University of Makati

College of Governance and Public Policy

Course Title : The Global Environmental Politics

Course Code : Pol 134

Introduction

Global Environmental Politics is a field of study and practice that examines the interactions
between global political forces and environmental issues. It focuses on how international
institutions, governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and other actors address
global environmental challenges, such as climate change, deforestation, biodiversity loss,
pollution, and sustainable development.

Global Environmental Politics is interdisciplinary, drawing on political science, international

relations, environmental science, economics, and sociology, among other fields. The aim is to
understand and improve how the global community can effectively address environmental
challenges that transcend national borders.

The Role of Natural Resources

1. Geopolitical Significance
 Resource Control and Power Dynamics
 Energy Security
 Resource-driven Conflicts
2. Economic Impact
 Resource-based Economies
 Global Trade and Economic Dependency
 Investment and Development
3. Environmental and Social Dimensions
 Environmental Security
 Social Inequality and Conflict

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4. Global Governance and Resource Management

 International Institution
 Sustainability and Ethical Considerations
5. Future Trends and Challenges
 Resource Depletion and Technological Change
 Climate Change and Resource Distribution

Key Areas of Focus:

1. International Environmental Agreements:

o Treaties and conventions such as the Paris Agreement, Kyoto Protocol, and the
Convention on Biological Diversity are central to GEP. These agreements aim to
address issues like climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution through
collective action.
2. Global Governance and Institutions:
o Institutions like the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and the World Bank play
crucial roles in shaping global environmental policies, providing scientific
assessments, and facilitating international cooperation.
3. Environmental Security:
o This aspect of GEP explores how environmental degradation and resource scarcity
contribute to conflicts and insecurity. It includes issues such as water wars, climate
refugees, and the impact of environmental change on global stability.
4. North-South Relations:
o A critical aspect of GEP is the relationship between developed (Global North) and
developing (Global South) countries. These relations often involve discussions on
equity, responsibility, and capacity, particularly in areas like climate finance,
technology transfer, and sustainable development.

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5. Non-State Actors:
o NGOs, transnational corporations, and civil society groups significantly influence
global environmental politics. They advocate for stronger environmental policies,
engage in environmental activism, and often hold states accountable for their
environmental commitments.
6. Environmental Justice and Ethics:
o GEP also considers the ethical dimensions of environmental policy, focusing on
issues of equity, justice, and the rights of marginalized communities. This includes
discussions on how environmental benefits and burdens are distributed globally.
7. Climate Change Politics:
o As one of the most pressing global environmental issues, climate change dominates
GEP discussions. It includes the politics of mitigation and adaptation, carbon
markets, and the geopolitical implications of climate action or inaction.

Challenges in Global Environmental Politics:

 Sovereignty vs. Collective Action: Balancing national sovereignty with the need for
global cooperation often leads to conflicts and slow progress in environmental policy.
 Compliance and Enforcement: Ensuring that countries adhere to international
agreements is a significant challenge, as there is often no effective enforcement
mechanism.
 Economic Interests: Environmental policies can conflict with economic growth, leading
to resistance from industries, corporations, and even governments.

History

Global Environmental Politics (GEP) is a relatively modern field, emerging alongside the growing
recognition of environmental issues as global challenges that require collective action. The history
of GEP reflects the evolution of international awareness, scientific understanding, and political
responses to environmental crises. Below is a detailed history of Global Environmental Politics,
highlighting key events, agreements, and shifts in international relations:
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1. Early Awareness and Foundations (19th Century - 1940s)

 Colonial Conservation Efforts: During the 19th century, colonial powers implemented
conservation measures in their colonies, primarily to protect resources for economic use
rather than for environmental reasons.
 Initial International Cooperation: In the early 20th century, international cooperation on
environmental issues began with agreements such as the 1916 Migratory Bird Treaty
between the U.S. and Canada. These efforts were limited and largely focused on specific
species or regions.

2. Post-War Period and Rise of Environmentalism (1940s - 1960s)

 Post-War Reconstruction: After World War II, the focus was on reconstruction and
economic growth, with little attention given to environmental issues. However, the period
also saw the establishment of the United Nations (UN) in 1945, laying the groundwork for
future international environmental cooperation.
 Rise of Environmental Awareness: By the 1960s, public awareness of environmental
issues grew due to events like the publication of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962),
which highlighted the dangers of pesticides. The environmental movement began to gain
momentum, emphasizing the need for stronger environmental protection.

3. The Stockholm Conference and Institutionalization (1970s)

 Earth Day (1970): The first Earth Day was celebrated in 1970 in the U.S., marking a
significant milestone in the environmental movement and drawing attention to the need for
global environmental governance.
 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972): The
Stockholm Conference was a landmark event that marked the birth of modern Global
Environmental Politics. It was the first major international gathering to focus on
environmental issues. The conference led to the creation of the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP), the first global environmental institution.

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 Stockholm Declaration: The declaration recognized the need for a healthy environment
as a fundamental human right and established the principle of sustainable development,
balancing environmental protection with economic growth.

4. Environmental Treaties and Growing Global Cooperation (1980s)

 World Conservation Strategy (1980): Published by the International Union for

Conservation of Nature (IUCN), UNEP, and the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), this strategy
introduced the concept of sustainable development to the global agenda.
 Vienna Convention and Montreal Protocol (1985 and 1987): The Vienna Convention
for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and its follow-up, the Montreal Protocol, were
significant in addressing the depletion of the ozone layer. The Montreal Protocol, in
particular, is often cited as one of the most successful environmental treaties, leading to the
phase-out of ozone-depleting substances (ODS).

5. The Rio Earth Summit and the Concept of Sustainable Development (1990s)

 Brundtland Report (1987): Officially titled Our Common Future, the report by the World
Commission on Environment and Development popularized the concept of sustainable
development, defined as "development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."
 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio Earth Summit,
1992): The Rio Summit was a critical moment in Global Environmental Politics. It
produced several important agreements:
o Agenda 21: A comprehensive action plan for sustainable development.
o Rio Declaration: Principles to guide future sustainable development efforts.
o United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): Set
the stage for international climate negotiations.
o Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): Focused on the conservation of
biodiversity and the fair sharing of its benefits.

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o Forest Principles: A non-legally binding statement on global consensus on the

management, conservation, and sustainable development of forests.

6. Climate Change Becomes Central (Late 1990s - 2000s)

 Kyoto Protocol (1997): The Kyoto Protocol, an extension of the UNFCCC, was the first
legally binding agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. It established specific
targets for developed countries but faced criticism for excluding developing countries and
lacking enforcement mechanisms.
 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 2000): Adopted by the UN, the MDGs included
environmental sustainability as one of eight goals, further embedding environmental issues
in the global development agenda.

7. Shifts in Global Environmental Governance (2010s)

 Paris Agreement (2015): The Paris Agreement marked a significant shift in Global
Environmental Politics, replacing the Kyoto Protocol. It introduced a more flexible,
bottom-up approach where countries set their own emissions targets. The agreement aims
to limit global warming to well below 2°C, with efforts to limit it to 1.5°C.
 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs, 2015): The SDGs succeeded the MDGs and
included 17 goals, with a strong emphasis on environmental sustainability, climate action,
life on land, and life below water.
 The Rise of Non-State Actors: In recent years, non-state actors such as cities, regions,
businesses, and civil society have played an increasingly important role in global
environmental governance. Initiatives like the Global Covenant of Mayors and corporate
sustainability commitments have become significant drivers of environmental action.

8. Current Trends and Challenges (2020s)

 Climate Change Crises: Climate change remains the most pressing issue in Global
Environmental Politics. The 2020s have seen increasingly urgent calls for action, with

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major climate summits like COP26 (2021) focusing on enhancing commitments to reduce
emissions.
 Biodiversity and Extinction Crisis: The 2020s have also witnessed growing concern over
biodiversity loss, leading to the development of the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity
Framework under the Convention on Biological Diversity.
 Environmental Justice: Issues of equity, justice, and the rights of marginalized
communities are becoming more prominent in Global Environmental Politics, reflecting
the need for more inclusive and fair environmental policies.
 Geopolitical Shifts: The growing influence of emerging economies like China, India, and
Brazil has shifted the dynamics of global environmental negotiations. Additionally,
tensions between major powers, such as the U.S. and China, have affected international
cooperation on environmental issues.

The Global Environmental Policies

Global environmental policies are frameworks and agreements designed to address environmental
challenges that affect the entire planet. These policies are usually developed through international
cooperation and aim to protect the environment, promote sustainability, and mitigate the impacts
of human activities. Here is an overview of key global environmental policies and initiatives:

1. Paris Agreement (2015)

 Objective: Limit global warming to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, with
efforts to limit it to 1.5°C.
 Key Features:
o Countries set their own targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions (Nationally
Determined Contributions or NDCs).
o Regular progress reviews and updates to targets every five years.
o Financial support for developing countries to help them adapt to climate change.

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2. Kyoto Protocol (1997)

 Objective: Reduce greenhouse gas emissions by an average of 5% below 1990 levels over
a commitment period from 2008 to 2012.
 Key Features:
o Legally binding targets for developed countries.
o Introduced mechanisms like carbon trading to help countries meet their targets.
o The Kyoto Protocol was succeeded by the Paris Agreement, which has a broader
and more inclusive framework.

3. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, 1992)

 Objective: Conserve biological diversity, use its components sustainably, and share the
benefits of genetic resources fairly and equitably.
 Key Features:
o Global commitment to protect biodiversity, including plants, animals, and
ecosystems.
o Establishment of protected areas and strategies for sustainable use.
o Support for indigenous and local communities' rights and knowledge.

4. Montreal Protocol (1987)

 Objective: Phase out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances

(ODS).
 Key Features:
o A global agreement that successfully reduced substances like chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) that were harming the ozone layer.
o The Montreal Protocol is considered one of the most successful environmental
treaties, with nearly universal ratification.

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5. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, 1992)

 Objective: Stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to prevent

dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.
 Key Features:
o Provides the framework for international climate negotiations.
o Led to the creation of the Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement.
o Hosts annual Conference of the Parties (COP) meetings to advance global climate
action.

6. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs, 2015)

 Objective: Achieve a better and more sustainable future for all by 2030, with specific goals
related to environmental sustainability.
 Key Features:
o Includes goals on climate action (Goal 13), life below water (Goal 14), and life on
land (Goal 15).
o Promotes integrated action across economic, social, and environmental dimensions.

7. Basel Convention (1989)

 Objective: Control the transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and their disposal.
 Key Features:
o Regulates the export of hazardous wastes, ensuring they are managed in an
environmentally sound manner.
o Prevents the dumping of hazardous waste in developing countries.

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International Relations Theory

In the study of global environmental politics, International Relations (IR) theories offer different
perspectives on how and why states and other actors address environmental issues. Here’s a brief
overview of some key IR theories and how they relate to global environmental politics:

1. Realism:
o Focuses on power and national interest. Realists argue that their own security and
economic interests primarily motivate states. In environmental politics, realists
might emphasize how environmental issues are secondary to state interests or how
competition for resources can lead to conflict.
2. Liberalism:
o Highlights cooperation and institutions. Liberals believe that states can work
together to address global problems through international institutions and
agreements. In environmental politics, this theory supports the idea of global
cooperation, treaties, and organizations like the UN Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC).
3. Constructivism:
o Emphasizes the role of ideas, beliefs, and identities. Constructivists argue that
environmental politics is influenced by how states and actors perceive and value
environmental issues. They focus on how norms, values, and identities shape
environmental policies and international cooperation.
4. Marxism:
o Focuses on class struggle and economic inequalities. Marxists view environmental
issues through the lens of capitalist exploitation and economic inequalities. They
argue that environmental degradation is a result of capitalist exploitation of natural
resources and that addressing it requires fundamental economic and social changes.
5. Critical Theory:
o Challenges traditional IR theories and focuses on power dynamics and social
justice. Critical theorists critique the status quo and seek to address underlying

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power structures that contribute to environmental problems. They advocate for

more equitable and just solutions to global environmental issues.
6. Post Colonialism:
o Examines the legacy of colonialism and its impact on environmental politics.
Postcolonial theorists explore how colonial histories and power imbalances
continue to shape environmental issues and responses, particularly in developing
countries.

Transnational Actors

Transnational actors in global environmental politics are non-state entities that operate across
national borders and influence environmental policies, practices, and outcomes. These actors play
a significant role in shaping global environmental governance, often working alongside or
independently of states. Here is a closer look at the different types of transnational actors and their
roles:

1. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

 Environmental NGOs like Greenpeace, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), and Friends of
the Earth are major transnational actors. They advocate for environmental protection, raise
awareness, and lobby for policy changes at both the national and international levels.
 NGOs often participate in international negotiations, such as UN climate conferences,
where they influence the agenda, monitor state commitments, and hold governments
accountable.

2. Multinational Corporations (MNCs)

 MNCs are powerful transnational actors in global environmental politics due to their
economic influence and control over resources and technologies. Companies in sectors like
energy, agriculture, and mining have significant impacts on the environment.

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 While some MNCs contribute to environmental degradation, others engage in corporate

social responsibility (CSR) initiatives or adopt sustainable practices, thereby influencing
environmental standards and policies.

3. International Organizations and Institutions

 Organizations such as the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the World
Bank, and the World Health Organization (WHO) are transnational actors that play key
roles in coordinating international environmental efforts, providing funding, and setting
global norms and standards.
 These institutions facilitate cooperation among states, provide technical assistance, and
help implement international environmental agreements.

4. Transnational Advocacy Networks

 These are networks of activists, NGOs, and other organizations that work across borders
to promote environmental causes. They coordinate campaigns, share information, and
mobilize public opinion to pressure governments and corporations to adopt
environmentally friendly policies.
 Examples include the Climate Action Network, which brings together various groups to
push for stronger action on climate change.

5. Scientific and Expert Communities

 Transnational scientific bodies, like the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

(IPCC), provide crucial research and data that inform global environmental policy. These
communities transcend national boundaries, offering expertise that shapes international
agreements and national policies.
 They also play a key role in setting global environmental agendas by highlighting emerging
issues and proposing solutions.

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6. Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities

 Indigenous groups and local communities often collaborate across borders to protect their
lands and resources from environmental threats. Although traditionally marginalized in
global governance, they are increasingly recognized as important transnational actors due
to their stewardship of biodiversity and their advocacy for sustainable practices.
 Their involvement in international forums, such as those on biodiversity, has grown,
allowing them to influence global environmental policies.

7. Transnational Social Movements

 Environmental social movements, such as Fridays for Future, are transnational in nature,
with participants from around the world. These movements harness global solidarity to
demand urgent action on environmental issues like climate change.
 They often use social media and other digital platforms to coordinate actions, share
information, and influence public opinion globally.

Significance in Global Environmental Politics

Transnational actors are essential in shaping the global environmental agenda. They can influence
international negotiations, create pressure for environmental protection, and offer solutions that go
beyond the capacities of individual states. Their involvement makes global environmental
governance more inclusive and dynamic, though it also raises challenges related to accountability,
coordination, and equity.

 International Cooperation: Global environmental politics fosters cooperation among

nations to tackle issues like climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution. This collective
action is crucial for implementing effective solutions that no single country can achieve
alone.
 Policy Development: It drives the development and implementation of international
environmental policies and agreements, such as the Paris Agreement on climate change,

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which set targets and frameworks for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating
global warming.
 Resource Management: It addresses the sustainable management of global resources,
including water, forests, and oceans. Effective global environmental policies help ensure
that these resources are used responsibly and preserved for future generations.
 Economic Impact: Environmental policies influence global markets and economies by
promoting green technologies, sustainable practices, and environmentally-friendly
products. This shift can lead to new economic opportunities and drive innovation.
 Human Health and Safety: Addressing global environmental issues improves public
health and safety by reducing exposure to pollutants and managing risks related to
environmental disasters.
 Equity and Justice: It aims to address environmental justice by ensuring that vulnerable
and marginalized communities are protected from the adverse effects of environmental
degradation and have access to resources and decision-making processes.
 Global Governance: It involves the establishment of international institutions and
agreements, such as the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), that play a
critical role in coordinating global environmental efforts and monitoring progress.
 Public Awareness and Advocacy: Global environmental politics raises awareness about
environmental issues and promotes advocacy for policies that support sustainability and
conservation.

Overall, global environmental politics is essential for creating a coordinated and effective response
to environmental challenges, promoting sustainable development, and ensuring the long-term
health and well-being of our planet and its inhabitants.

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