“Social Work as the professional activity of helping individuals, groups or communities

enhance or restore their capacity for social functioning and creating societal conditions favorable
to the goal.” - National Association of Social Workers (NASW) , USA

“Social Work as a field within human services and a part of services of the government.
It considers social work as an important service to the society focusing on individuals and families
in need of help.” –United Nations of Economic, Social and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),
2000

“Social Work as a practice-based and academic discipline that promotes change and
social development.” – International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW)

“Social Work is a practical profession designed at helping people address their problems
and matching them with the resources they need to lead healthy and productive lives.” –
Australian Association of Social Work (AASW)

“Social Work professions promotes social change, problem solving in human

relationships, and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being” - (IFSW &
IASSW, 2004)

“Social Work is an ‘applied science” of helping people achieve an effective level of

psychosocial functioning and effecting societal changes to enhance the well being of all people.”
– Barker (1999), as cited by Cox and Pawar (2006)

In the Philippines, Mendoza (2002) define Social Work as “ a profession which is

concerned about the person’s adjustment to his/her environment and she referred this as
person’s “social functioning”.

According to Republic Act No. 4373 - AN ACT TO REGULATE THE PRACTICE OF

SOCIAL WORK AND THE OPERATION OF SOCIAL WORK AGENCIES IN THE PHILIPPINES
AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES define Social Work “is the profession which is primarily
concerned with organized social service activity aimed to facilitate and strengthen basic social
relationships and the mutual adjustment between individuals and their social environment for the good
of the individual and of society”

GOALS and SCOPE of SOCIAL WORK

DuBois and Miley (2008) highlight the following goals and scope of social work calling them
tenents.

• Empower people, individually and collectively, to utilize their own problem-solving and
coping capabilities more effectively.
• Support a proactive position with regard to social and economic policy development to
prevent problems for individuals and society from occurring.
• Uphold the integrity of the profession in all aspects of social work practice.
• Establish linkages between people and societal resources to further social functioning
and enhance the quality of life.
• Develop cooperative networks within the institutional resource system.
• Facilitate the responsiveness of the institutional resource systems to meet health and
human service needs.
• Promote social justice and equality of all people with regard to full participation in society.
• Contribute to the development of knowledge for social work profession through research
and evaluation.
• Encourage exchange of information in those institutional systems in which both problems
and resources opportunities are produced.
• Enhance communication through an appreciation of diversity and through ethnically
sensitive, non-sexist social work practice.
• Employ educational strategies for the prevention and resolution of problems.
• Embrace a world view of human issues and solutions problems.

The goal and scope of social work as laid down here is noble and broad- to help an individual
be included in society and to transform the very society that creates structures that marginalize
individuals from full participation in the enjoyments of social services and resources of the
community. Change sought is one that makes an individual and the community a better place
for everyone.

CORE VALUES OF SOCIAL WORK

Core values as a vital organizational component, paly a significant role in the
organization. They serve as guiding principles that shape the behavior and action of its members
in interacting with the clients and other people.
Social work has its own core values – values that instilled among the social workers.

1. SERVICE - directs social worker to go beyond purely performing a service for a pay and
allow them to be generous with their time. - Their work borders on charity and
professional service.
2. COMPASSION - considered as an important value for all humankind but in social work,
it is the basis for someone to go out and become a voice to the voiceless and a friend to
the people who need it most.
3. COMPETENCE - Is a very important value for social work because it separates social
caregiving from social work professional practice.
4. DIGNITY AND WORTH OF THE PERSON - provides the determination and drive for
social workers to seek the marginalized in all forms without much regard as to whether
such problem is self- inflicted or socially imposed. In the heart of social work is the belief
that all humans have dignity and worth regardless of their acts and status in life.
5. IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIP - as a value, makes it possible for social
workers to do their job as most human situations they seek to address require
collaborating with so many other professionals and individuals with a stake in the issue.
 • Social work is all about relationship.
6. INTEGRITY - Be trustworthy and uphold the profession's mission, values, ethical
principles and ethical standards.

PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL WORK

Principles are guiding beliefs and statement of do's and don'ts. Social work principles are
guiding assertions of statement that have come from experiences and research. The most
commonly discussed principles of social work are as follows:

Principles of Acceptance
Social work accepts the individual as he or she is with all his/her limitations. Social work
believes that acceptance is the crux of all help. Social worker does not condemn or feel hostile
towards a client because his behavior differs from the approved one. The principle of acceptance
implies that social worker must perceive, acknowledge, receive and establish a relationship with
the individual client as he actually is, not as social worker wishes him to be or think he should
be.

Principle of Individualization
The principle of individualization is fundamental to effective social work practice. Social
work believes in the uniqueness of individual. Each individual is different from that of every other
individual nature. As we know that individual is unique as his thumb print. The social worker
views the problem of each client as specific and helps the client move forward finding the most
satisfactory means for client to deal with particular problem situation.

Principle of Communications
Communication is a two-way process most of the problem that give pain are precisely
the problem of communication. When the communication is inadequate or insufficient the
problems occurs either automatically or because of misunderstanding. The social worker should
have enough skills to grasp the communication. The proper communication is crucial in social
work relationship because the background of the client and worker may be different, the mental
status of the client and the worker may vary. Therefore, the social worker should make all the
efforts to see that communication between him and client is proper. The client should be made
feel comfortable and at ease to express his thoughts feelings and facts.

Principle of Confidentiality
Social work believes that during the professional help between the client and social
worker, client have the right of personal information about themselves in relationship with a social
agency. The principle believes that confidential things of the client must be kept confidential and
other agencies and individual & should be consulted only with the clients’ consent.

Principle of Self Determination

The principle emphasizes client’s right to self-determination. Every individual client has the right
to decide what is appropriate for him and decides the ways and means to realize it. In other
words, social worker should not force decisions or solutions on the clients because the client has
come to him for help. Therefore, social worker should support and guide the client to develop
insight into his social situations in correct perspective and encourage and involve him to like
decisions that are good and acceptable to him.

Principle of Non-judgmental Attitude

Principle of non-judgmental attitude presumes that the social worker should begin the
professional relationship without any bias. He should not form opinion about the client, good or
bad, worthy or unworthy. He has to treat the client as somebody who has come to him for help
and he should be willing to help the client without being influenced by the opinions of other about
the client or his situation. This enables the worker and the client feel free to develop
understanding of each other.
Principle of Controlled Emotional Involvement
This principle guides social work professional not to indulge too much personally in the
client's difficult situation or being too objective. Therefore, the social worker should maintain a
reasonable emotional distance even while sympathizing with the client social worker should
indicate the understanding of the difficult situations of the client without showing pity or appearing
to be indifference.

ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL WORKERS

Social work is an active profession with a wide array of responsibilities in the areas of
caring, curing, and changing. It is also present in diverse setting. With this context, it is assumed
that the roles and functions of social workers are likewise varied. Mendoza (2002) termed the
roles as interventive roles which refers to the combination od tasks that are expected to
performed by the social worker to accomplish the goals agreed upon with the client.

The interventive roles include resources broker, social broker, mediator, advocate,
enabler, and counselor/therapist.

Roles Description
Resource Broker In the role of a broker, a social worker is responsible for identifying,
Social Broker locating, and linking clients to needed resources in a timely manner.
Once the client’s needs are assessed and potential services
identified, the broker assists the client in choosing the most
appropriate service option and assists in negotiating the terms of
service delivery. In this role the social worker is also concerned with
the quality, quantity, and accessibility of services.
Mediator In the mediator role, the social worker intervenes in disputes
between parties to help them find compromises, reconcile
differences, and reach mutually satisfying agreements. The
mediator takes a neutral stance among the involved parties.
Advocate In the advocate role, the social worker fights for the rights of those
disempowered by society with the goal of empowering the client.
The social worker speaks on behalf of clients when others will not
listen or when clients are unable to do so.
Enabler This role is about activities that the social worker engages in order
to help the clients cope with the current situation and eventually find
strengths and resources within themselves to solve problems may
encounter.
Counselor/Therapist In the role of counselor, the social worker helps clients express their
needs, clarify their problems, explore resolution strategies, and
applies intervention strategies to develop and expand the capacities
of clients to deal with their problems more effectively. A key function
of this role is to empower people by affirming their personal strengths
and their capacities to deal with their problems more effectively
Researcher In the researcher role, a social worker evaluates practice
interventions and with others evaluates program outcomes. The
researcher critically analyzes the literature on relevant topics of
interest and uses this information to inform practice. A researcher
extends and disseminates knowledge, and seeks to enhance the
effectiveness of social work practice.
Educator In the Educator role, social workers are involved in teaching people
about resources and how to develop particular skills such as
budgeting, the caring discipline of children, effective communication,
the meaning of a medical diagnosis, and the prevention of violence.
 Community Change As a community change agent, the social worker participates as part
Agent of a group or organization seeking to improve or restructure some
aspect of community service provision. A change agent, working
with others, uses a problem-solving model to identify the problem,

solicit community input, and plan for change. A community change

agent acts in a coordinated manner to achieve planned change at
multiple levels that helps to shift the focus of institutional resources
to meet identified goals.
Case Manager In the role of a Case manager, the social worker locates services
and assists their clients to access those services. Case
management is especially important for complex situations and for
those who are homeless or elderly, have chronic physical or mental
health issues, are disabled, victims of domestic or other violent
crimes, or are vulnerable children
Functions of Social Workers
Function of social work refers to the natural activity of social work or the statements of
how social work operates.
According to Prof. P.D. Mishra social work operates to assist individuals in adjusting to
the institutional frame work of the society and attempts to modify the institutional frame work
itself in appropriate areas.

He classified the functions of social work into the following 4 major categories:
1. Curative Function: The services provided under curative functions are–medical and
health services, services relating to psychiatry, child guidance, child welfare services,
services for the handicapped or disable in the form of protection and rehabilitation. These
kinds of services aim to cure the physical, social, material, psychological sickness of
individuals in the society.
2. Correctional Function: The correctional function of social work has three broad areas,
such as:
a. Individual reform service which includes prison reform, probation, parole and other
related services.
b. Services for improving social relationship which includes family welfare services,
school social work, industrial social work etc.
c. Services for social reform that includes employment services, prevention of
commercial sex work, beggary prohibition services and removal of untouchability
etc.
3. Preventive Function: It includes life insurance services, public assistance, social
legislation, adult education and prevention of diseases etc. This type of function basically
deals with the services relating to the prevention of problems like insecurity,
unlawfulness, ignorance, sickness etc. It is directed towards the elimination of those
factors in the social environment or those deficiencies in the development of personality
that prevents the individual from achieving a minimum desirable standard of socio-
economic life.
4. Developmental Function: Developmental function includes the tasks of socio-economic
development activities such as: education, recreational services, urban and rural
development programs and programs of integration etc. which are primarily concerned
with the development of individuals, families, groups and communities.

The basic functions of social work can be divided in 3 broad interdependent and interrelated
categories, viz;
1. Restoration of social functioning
2. Provision of resources and
3. Prevention of social dysfunction.

1. The restoration of impaired social functioning is the oldest and most commonly known function
of social work profession. This function is subdivided into curative and rehabilitative aspects.
 The curative aspects are to eliminate environmental factors that have caused break down of
social functioning of individuals, groups or communities and the role of the rehabilitative aspects
is to recognize and rebuild interaction patterns in the society. As mentioned earlier, social work
tries to intervene at the point where the individual interacts with his environment. The
environmental factors hindering the functioning of a person may be social, economic,

political or cultural. This function emphasizes at problem solving through modification in the
psycho-social environment of individual and groups and through bringing about changes in the
attitude of recipients of the services. Therefore, if a person becomes dysfunctional due to any
of the above-mentioned environmental factors, the first task at hand will be to restore the
person’s normal functioning. The second task will be to assess the damage caused by the
dysfunction and strategies are devised to rehabilitate the person socially and bring him back to
the normal mainstream.
2. Provision of Resources is further subdivided into developmental and educational. The
developmental aspects are designed to extend effectiveness of existing social, human and
material resources or to bring about full utilization personal capacity for more social interaction.
The educational functions are designed to make the public aware about specific conditions and
needs for new and changing resources and approaches.
3. The prevention of social dysfunction involves early detection, control and elimination of
conditions and situations that could obstruct effective social functioning. The main two divisions
are preventions of problems in the area of human interaction (individuals and groups) and
secondly, prevention of social ills. Although it is a very important function of social work, it is
neglected in most situations. Social work has generally concentrated on the curative and
rehabilitative function and has worked on the problem-solving model. However, keeping in the
mind the rapidly changing social scenario, it has become imperative to adopt the preventive
approach to social work. The profession should ensure that problems are neither created nor
eliminated at the very beginning. For this function the social workers play a crucial role of
conscientization, capacity building and organizing people so that they themselves can prevent
social dysfunctions. In the present-day context, social work has to emphasize on the aspects
of change. It is increasingly being realized that the main cause of dysfunction lies not with the
people but with the systems within which they operate. Either the people do not get and
environment or resources required for proper social functioning or they do not have access to
the resources to fulfill their needs. Therefore, there is a need to challenge and change the
system so that people get a favorable environment to function. In a nutshell, it can be said that
the function of social work should shift from a status quo service oriented approach to change
oriented development approach.

SPECIFIC WORK AREAS IN WHICH SOCIAL WORKERS WORK

Social Worker has social work specialties namely: child, family, and school social worker;
community social worker; hospice and palliative care social work; medical health social worker;
mental health and substance abuse social worker; military and veteran social worker; and
psychiatric social work. (Elrick, 2014)
Descriptions of the social work specialties include the following;

Specific Work Area Description

Child, Family, and School • Deals with all sorts of situations such as helping a child
Social Worker who has experienced trauma or abuse;
• Counseling students at school who are experiencing grief
over the death of a friend, family member;
• Helping parents find the right resources for their child who
is suffering from a severe mental illness.
Community Social • Helps plan, coordinate, and organize efforts related to
Worker infrastructure, volunteering, and fundraising within specific
communities.
• Works with community-based nonprofit organizations to
help heal neighborhoods in the wake of tragedies and
natural disasters.
 Hospice and Palliative • Help or care for someone who is seriously or terminally ill.
Care Social Worker • They help provide relief from pain; improve quality of life;
assist with difficult decision-making;
• Help family and friends of an ill individual
• Some cases like assist with trauma, grief and loss

Medical and Health • Works in hospital settings and helps navigate the
Social Worker emotional, financial, and physical struggles that a serious
medical condition can cause an individual or family.
• Provides counseling and practical assistance (connecting
clients to resources)
Mental Health and • Assists individuals who struggle with addiction, substance
Substance Abuse Social abuse or mental health problems.
Worker • Provides short- and –long term solutions for victims and
their families.
Military and Veterans • Helps both the soldiers and their families with post-
Social Work traumatic stress, role adjustments, the implications and
stressors of returning home, and any substance abuse that
may occur as a result of combat.
Psychiatric Social Worker • Works with disturbed children and adolescents with
behavioral problems, children with learning problems.
• Make an assessment of the factors contributing to the
problems.
• Conduct family therapy and other kinds of intervention.
• Helping psychiatrist assess new referrals.
• Lesioning with teachers and educational psychologists.

RIGHTS, RESPONSIBILITIES AND ACCOUNTABILITIES, AND CODE OF ETHICS

Social workers’ associations, both local and international, have formulated their own
ethical standards. The ethical standards usually define the rights, responsibilities, and
accountabilities of the members. The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) has
drafted encompassing ethical standards, mostly on their responsibilities as association of social
workers.
The NASW ethical standards are divided into six areas. These areas include thefollowing:
1. Responsibilities to clients
2. Responsibilities to colleagues
3. Responsibilities in practice setting
4. Responsibilities as professionals
5. Responsibilities to social work profession
6. Responsibilities to broader society.

Note: To read more about the rights, responsibilities and accountabilities and code of ethics you
can read in this link: https://www.uaf.edu/socwork/student-information/checklist/(D)-NASW-
Code-of-Ethics.pdf
CHARACTERISTIC AND NEEDS OF VARIOUS TYPE OF CLIENTELE AND AUDIENCE IN
SOCIAL WORK

Working with Individuals

❑ Individual is the principal client and efforts of helping are focused on him/her.
❑ De Guzman (1992) explains that the person’s inability to manage stress which may have
been a result of distressful situation or problem caused him/her or those concerned with
him/her to seek professional help.
❑ The social worker then needs to acquire basic knowledge of human behavior, of stress
and the human being’s response to it in order for him/her to understand the situation of
the client and eventually help the latter.
❑ The worker must understand that the person is a “biopsychosocial being” wherein he/she
is made up of at least three parts or subsystems – the physical, the psychological, and
the social.
❑ In order to help the person, the worker needs to know whether the person can be helped
and how he/she can be helped.
❑ Each person makes his/her own adaptation to the demands of the various roles to
perform in his/her situation depending on his/her capacities and motivation to do so.
Sample modes of adaptation

❑ FIGHT – means physical or verbal projection of angry feelings on others especially when
encountering difficult circumstances, frustration, disappointment or even anxiety.
❑ FLIGHT – this is manifested when the person physically moves away from the problem
like resorting to drugs, alcohol or substances that will make one forget the current
stressful situation.
❑ PAIRING – it entails the entry into a relationship with another person who is perceived to
be stronger, stable, or who has the capacity to provide help over his/her problem.
Below are some clients who may need the social worker
❑ Children who are either abandoned, neglected, orphaned, abused, or exploited
❑ Children in conflict with law, street children, children living with or affected by HIV
❑ Out-of-school youth
❑ Socially disadvantaged women
❑ Solo parents
❑ Person with disabilities, physically and mentally challenged individuals
❑ Elderly
❑ Indigenous peoples
❑ Internally displaced persons
❑ Survivors of natural calamities and disasters, or those affected by armed conflict

Types of client

❑ VOLUNTARY CLIENTS – those persons who opted to voluntarily seek assistance of the
worker or the services of the agency due to problem or a difficulty which he/she thinks
he/she cannot do anything by her/himself. This also referred as “walk-in clients”
❑ INVOLUNTARY CLIENTS – types of individuals in need who may not be consider asking
 for help because they think that they are doing fine and will survive somehow or they are
unaware of the agencies that can provide with them some assistance. Often referred as
“reach-out clients”
❑ REFERRED CLIENT – clients that are assisted by another person (other family member,
relative, friend, neighbor), group/organizations, or community leaders/workers who are
concerned about the client’s situations.
Factors influencing the helping relationship between the client and the worker (deGuzman, 1992)

❑ Transference – the client’s reactions and displacement on the worker of the particular
feelings and attitudes he/she may have experienced earlier in life in relationship with the
members of his/her family such as the father/mother or significant other.
❑ Counter-transference – the workers relationship reactions the he/she may project on
the client and usually it is the worker who transfers previously experienced feelings on
the client.
❑ Reality – the realistic and objective perception of existing conditions or situation. It is the
state of what is actual, what is, and what is true.
Ethical considerations in the client-worker relationship by Biestek (1957) as cited by DeGuzman
(1992)
❑ Acceptance – recognition of individuals worth as human being
❑ Non-judgmental attitude – no labelling, no stereotyping and no condemnatory act
❑ Individualization – characterizes that every individual is unique and possess certain
traits or attributes specific only to her/himself
❑ Purposeful expression of feelings – refers to the worker’s allowing and facilitating the
client’s purposeful expression of feelings
❑ Controlled emotional involvement – refers to the worker’s way of responding to client’s
purposeful expression of feelings.
❑ Confidentiality – refers to the preservation of secret information concerning the clients
❑ Self-determination – it is derivative of the belief in the inherent worth and dignity of a
person. It refers to the right and need of the person to make his/her own choices and
decisions.
Working with Groups and Organization
❑ Social group is a group that can be utilized as a target of change, as medium for change,
and as an agent of change.
❑ As a target of change – members in a group are clients of an agency who have common
problems, needs, and concerns that match the agency’s or worker’s group service
orientation.
❑ As a medium for change – the group used to facilitate the growth and development needs
of some members of the group as the need for self-expression, communication,
relationship, developing self-confidence and modifying negative attitudes, behavior, and
values.
❑ As an agent of change – the group is used to affect the desired change needed outside
the group
Philosophy of Social group
“The need of group experience is basic and universal. That group of individuals can be helped
to grow and change in personality, attitudes, and values through group experience… that
persons not only develop in groups but also through groups. And that groups are dynamic, ever
changing and must be accepted by the social worker at its level of development.” (Trecker (1965)
as cited by Miclat (1995)
Purposed of Social Group work
❑ To enhance the social adjustments of the individual and developing the social
consciousness.
❑ To provide opportunities for planned group experiences that are needed by all people.

❑ To provide experiences that re relaxing and that give individuals a chance to create, to
share and express themselves
 ❑ To help individuals in groups to take responsibility for their own behavior, relate with
others and how to become participating members of society.
Principle of Social Group work by Trecker (1965)
❑ The principle of group formation – this principle requires the group in social group work
to possess conscious design and plan must contain the potential for social growth of its
member.
❑ The principle of specific objective – this principle recognizes that specific objectives
formulated by the social group worker in to order to effectively met the groups needs and
concerns.
❑ The principles of purposeful worker-group relationship – this principle is premised
on the assumptions that there has been established acceptance between the group
members and the workers.
❑ The principle of continuous individualization – this principle entails the worker to
consciously understand and accept the subgroups and individuals within the group
develop and change in verifying levels and must therefore know how to use the group
work process in meeting the varying levels of needs of the members.
❑ The principle of guided group interactions – this principle recognizes the guided group
interactions is considered to be the heart of the social work process and this refersto the
harnessing, direction, and conscious utilization of the natural process of social interaction
in the group.
❑ The principle of democratic self-determination – this principle is anchored on the
belief that groups have the right to make choices and that they are endowed with the
capacity to make decision.
❑ The principle of flexible functional organization – this principle underscores the need
to have flexibility in formal organization so that it can be adaptive to any change that may
arise.
❑ The principle of progressive program experience – this principle emphasizes the
need for the group to engage in program experiences at the level of member’s interest,
need, experience, and capacity. It should evolve in relation to the developing of the
group’s competence.
Type of Groups (Miclat, 1995)
❑ Growth group – the dominant goal is the personal growth of the participants in group at
all levels in their emotional, interpersonal, intellectual, and spiritual phase of their life.
The specific objectives of the group are:
• To make people better
• To develop group trust and in-depth relationship
• To encourage constructive change in both attitudes and feelings on the one hand and
behavior and relationships on the other
• To awaken the innate drive in every individual in the group to develop his/her potential.
❑ Treatment group – the goals is to help solve the individual’s problem in social
adjustment, uncover deep-seated conflicts, hostilities and depression, modify/sublimate
antisocial/aberrant behaviors/attitudes, and positive negative social and cultural values
The specific objectives of the treatment vary in order to appropriately respond to common
problems/needs of the different types of groups that may include the following:
• Unwed mothers who are minors, street children, prostituted women, drug dependents,
person with disabilities, solo parents, people living or affected with HIV, alcoholics,
children in conflict with the law, psychiatric ward patients, etc.
❑ Social Group – the goal is to provide opportunities for social relationship to the lonely,
the friendless, and those who have problems in relating with other persons.
The groups aim to:
▪ Forms a friendly and congenial atmosphere where the members are able to comfortably
elate in a deeper level with at least a member of the group.
▪ Provide program activities that would give greater interactions among the members
through smaller group discussion, exercises, games, picnics and fieldtrips.
▪ Organize the group for club activities with social orientation to become agent of change
 in their community.
❑ Interest Group – the goal is to primarily answer the unmet interests/needs of the group
members through appropriate program of activities and services to the agency as well as
the community. The specific objective of the group is the provision for appropriate outlets
that would meet the varied unmet interests of the members through creative and
innovative activities, programs, and services.
❑ Play/Recreation Group – the goal is to provide pleasurable activities through games,
dance, songs/music, dramatics, and other leisure-time activities as medium for meeting
the individual’s leisure and recreational needs that would also redound to their
development.
Working with Communities
❑ Arlene Johnson as cited in Miclat (n.d) defined community as a group of people gathered
together in a geographic area, large or small, who have common interests, actual or
potentially recognized in the social welfare field.
Two Concept of community by Roland Warren
• Geographic community – refers to the people in specific geographic area like village,
barangay, sitio, district, municipality, city, province, region, nation, and the world.
• Functional Community – composed of the people who hold common values, share
some common functions or express some common interests such as education, health,
livelihood, labor, welfare or recreation.
❑ The nature of community organization can be traced in the works of Ross (1955),
Dunham (1970) and Cox et al. (1979).
❑ Ross (1955) described it as a process by which community identifies its needs or
objective, ranks them, and extends and develops cooperative and collaborative attitudes,
and practices in the community.
Philosophy of Community Organization
“The acceptance of the right of the community to decide what it wants rather than the
organizer’s views imposed upon it, belief on the capacity of the people to find richer and more
satisfying ways of living if they are helped to use the resources within themselves and their
environment which are and could made available for them.”
Focus of Community Organization
o Removal of blocks to growth
o The release if potentialities in the individual, group and communities as a whole.
o The development of the capacity of indigenous leaders to lead, to manage, and function
in their assigned social roles in the community.
o Developing the ability of different sectors in the community to function as an integrated
whole.
o Strengthening people’s capacity for problem-solving, decision-making, and cooperation.
o The full use of inner/indigenous resources before tapping external resources.
Purpose of Community Organization
o To solve certain problems and meet needs
o To achieve selected social goals
o To strengthen the people’s capacity in dealing with their problems, needs, and
aspirations

SOCIAL WORK PROCESS

Framework of Social Work Practice
Social Work Helping Process

The social worker can choose one or more of these choose one or more of these
models and approaches as her models and approaches as her helping “strategy”

ASSESSMENT
➢ Assessment is a process and product of understanding on which action is based {Max
Siporin as cited by Johnson (1986) and Mendoza (2002)}
➢ It involves the collection of necessary information, analysis and interpretation to reach an
understanding of the client, the problem, and the social context in which it exists.
➢ The social worker’s task includes information-gathering and problem definition based on
what the client and the worker agreed upon.
➢ In gathering data, various source is available from which relevant information can be
obtained to have an accurate definition of client’s problem
Assessment (Various Sources)
➢ Primary source – the client is the primary source of data. Data are gathered through
intake procedures.
➢ Secondary source – the significant others with whom the client has personal
relationships includes: parents, siblings, relatives, and friends in case the client is an
individual. In case of communities, this may be staff or consultants who are previously or
currently involved in the said community.
➢ Existing data – these can be records or reports from other professionals (e.g.
physicians, teachers, psychologists, etc.) or documents from other agencies such as
census data, researches, evaluation reports, among other.
➢ Worker’s Observation – the use of observation is very helpful in gathering,
supplementing, and validating information about the client.
Assessment (three ways of initial contact between the client and the worker)
➢ Walk-in – the client initiates the contact and seek the assistance of the agency social
worker about a particular concern or problem with the belief that the worker is in the
position to provide help.
➢ Referral – the client is referred to the worker or a social welfare agency by an interested
or concerned party or entity.
➢ Outreach – the agency, through its social worker’s, reaches out to the perspective client
offer help and eventually arrives at an agreement of engaging into a helping relationship
after intake.
➢ Intake – is the process by which an individual, group, community achieves the status of
a client.
PLANNING
➢ Is the link between assessment and intervention and its process translate the content of
assessment into a goal statement that describes the desired result and is concerned
with identifying the means to reach the goals.
➢ It allows the worker, with the participations of the client, to move from problem definition
to problem solution towards achieving a planned change as end goals. (Johnson,
1986,283)
➢ Planning involves two major tasks: formulating goals that directly relate with the
client’s problem and defining the specific actions or interventions that are
necessary in order to achieve the goals.
➢ In social work practices, the defined goals and plans guide the worker’s activities.
➢ Goals are desired or expected outcomes or the ends of a certain endeavor.
➢ Plans means to achieve them which consists of the specific actions or steps to be done
in order to reach the goals. Plans are jointly made by the worker and the client.

EVALUATION
➢ Defined as the collection of data about outcomes of the program of action relative to goals
and objectives set in advance of the implementation of that program (Johnson, 1986,385)
➢ In social work, it is a continuous process of gathering information which can be utilized in
an ongoing reassessment of objective, intervention plans, and even the problem
definition which is referred to as ongoing evaluation.
➢ In social work practice, conduct of evaluation is imperative because social workers and
social welfare agencies must answer for their work to the public that supports them and
this is referred to an accountability in the profession. This has two aspects:
➢ Effectiveness which refers to the questions on whether or not the services or intervention
plans are accomplishing their intended goals.
➢ Efficiency which refers to the cost of services and intervention plans in money, time, and
other resources. (Compton & Galaway as cited in Mendoza, 2002, 249)
➢ Evaluation in social work can be done in two levels: (1) on the level of direct practice with
clients and (2) on the level of program implementation.
➢ Summative evaluation – an evaluation which is concerned about the outcomes or
effectiveness
➢ Formative evaluation – concerned with looking at the process of the worK
 ➢ Hudson and Grinnel (1989) illustrated four elements or sets of variables that the
structures of evaluation will involve. These are the following:

TERMINATION
➢ The helping process has a time limit therefore a social worker is expected to discuss with
the client the expected duration of the helping relationship.
➢ The client also should made aware that the client-worker relationship will not last long
and that the interventions and services will not stay for them forever.
➢ It should be made clear with the client that disengagement is the natural conclusion to
such a relationship.
Mendoza (2002) mentions the most common reasons for terminating the client-workerrelationship
as follows:
➢ When the goals set by the worker and the client have been reached
➢ When, after a reasonable period of time, there has been little movement toward the
attainment of the goals formulated and the prospect for any change in the situation is
held unlikely.
➢ When the client thinks that the worker has provided sufficient help so that it is now
possible for the client to pursue problem-solving in her/his own.
➢ When an agency does not have the resources needed by the client or the worker does
not her his/her agency’s approval to provide the services needed by the client.
➢ when the systems outside the client make it difficult for the client to continue with the
helping relationship or when these systems influence the client to discontinue the
relationship
➢ when for one reason or another, the worker must leave the agency.
There are two terms in relation to the termination of client-worker relationship – transferand referral
➢ Transfer – the process by which a client is referred by his/her social worker to another
worker, usually in the same agency.
➢ Referral – is the act of directing a client to another worker/agency

METHODS IN SOCIAL WORK

Method implies to systematic way of doing something. In social work, method is
understood as the systematic and planned way of helping the people. The main concern of social
work is to solve psycho-social problems of individuals, groups and communities through the
conscious application of knowledge in methods, tools, techniques and skills of social work. In
this task, the social worker has to be equipped with all the necessary methods of social work that
ease his work to help the people in solving their own problems.

Social work as a professional practice mainly uses the following methods while
accomplishing its objectives:

1) Social case work

2) Social group work
3) Community Organization
4) Social work research
5) Social welfare administration
6) Social action
The first three of the methods given above are known as the primary or direct methods.
These are direct and primary in the sense that they are directly applied in the field situation
among the people to solve their problems.
These methods are involved to solve the problems at the grass-root level by the social
worker’s direct intervention. The latter three are known as secondary or indirect methods,
because they are involved indirectly by some specialized agencies or a set of organized people.
Unlike the primary methods, these methods generally operate at the secondary levels
but not with the people directly.
1. Social case work
➢ It is primary method of social work.
➢ It deals with individual problems through one to one relationship which is guided
by professional knowledge of the social case worker.
➢ Under method the social case worker attempts to repair the impaired relationship
of the client with his social environment and through a guided interaction he/she
enables the client to adapt with his/her social environment.
➢ Through this method the case worker discovers different aspects of the client’s
problem, prepares an appropriate treatment plan and finally with professional
knowledge in social relationship tries to bring about necessary changes in the
attitude and behavior of the client in favor of his own growth and development.
2. Social group work
➢ Social group work is another primary method of social work.
➢ It is a process in which the individuals in a social group are helped by a professionally
qualified worker, who guides their interaction through planned program activities so that
they may be able to relate themselves with others and find growth opportunities in
accordance with their needs and capacities towards the noble end of individual group
and community development.
➢ In this method the group worker uses the group as a potential tool for the positive change
and personality development of individuals. In group work individuals in the group are
most important and all program activities revolve around their needs for development.
➢ Through the group work process, they are helped to improve their relationship and
personality traits which may help them to develop themselves and their community as
whole.
3. Community Organization
➢ Community organization as a method of social work is a process through which efforts
are directed towards meeting the community needs by organizing human and material
resources of the community.
➢ Identifying problems, finding resources relevant to their needs, developing and
organizing inter-personal and inter-group relationship, planning and executing effective
program activities are some of the specific activities in community organization method.
➢ Organized and collaborative effort of the members of the community for their own
development is the main concern of this method.
4. Social welfare administration
➢ Social welfare administration is one of the secondary methods of social work. It refers to
a process through which social policy is transformed into social service.
➢ In the other words, it is a process to manage the affairs of social work or social welfare.
➢ Developing programs, mobilizing resources, recruiting and involving suitable personnel,
proper organization, coordination, providing skillful leadership, supervision and guidance
of staff, budgeting and evaluation are some of the specified activities involved in social
 welfare administration method.
5. Social work research
➢ Social work research is another important method of social work. It refers to the
systematic and critical enquiry of the questions encountered by social work professional
in the field of application.
➢ Through this method efforts are made to find answers to the existing and emerging
problems of social work so as to make them use in the practical fields.
➢ Social work research like that of other social sciences is contributing a lot to the store
house of its knowledge and helping in the better planning and implementation of social
work programs.
6. Social action
➢ Social action method of social work is the one that is used to bring about desirable
changes in the defective system for ensuring social progress.
➢ Through this method attempts are made to mobilize people, to create awareness on
existing problems, to organize them and to encourage them to raise their voice against
undesirable practices which hampers their development and finally to create pressure for
bringing about suitable legislation for social progress.
➢ This method seeks to relate the community needs with the solution of the problems
mainly through collective initiatives.

COMMUNICATION
The word communication came from the Latin word “Communicare” meaning to share,
to unite, to join or to have things in common. It is a process by which people send messages or
exchange ideas or thoughts with one another in a verbal or non-verbal manner. The ultimate
goal of communication is mutual understanding.

FOUR MAIN GOALS OF COMMUNICATION

• To inform – you are providing information for use in decision making, but aren't
necessarily advocating a course of action
• To request – ask for a specific action by the receiver
• To persuade – to reinforce or change a receiver's belief about a topic and, possibly, act
on the belief
• To build relationships – some messages you send may have the simple goal of building
good-will between you and the receiver

SCOPE OF COMMUNICATION
• Communication in personal life - Communication is closely related with every
sphere of human life. From dawn to sleep at night, a person communicates with
others. This reveals that communication is the part and parcel of human life.
• Communication in social life - Now we are on the verge of human civilization
and living in an integrated society. In social life, people need to develop social
bondage. Communication helps us in creating and strengthening this social
bondage
• Communication in the state affairs - Communication is also pervaded in all
areas of state affairs. Without communication, state neither can administer its
various wings nor can maintain relationships with the other part of the world. Due
to revolutionary change in communication technologies, the whole world has
turned into a global village.
• Communication in business - In this post-modern age, we cannot think of
business without communication. Communication is the lifeblood of business as
it provides necessary information in formulating business plans and policies. It
also ensures effective performance of business activities like production,
distribution, finance, warehousing etc. Thus; ultimate success of the business
depends on successful communication.
• Communication in management - Management is the means of achieving
organizational goals. Efficiency and effectiveness of management depend on
effective communication with the various internal and external parties. Every
function of management depends on communication. In fact, without information
 plans cannot be formulated, activities cannot be organized, directives cannot be
issued and control cannot be ensured.
• Communication in industrial relations - Industrial relation means a labor
management relationship in the industry or in an organization. Congenial
industrial relation is a precondition for. On the other hand, free and fair
communication is a pre-requisite for creating good industrial relation. Free flow of
information lessens doubt, confusion and controversies between workers and
management. As a result, harmonious relationship develops in the organization.
• Communication in international affairs - In this age of globalization,
communication is not merely confined within the national boundary. Countries are
exchanging their cultural, economic, social, political, educational and
technological affairs with each other continuously. In order to facilitate
cooperation and communication among countries, various regional and
international bodies namely the United Nations, World Bank, NAFTA, SAFTA,
ASEAN, SAARC, EU etc. Have been formed. Through these bodies, counties
communicate various bilateral and multilateral issues among them.

• Communication in religion - Communication is also present in perching,

spreading and circulation various religious doctrines. Prophets and saints have
preached the verses of almighty to their followers and even now, many religious
thinkers are performing the duty of preaching and circulating religious verses.

PRINCIPLES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION

1. Communication is schemata driven. Communication makes you send to or receive

messages from somebody by activating your schemata, experiences or background
knowledge that you have stored in your brain since your early developmental stages. In
psychology and cognitive science, a schema (plural schemata or schemas) describes an
organized pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the
relationships among them. It begins with yourself; you begin with what you have already
stocked in your brain or with what you have already known or understood about the subject
matter of the communicative act. Transmitted messages become understandable or
meaningful because of your innate or old knowledge about the messages.

2. Communication is an interpretative act. The only person who knows the exact or full
meaning of the message transmitted is the sender or speaker. Being the creator or source of
the ideas, he has the absolute knowledge about his message because the role of the receiver
or listener is just to interpret, infer, or guess the meaning of things appealing to his sense of
hearing.

3. Communication does not guarantee a direct or automatic link between two minds.
These forms of knowledge become meaningful only to others when you initiate
communication with them for instance you ask something from your classmate, you mingle
with your relatives in a family reunion, you meet with your groupmates to work on your task,
etc.

4. Communication is active, powerful, or forceful. Messages have varied effects on all

participants in any communicative event. Eliciting different meanings or reactions, these
messages are prone to changes. Subjected to the changeable and continued existence of the
world, communication is a dynamic (a process or system characterized by constant change)
as life that goes on and on like a river. Nothing remains permanent or fixed in the world of
communication.
 5. Communication is symbolic. Symbols, signs, or marks like letters, words, sentences,
graphs, pictures and other concrete objects represent or stand for ideas that you intend to
convey verbally. For non-verbal communication, you resort to bodily actions (gestures, eye
movements, posture, facial expressions) voice quality, space and time elements to stand for
the ideas you want to express.

6. Communication always results in something. Two or more persons participate in any

communicative act. The first, expresses or sends a message; the second, responds or reacts
to the message. It is impossible for any person communicating a message not to get any
response or reaction at all from his listeners.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

1. Sender. The sender also known as the encoder decides on the message to be sent, the
best/most effective way that it can be sent. All of this is done bearing the receiver in mind. It
is his/her job to conceptualize. In the above activity, the sender is President Duterte.

2. Message. This refers to what needs to be delivered or imparted to somebody else. The
report on the status of the COVID 19 management is the message in the above activity.

3. Receiver. The listener of the message. The one who does the decoding. In the above
activity, the public or the citizens of the country are the audience.

4. Channel. The means by which the message is sent and the medium, such as radio, used
to transmit the message. The channel in the above activity is the address itself which was
aired on national television.

5. Feedback. The only way the speaker knows the message has been received. It is based
on the interpretation of the message by the listener. One possible feedback in the above
activity is the approval of the people of the government’s move to combat COVID 19. Their
displeasure of the government’s handling of the crisis is another one.

6. Context. The environment where communication takes place and may include
sociocultural factors, the status and roles of the communicators, rules and the like. The
context of the speech is the Malacanang Palace. Likewise, the president being the authority
is ought to be listened to is another context.

7. Noise. This refers to the barriers to communication. Noise can be physical noise such as
choppy connection, or psychological noise such as stress, attitude of the communicators
towards each other. Possible barriers to the speech of the president are weak signal of the
television, people’s negative perception of the president and the government in general, and
president’s usage of English language which uneducated Filipinos would find difficult to
understand among others.
8. Effect. This refers to the consequence or result – or lack of result, for that matter. This
includes changes in knowledge, in our emotions, and behavior. In the above example, one
effect could be the people have been informed of the status of COVID 19 management.
LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION

1. Intrapersonal – This refers to communication that centers on one

person where the speaker acts both as the sender and the receiver of
message. Example of this is when you are reflecting on something that you
did.

2. Interpersonal – This refers to communication between and among

people and establishes personal relationship between and among them. It
has two types. The first one is the dyad communication and it happens
between two people. An example of this is when you are consulting with
your teacher about a lesson you could not understand. Another type of this
is the small group communication which involves at least three but not more
than 12 participants in a conversation. A group working planning for a project
is an example of this.

3. Public – This type refers to communication that requires you to deliver

or send the message before or in front of a group. The message can be
driven by informational or persuasive purposes. An example of this is when
a candidate for a certain position gives hiscampaign speech.

4. Mass Communication – This refers to communication that takes place

through television, radio, newspapers, magazines, books, billboards,
internet, and other types of media. An example of this is a SONA delivered
by the president and aired on national television.

5. Computer – mediated Communication. This refers to any

communication taking place using the computer and internet-based
technologies such as emails, message boards, personal websites, voice
conferencing, chatrooms, social media.
Defining the Roles, Function of Communicators and Journalist

Journalism refers to the gathering, reporting, and dissemination

of news throughmass media. It is the systems which arose to provide
for society’s needs for news and itarises from the citizen’s right to have
access to fact and opinion about matters for publicinterest, and hence
the importance to their welfare, and rights and duties as citizens.

Journalist is the professional or practitioners who writes news

stories or articlesfor a newspaper or magazine or broadcasts them on
radio or television:

The Foremost Important Role of Communicator and Journalist

• To make available information and evidence to inform the public
about issue thatmatter to them in the most neutral way possible.
• They provide facts for the public to form judgment and decisions.
• In some cases, they facilitate accurate processing and analysis
of such facts in aprofessional and ethical way.

Their Functions Follow Naturally

• To collect and document information, facts and opinions, and
present them for publicanalysis and deepening to the root of
reality.
• To deliver truth and facts, professionals are at the service of truth.
• To gather news, facts and information that critical to public life and well-being.
• Being present where the news is happening and the ability to
record it accurately withavailable technology

Specific Work Areas in which Journalist and Communication Work

• Speech writing and taking minutes of a meeting; advertising, marketing and

sales;
• Communication Education; electronic media, radio television, and
broadcasting;
• Public relations; journalism; theater, performing arts, and dramatic arts;
• Public communication and Opinion management; and
international relationsmanagement and negotiations.

Rights, Responsibilities, and Accountabilities of Communicators and journalists

There are a handful of basic documents recognizing the

principle of press freedom internationally and locally
The RIGHT TO SEEK, RECEIVE, IMPART INFORMATION is
stated in Article 19, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted
Dec. 10, 1948), International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(ICCPR, ratified by 140 countries including the Philippines), the
European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and
Fundamental Freedoms and the African Charter of Human and
People's Rights. The 1987 Philippine Constitution contains provisions
protecting press freedom and freedom of expression:
• Article 3, Section 4. No law shall be passed abridging the
freedom of speech, of expression, or of the press, or the right of
the people peaceably to assemble andpetition the government
for redress of grievances.
• Article 3, Section 7. The right of the people to information on
matters of public concern shall be recognized. Access to official
records, and to documents and papers pertaining to official acts,
transactions, or decisions, as well as to government research
data used as basis for policy development, shall be afforded the
citizen, subject to such limitations as may be provided by law.
Excerpts from Art. 79, Protocol 1 of the ICCPR states:
i. Journalists engaged in professional missions in areas of
armed conflict shall be considered as civilians…
ii. They shall be protected …provided they take no action
adversely affectingtheir status as civilians, and without
prejudice to the right of war correspondents accredited
 to the armed forces to the status provided for in art. 4a
of the third convention…
iii. They may obtain an identity card which shall be issued by
the government of the state of which the journalist is a
national or in those territory he resides or in which the
news medium is located, to attest to his status as a
journalist.
Other Legal Rights
• Right to be free from prior restraint (Philippine Constitution, jurisprudence);
• Right to report on any legislative, judicial or other official
proceedings and the statements made in those proceedings, or any
other acts of public officers in the exercise of their functions (Art.
354, Revised Penal Code);
• The law mandates free public access, at reasonable hours, to the
annual performance reports of offices and agencies of government
and GOCCs and the statements of assets, liabilities and financial
disclosure of all public officials and employees.
• (Code of Conduct of Public Officials, R.A. 6713 or SALN Law)
• Right to report on matters of public concern and the conduct of
public officials and public figures (Lopez v. CA, G.R. L26549, 31
July 1970);
• Right to protect your sources (R.A. 53 as amended by R.A.1477)

Adhere to ethics and standards of the press The book ‘Elements of

Journalism’ by Bill Kovach and Tom Rosenstiel reminds of the basic
principles and ethics of journalism. In case of ethical dilemma, go back
to these:
1. Journalism’ first obligation is to the truth.
2. Its first loyalty is to citizens.
3. Its essence is a discipline of verification.
4. Its practitioners must maintain an independence from those they
cover.
5. It must serve as an independent monitor of power.
6. It must provide a forum for public criticism and compromise.
7. It must strive to make the significant interesting and relevant.
8. It must keep the news comprehensive and in proportion.
9. Its practitioners have an obligation to exercise their personal
conscience.
10. Citizens, too, have rights and responsibilities when it comes to the
news.
Libel
The elements of libel are as follow:
• An allegation of a discreditable act or condition concerning
another; Publication ofthe charge;
• The identity of the person defamed; and
• Existence of malice.
➢ Unfortunately, libel in the Philippines is still a criminal offense.
The NUJP and other media organizations have been
campaigning for the decriminalization as itis not compatible with
ICCPR, of which the Philippines is a signatory.
 ➢ Often, libel is being used by the powers-that-be to harass
journalists. Examples include the P101-million libel suit filed by
former President Joseph Estrada against the Manila Times in
1999 and the libel suit filed by Jose Miguel “Mike” Arroyo,
husband of former President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, against
43 journalists.
➢ The Republic Act 10175 or the Cybercrime Law and the
proposed amendments to it endanger the journalism practice
even more. The penalties to libel are harsher. Under the law, law
enforcement agencies can use the pretext of “fightingterrorism”
to trample upon our privacy, communication rights, and other
civil and political rights. We must therefore continue our
campaign to decriminalize libel

and junk the Cybercrime Law as these violate our right to press
freedom.
➢
A Journalist’s Code of Ethics

I. I shall scrupulously report and interpret the news, taking care not to
suppress essential facts nor to distort the truth by omission or improper
emphasis. I recognize the duty to air the other side and the duty to correct
substantive errors promptly.

II. I shall not violate confidential information on material given me in the

exercise of my calling.
III. I shall resort only to fair and honest methods in my effort to obtain
news, photographs and/or documents, and shall properly identify myself as a
representative of the press when obtaining any personal interview intended for
publication.

IV. I shall refrain from writing reports which will adversely affect a private
reputation unless the public interests justify it. At the same time, I shall write
vigorously for public access to information, as provided for in the constitution.

V. I shall not let personal motives or interests influence me in the

performance of my duties;nor shall I accept or offer any present, gift or other
consideration of a nature which may cast doubt on my professional integrity.

VI. I shall not commit any act of plagiarism.

VII. I shall not in any manner ridicule, cast aspersions on or degrade any
person by reason ofsex, creed, religious belief, political conviction, cultural and
ethnic origin.

VIII. I shall presume persons accused of crime of being innocent until proven
otherwise. I shallexercise caution in publishing names of minors, and women
involved in criminal cases so that they may not unjustly lose their standing in
society.
IX. I shall not take unfair advantage of a fellow journalist.
 X. I shall accept only such tasks as are compatible with the integrity and
dignity of my profession, invoking the “conscience clause” when duties
imposed on me conflict with the voiceof my conscience.

XI. I shall comport myself in public or while performing my duties as journalist

in such manner as to maintain the dignity of my profession. When in doubt,
decency should be my watchword.

(As adopted at the NPC Convention of April 30, 1988)

Who is the Audience?

➢ Audiences are formed either or both of two factors: social context
and a response tomedia content.
➢ Social Context – people from the same background leads to shared
cultural interests,understanding and information needs.
➢ Response to media content – news show, variety show, soap opera, etc.
➢ Media Sociologist Denis McQuail noted audience can
defined in different andoverlapping ways, namely:
➢ By place – as in the audience of a case of a community newspaper.
➢ By people – as when media content appeals to a certain age
group, gender, politicalbelief, or income category
➢ By the particular type of medium or channel involved – the audience
of radio may differfrom the audience of television.
➢ By the content of the message of a medium – talk show and soap
operas may havedifferent audiences
➢ By times – as in daytime, primetime, or weekend audiences.

Types of Clientele in Communication

Without understanding the importance of effective communication there

can be no mutualunderstanding between individuals, group or organization and
communities or exchange of information, nor expression of true feelings
thoughts or ideas.

➢ Individuals- this clientele may refer to certain individuals but not

necessarily formed asgroups.

➢ Groups and Organizations- this clientele may refer to particular

group or societies witha common goal or interests.

➢ Communities-this clientele may refer to establishments or institutions

Individual as Audience

➢ McQuail (1972) provided typology of media-person interactions as follows:

➢ Diversion: escape from routine or problems, emotional release.

➢ Personal relationships: companionship, social utility.

➢ Personal identity – self-reference, reality exploration, value reinforcement
 ➢ Surveillance – information seeking
➢ Research findings shows that among the gratifications which
audiences have derivedfrom using the media are:
➢ Information and education
➢ Guidance and advice
➢ Diversion and relaxation
➢ Diversion and relaxation
➢ Social contact: includes managing relations with others, conversation,
identification withrole models, sharing activity, various companionship
➢ Value reinforcement
➢ Cultural satisfaction
➢ Emotional release
➢ Identity formation and confirmation
➢ Lifestyle expression
➢ Security
➢ Sexual arousal
➢ Filling time
Group and Organization as Audience
➢ Communication needs of Organizations
➢ To inform
➢ To build understanding or change behavior
➢ To resolve conflict or prevent misunderstanding
➢ To present a point of view or project an image.
➢ To lower barriers between groups and individuals
Community as Audience
➢ When a community is the client of communication, the message has to
be responsive tothe need and the channel has to be appropriate, and
the subject to be communicated has to be relevant to the community.
Characteristics of Clientele and Audiences of Communication
• Social Status- This may refer to present social standing or
importance of a personor group in the society. Sometimes, the
socio-economic status and popularityaffects the persons’ social
standing or importance in the society

• Educational level- This may refer to the level of educational

 attainment of the clientele or audience. This usually may classify
to elementary level, secondary level, collegiate level, graduate
level and post graduate level.

• Age Range- This refers to similar age group or age bracket when
clientele and audience are classified. Minor age individuals are
those below the legal age of 18.Meanwhile, legal age is 18 years
old and above.

• Job type- This refers to similar or same type of job or profession

when clientele and audience are classified such as doctors,
nurses, teachers.

• Primary Language/ Race and ethnicity-- This refers to similar

or same language or dialect, race or ethnicity when clientele and
audience are classified such as speakers of Chavakano,
Hiligaynon, Ibanag, Ilocano, Cebuano and Bikol can easily
establish good communication to fellow folks

• Interests/ Advocacies- This refers to similar or same type of

interests or advocacies when clientele and audience are
classified such as group of bicycle enthusiasts, environmentalist,
animal lovers, and the like