Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M.

Sani

THE FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC NASARARAWA

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
LECTURE NOTE ON TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING (CEC 216)
CLASS: ND 2 CET
TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING
Definition: A technical report is a formal report designed to convey technical information in a clear and
easily accessible format. In order words, a technical report is a document that describes the process, progress
or results of technical or scientific research problem. Example of technical reports are: project reports, journal
articles, academic conference papers, practical report, SIWES report etc. A technical report contains
technical information which should be well planned. You need to understand all the structures to achieve
your objectives. In this course (CEC 2016), our emphasis shall be on project reports. This is because all ND
students in the Department of Civil Engineering Technology at Federal Polytechnic, Nasarawa would be
required to undertake project reports at the end of their programme. The project(s) provides an opportunity
to undertake in-depth reports on viable topics in order to contribute to knowledge of the subject in question.
The project reports should hugely be the students’ own work and will involve considerable efforts in their
preparation.

But before a full Students’ Project Report will be prepared, more often than not a Proposal to the
Students’ Project Report is first prepared, submitted and defended by the students.

GUIDE TO WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL (Proposal of the Students’ Project Report)

Introduction
The main objective of a research proposal is to provide brief explanation of the planed research methodology
and tasks that would be undertaken to achieve the aim of a research. The proposal is like a blueprint for
embarking on a research: hence, the initial draft is subject to modifications based on suggestions from the
project supervisor or jury members. A well written proposal must bear a precise and meaningful title or
research topic (and writer’s identity) and should cover these key concepts:
 Background to the project report: This aspect of the research proposal covers the introductory section and
is expected to focus attention on the background information to the study. This includes any previous
circumstances that justify investment of time and other resources in the study of the chosen topic. The
background may consist of historical antecedents, theoretical references, review of related literatures etc.
 Research problem statement: This is the unit that clearly explains the thrust of the study. It could be a
declarative statement and establishes the focus of the study. The problem statement suggests that some
unresolved issues exist about the topic.
 Statement of aim and objectives:
o Aim: Under this section, the researcher specifies the purpose that would act as a driving force to propel the
research effort to a conclusive end.

Page 1 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

o Objectives: Objectives are the breakdown of the aim into those separate, but related issues that when
investigated will allow you to achieve the main aim. Below is an example of objectives:
-To conduct preliminary tests on the natural and stabilized soils to determine the index properties
-To conduct laboratory tests on the natural and stabilized soils to determine the unconfined compressive
strengths for 7, 14, 21 and 28 days curing time
 An outline of the planned research method: this is the systematic plan of the sequence to be adopted by
the researcher which must be definite.
 Significance of the research (potential beneficiaries or end users): this is the brief description of the
justification for the investment of resources in the proposed research. It explains why the identified problem
is worth giving some attention and the long term benefits for end users.
 Scope and limitation of the research: this is unit explains the specified geographical scope as well as easily
identifiable conceptual base right from the development of the proposal. It is necessary to state clearly the
geographical area in which the target population would be identified. It is also to delimit the depth and breadth
of penetration into the associated variables.
 A list of any resources required: This is the section that explains the need for any research fund needed to
undertake the proposed research or collaboration with individuals/group.

STRUCTURE OF STUDENTS’ PROJECT REPORT (Final Year Students’ Project Report)

A project technical report should contain the following structure:
Preliminary section
The preliminary section comes first when you write your report and it consists of the cover/title page,
declaration, certification, acknowledgement, dedication, abstract, and contents’ pages.
Abstract
In summary, you need to give an overview of the whole report including the results and the conclusion made.

Introduction
In the introduction, you give the background and highlight the main objectives of the research to the reader,
letting the reader understand the purpose of you writing the report.

Research Methodology (Experimental details)

This is the part that you need to state every detail of the experiment starting from the equipment that you
used to the procedure for the test.
Analysis of Results
This is where you are expected to analyze and explain the results you obtained from your experiments. A
clear explanation backed up with facts is required so that the reader is not lost in ambiguity.
Conclusions & Recommendations
Conclusion is the summary of your main points in the body of your report and wraps it up. In conclusion,
you need to use words that suggest you are concluding your work to prepare the readers psychologically, that
you are about to finish. It should be short and precise.
In the recommendation, you are supposed to suggest solutions to the challenges/limitations that are there in
the body of the report. This is where your opinion is welcomed.

Appendix

Page 2 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

This is the suffix of the project report where all junks are placed. Bogous analyses, extra tables and figures
are appended here to help decongest the main body of the report.

Presentation of Preliminary Section

i. Title page
This should be the page immediately inside the covers that bind the project. It consist of the following
 The title of the project report
 Name of the student\
 Registration number of the student
 The report submitted to the institution and purpose of the research report
 Department
 Month/year of defense.

ii. Declaration
This is a statement of authorship which contains the claim of the originality of the investigation and must be
signed and dated by the student. It further provides your testimony that sources derived from other literatures
have been duly acknowledged. Below is an example of declaration page:
I hereby declare that this project tiled modeling of a cable stayed bridge. Is a collection of my original
research work and it has not been presented for any other qualification anywhere. Information from other
sources (published and unpublished) has been duly acknowledged.
Name: ……………………………. Signature: ……………………… Date: ……………………………....

iii. Certification/Approval
The certification page which contains the title of the report and few other information about the author has
provisions for relevant authorities of the institution to append their signatures attesting to approval of the
report to have contribution to knowledge and literary presentation. Below is an example of the content of
certification page.
This project report titled modeling of cable stayed bridge by Uthman Abdulkadir with registration number
FPN/SET/2018/NO/CET/01 meets the regulations governing the award of National Diploma (ND) in Civil
Engineering of Federal Polytechnic, Nasarawa and is approved for its contribution to knowledge and literary
presentation.
Project Supervisor Signature/date

Project Coordinator Signature/date

External Examiner Signature/date

Head of Department Signature/date

iv. Acknowledgement

Page 3 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

This should contain a brief note of appreciation to all those who contributed to the success of your study. In
this section, the researcher expresses gratitude to individuals, institutions, or agencies that provided one form
of assistance or another during the execution of the work. Students should ensure clear expressions in English
Language.
v. Dedication,
It is optional and usually comes after the acknowledgement. It is a sweet, heartfelt way to honour someone
for their roles in the life of the author, especially as it relates to the success of the research work. Dedication
is most often expressed in one or two sentences. E.g.
I dedicate this work to the Almighty.

vi. Abstract
The abstract is a summary of the entire research report including its findings and conclusions, and should be
about 200-300 words long. The abstract should be single line spaced text, written impersonally, concisely
and should be intelligible to non-experts who may be reading it out of context. The essential elements of the
abstract are:
 Background: A simple opening sentence placing the work in context
 Aim: usually one sentence giving the purpose of the work
 Methods (s): One or two sentences explaining what was done
 Results: One or two sentences indicating the main findings
 Conclusions: One or two sentences giving the most important consequences of the work
 keywords

Below are some examples of an abstract:

1:
Combined treatment techniques have been adopted by many pavement designers and site engineers to
improve the strength and stability of subgrades or foundation soils of expansive sites. In this regard, research
was conducted to investigate the effect of curing time on strength development of black cotton soil (BC soil)
stabilized with 10% quarry fines (QF) and varying percentages (0-16%) of cement kiln dust (CKD).
Preliminary tests such as Atterberg limits, compaction parameter test together with a series of unconfined
compression tests were conducted on soil mixtures. Specimens for unconfined compression tests were
prepared at their respective optimum moistures, compacted using British standard light (BSL) compaction
effort and tested at curing times of 7,14,21, and 28 days. Data from the study revealed that the curing duration
exerted a significant influence on the stress-strain behavior of soil mixtures together with the strain at failure
which decreased by about 30-50% as the curing time increased. Unconfined compressive strength data
showed improved strength values ranging from 1.25 to 5.25 times higher than the value for specimens tested
immediately after preparation. Data developed in this study are expected to be useful to pavement designers
and site engineers in the field implementation of the establishment scheme such as when to open the stabilized
layer to construction traffic or when to proceed with further construction works.
Keywords: subgrade soil, expansive sites, curing time, black cotton soil, quarry fines, cement kiln dust.

Page 4 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

2:
The pavement condition index (PCI) is an easy, suitable and cheap way to evaluate the status of pavement
surface distress in order to suggest the methods and time for maintenance and rehabilitation, as well as to
serve as base for predicting the budget of same operations. This research project attempted to assess the
quality of the surface condition of road branch ABCDEF within the Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa flexible
road network, and also the condition of drainages (and other road fittings) of the same road. Inventory survey
was done through physical inspection of the entire road branch while Manual Pavement Condition Survey
was carried out through measurement of the pavement distresses in ten sample units within section BCD of
the road branch, and the data analysed using normal PCI method. Blocked culverts, failed drainages and
scarified shoulders were observed at many locations. The general pavement condition of the road section
was very poor because PCI read 35%. It therefore means that there is an urgent need for a periodic
maintenance such as overlay after patching.
Index Terms— Pavement Condition Index (PCI), Road Inventory Survey, Manual Pavement Condition
Survey, Flexible Pavement

vii. Contents’ tables

It comprises of table of contents, list of tables, list of figures and list of abbreviations, all placed in separate
pages. Roman number pagination ends here and the Arabic number pagination starts from the next section,
the Chapter One.

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
 Background of the study
 Statement of the problem
 Aim and Objectives
 Significance of the study
 Hypotheses
 Research Questions
 Scope and Limitations

i. Background of the study

This is the introductory part of the study that gives an overview of the research problem. In this section, the
student embarks on elaborate discussion of the subject matter, within the pool of other writers’ views. It is
necessary to give context to your investigation within the first chapter to help “locate” the work academically.
This helps justify why your study is timely and relevant by making reference to other related published work
in the field, and evaluating the contribution your project will make to the field. The preparation of this chapter
necessarily requires students to read widely about the subject even though not all materials read will appear
in the project report. Basically, the background to the study helps to illustrate the statement of the problem
to be investigated and solution sought.

Page 5 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

ii. Statement of the problem

At the very heart of every research project is the research problem. Research problem addresses the
significant issues related to the gap(s) in the existing knowledge – which the outcome will lead to
significant managerial and theoretical contributions. Quite often we hear that a problem clearly stated is a
problem half solved. This statement signifies the need for defining a research problem. The problem to be
investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant data from the
irrelevant ones. A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the track whereas
an ill-defined problem may create hurdles. The main function of formulating a research problem is to decide
what you want to find out about. Questions like: What data are to be collected? What characteristics of data
are relevant and need to be studied? What relations are to be explored? What techniques are to be used for
the purpose? And similar other questions crop up in the mind of the researcher who can plan his strategy and
find answers to all such questions only when the research problem has been well defined. Thus, defining a
research problem properly is a prerequisite for any study and is a step of the highest importance. Example of
a Problem Statement is shown below:

Buildings and road structures constructed over expansive clays generally exhibit poor engineering
performance as a result of low shear strength, swelling and shrinkage characteristics under changing
moisture conditions. The introduction of quarry fines/cement kiln dust shall improve the strength
development thereby rendering it more suitable for engineering application.
iii. Aim and Objectives
Aim: Under this section, the researcher specifies the purpose that would act as a driving force to convey the
research effort to a conclusive end. Example:

The aim of this research project is to evaluate the effect of curing time on the strength development of
black cotton soil stabilized with quarry fines and cement kiln dust.

Objectives: objectives are the breakdown of the aim into those separate, but related issues that when
investigated will allow you to achieve the main aim. Below is an example of objectives of a research project:
 To conduct preliminary tests on the natural and stabilized soils to determine the index properties
 To conduct laboratory tests on the natural and stabilized soils to determine the unconfined
compressive strengths for 7, 14, 21 and 28 days curing time.

iv. Significance of the Study

 This is the brief description of the justification for the investment of resources in the proposed research. It
explains why the identified problem is worth giving some attention and the long term benefits for end users.
Given that the aim and objectives of the study refer to immediate purpose which the researcher intends to
achieve at the end of the study, the significance/purpose on the other hand are long term objectives which
the researcher wishes to contribute to the stock of knowledge when the research is eventually completed. In
some areas, significance is used synonymous to “justification”

Page 6 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

v. Hypotheses
This is a proposition, condition, or principle which is assumed, perhaps without belief, in order to draw out
its logical consequences and to test its accord with facts which are known or may be determined. Hypothesis
also helps in drafting research questions.
A hypothesis is written in such a way that it can be proven or disproven by valid and reliable data.
From the above definitions it is apparent that a hypothesis has certain characteristics:
1. It is a tentative proposition.
2. Its validity is unknown.
3. In most cases, it specifies a relationship between two or more variables.
Broadly, there are two categories of hypothesis:
1. Null hypotheses;
2. Alternative hypotheses
Let us take an example. Suppose you want to study the smoking pattern in a community in relation to gender
differentials. The following hypotheses could be constructed:

1. There is no significant difference in the proportion of male and female smokers in the study
Population.
2. A greater proportion of females than males are smokers in the study population.
3. A total of 60 per cent of females and 30 per cent of males in the study population are smokers.
4. There are twice as many female smokers as male smokers in the study population.

In both sets of examples, the way the first hypothesis has been formulated indicates that there is no difference
either in the extent of the impact of different treatment modalities on the infant mortality rate or in the
proportion of male and female smokers. When you construct a hypothesis stipulating that there is no
difference between two situations, groups, outcomes, or the prevalence of a condition or phenomenon, this
is called hypothesis of no difference (null hypothesis) and is usually written as H0. The second hypothesis
in each example implies that there is a difference either in the extent of the impact of different treatment
modalities on infant mortality or in the proportion of male and female smokers among the population, though
the extent of the difference is not specified. A hypothesis in which a researcher stipulates that there will be a
difference but does not specify its magnitude is called a hypothesis of difference (alternative hypothesis)

vi. Scope and limitation of a research:

Scope: This unit explains the specified geographical coverage as well as easily identifiable conceptual base
right from the development of the proposal. It is necessary to state clearly the geographical area in which the
target population would be identified. It is also to delimit the depth and breadth of penetration into the
associated variables in a research.
Limitations: Limitations of a study will give the impression that the writer is aware of what the study was
not able to cover. Moreover, it would prevent the peer reviewer from pointing them out. Limitations basically
discuss any unanswered questions that a study did not address. The answers to such questions as:
Could you have used another means or method of data collection?
Why some basic experiments are not added?

How to Write a Literature Review

Page 7 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current
knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research.
Writing a literature review involves finding relevant publications (such as books and journal articles),
critically analyzing them, and explaining what you found. There are five key steps:
 Search for relevant literature
 Evaluate sources
 Identify themes, debates and gaps
 Outline the structure
 Write your literature review
A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources – it analyzes, synthesizes, and critically evaluates
to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.
Why write a literature review?
When you write a thesis, dissertation, or research paper, you will have to conduct a literature review to situate
your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:
 Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and scholarly context
 Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
 Position yourself in relation to other researchers and theorists
 Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
You might also have to write a literature review as a stand-alone assignment. In this case, the purpose is to
evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of scholarly debates around a topic.
The content will look slightly different in each case, but the process of conducting a literature review follows
the same steps.

Step 1: Search for relevant literature

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic.
If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature
related to your research problem and questions.
If you are writing a literature review as a stand-alone assignment, you will have to choose a focus and develop
a central question to direct your search. Unlike a dissertation research question, this question has to be
answerable without collecting original data. You should be able to answer it based only on a review of
existing publications.
Research question example: What is the impact of social media on body image among Generation Z?
-Make a list of keywords
Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or
variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list if you discover
new keywords in the process of your literature search.
Keywords example
Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth
-Search for relevant sources

Page 8 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals, articles
project reports, books e.t.c include:
Your university’s library catalogue
Google Scholar
JSTOR
EBSCO
Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
EconLit (economics)
Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)
You can use Boolean Operators to help narrow down your search:
AND: to find sources that contain more than one keyword (e.g. social media AND body image AND
generation Z)
OR: to find sources that contain one of a range of synonyms (e.g. generation Z OR teenagers OR adolescents)
NOT: to exclude results containing certain terms (e.g. apple NOT fruit)
Read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or
article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.
To identify the most important publications on your topic, take note of recurring citations. If the same
authors, books or articles keep appearing in your reading, make sure to seek them out.

Step 2: Evaluate and select sources

You probably won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on the topic – you’ll have to
evaluate which sources are most relevant to your questions.
-For each publication, ask yourself:
What question or problem is the author addressing?
What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
What are the key theories, models and methods? Does the research use established frameworks or take an
innovative approach?
What are the results and conclusions of the study?
How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge
established knowledge?
How does the publication contribute to your understanding of the topic? What are its key insights and
arguments?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?
Make sure the sources you use are credible, and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories
in your field of research.
You can find out how many times an article has been cited on Google Scholar – a high citation count means
the article has been influential in the field, and should certainly be included in your literature review.
The scope of your review will depend on your topic and discipline: in the sciences you usually only review
recent literature, but in the humanities you might take a long historical perspective (for example, to trace how
a concept has changed in meaning over time).

Page 9 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

-Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the
text of your literature review.
It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism. It can be helpful to make an
annotated bibliography, where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and
analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.
Here are some hints on in-text citation
-One and two authors
Last name of author (year of publication)
-More than two authors
Last name of the first person et al. (year of publication)
-Citing more than one articles/journals in a single text
Last name of author of first article (year of publication); Last name of author of second article (year of
publication); ….
The above format is for the case where author(s) is mentioned before the text. Example:
Sani (2020) proposed that……
The other case is when author(s) is mentioned after the text, Example:
It was proposed that ……………………………….(Sani, 2020)

Step 3: Identify themes, debates, and gaps

To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, you need to understand the connections
and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:
Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over
time?
Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?
This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your
own research will contribute to existing knowledge.
Example of trends and gaps in reviewing the literature on social media and body image, you note that:
Most research has focused on young women.
There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat – this is a
gap that you could address in your own research.

Step 4: Outline your literature review’s structure

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. You should have a rough idea of
your strategy before you start writing.
Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example,
your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Page 10 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

Chronological
The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this
strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.
Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your
interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.
Thematic
If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections
that address different aspects of the topic.
For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might
include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.
Methodological
If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods, you might
want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:
Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources
Theoretical
A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework. You can use it to discuss various
theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.
You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts
to create a framework for your research.

Step 5: Write your literature review

Like any other academic text, your literature review should have an introduction, a main body, and a
conclusion. What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.
Introduction
The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.
Dissertation literature review: if you are writing the literature review as part of your dissertation or thesis,
reiterate your central problem or research question and give a brief summary of the scholarly context. You
can emphasize the timeliness of the topic (“many recent studies have focused on the problem of x”) or
highlight a gap in the literature (“while there has been much research on x, few researchers have taken y into
consideration”).
Stand-alone literature review: if you are writing a stand-alone paper, give some background on the topic
and its importance, discuss the scope of the literature you will review (for example, the time period of your
sources), and state your objective. What new insight will you draw from the literature?
Body
Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You
can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.
As you write, you can follow these tips:
Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a
coherent whole

Page 11 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers—add your own interpretations where possible,
discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections,
comparisons and contrasts
Example of a paragraph in a literature review
Body image issues have been widely associated with social media usage, particularly in young women. The
relation between media depictions and body image concerns is well-established; a meta-analysis by Grabe
and Hyde (2008) concluded that exposure to mass media is linked to body image dissatisfaction among
women. However, in an era of rapidly changing digital technologies, the mass media paradigm is no longer
adequate for understanding how people engage with images, and the findings of older studies like this one
may not be generalizable to younger generations. In light of this changing landscape, researchers have
become increasingly interested in the specific effects of social media. Perloff (2014) theorizes that the
interactive aspects of social media may influence its impact on body image, and mentions that young women
are among the most active social media users. Several empirical studies have focused on Facebook usage in
adolescent girls (Tiggermann & Slater, 2013; Meier & Gray, 2014) and in young adult women (Smith &
Joiner, 2013; Fardouly et al., 2015; Newton-John & Slater, 2017), while a systematic review by Holland and
Timmerman (2016) confirmed a relationship between social networking and body image for both women
and men. Across these studies, there is consistent evidence that body image issues are influenced not by
social media usage in general, but by engagement with the visual and interactive aspects of these platforms.
Nonetheless, there is a lack of robust research on more highly visual social media (HVSM) such as Instagram
and Snapchat that have gained more recent popularity among younger generations.
Conclusion (of the review)
In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize
their significance.
Dissertation literature review if the literature review is part of your thesis or dissertation, show how your
research addresses gaps and contributes new knowledge, or discuss how you have drawn on existing theories
and methods to build a framework for your research. Stand-alone literature review if you are writing a stand-
alone paper, you can discuss the overall implications of the literature or make suggestions for future research
based on the gaps you have identified.
When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before
submitting.

A complete guide to APA in-text citation (6th edition)

Department of Civil Engineering, Fedpoly Nasarawa – Muhammed Sani

An APA in-text citation consists of the author’s last name and year of publication, for example: (Smith, 2020). When quoting,
also include page numbers, for example (Smith, 2020, p.170). Here’s what an in-text citation looks like in a sentence:

Page 12 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

 The author claims that “plagiarism is becoming a bigger problem” (Smith, 2014, p. 170).
 As Smith (2014) has shown, plagiarism is a serious issue for universities.
 In 2014, Smith found that plagiarism is becoming increasingly widespread.

APA in-text citations with multiple authors

Multiple author names are separated using a comma. Only the final name in the list is preceded by an ampersand (“&”), for
example: (Taylor, Johnson, & Parker, 2019). Use “et al.” to shorten in-text citations of sources with 6+ authors (first in-text
citations) and 3+ authors (subsequent in-text citations), for example: (Taylor et al., 2019).

Author type First in-text citation Subsequent in-text citations

No author
(“Title of the Work,” 2018) Same

1 author (Taylor, 2018) (Taylor, 2018)

2 authors (Taylor & Kotler, 2018) (Taylor & Kotler, 2018)

(Taylor, Kotler, Johnson,

3 – 5 authors
(Taylor et al., 2018)
& Parker, 2018)

6+ authors (Taylor et al., 2018) (Taylor et al., 2018)

Abbreviated Organization

(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

[CDC], 2018) (CDC, 2018)

 Time pressure
 Risk aversion
 Internet experience
 Social interaction (Johnson, 2016, p. 18).

List from several sources. The following two basic characteristics were found in the literature:

Page 13 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

 Consumers experience greater risk for online purchases (Writers et al., 2016, p. 47).
 Young consumers experience no risk for online purchases (Porter, 2016, pp. 63-64).

Exceptions and missing information

The basic APA guidelines are not applicable to every source. Information can be missing, confusing for the reader or simply
different. The most common exceptions are listed below.

No author

If the author is unknown, cite the first few words of the reference list entry instead (usually the title). Enclose the title in double
quotation marks when citing an article, web page or book chapter. Italicize the title of periodicals, books, reports and
brochures.

 (“U.S. Flood Risk Could Be Worse Than We Thought,” 2015)

 (Thinking, Fast and Slow, 2017)

No date

For sources without a year of publication, use “n.d.” (no date) instead: (Johnson, n.d.).

Multiple sources in the same parentheses

If you’re using multiple sources to support a statement, you can combine the in-text citations and separate them using
semicolons. Order the sources alphabetically.

If you’re using multiple sources from the same author, you don’t have to repeat the author. Just add
the other years and separate them with a comma.

Several studies show that … (Brown & Brody, 2009; Porter, 2004; Swaen, 2015, 2017a, 2017b).
Multiple publications from the same author(s) in the same year

To differentiate between two publications from the same author published in the same year, add a suffix after the publication
year.
Research by Swaen (2014a) shows that …
Repeated use of the same source

For citing the same source multiple times in a paragraph there are specific APA guidelines. The first mention should include
the author and publication year. For subsequent mentions in the running text, you only have to include the author’s last
name, not the year. However, citations in parentheses should always include the year.

Research by Swaen (2016) shows that students think the APA Citation Generator is a useful tool. Swaen also states that

Page 14 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

universities are increasingly using the generator. Scribbr is therefore continuing to develop the APA Citation Generator
(Swaen, 2016).
Different authors with the same last name

To differentiate between two (or more) authors with the same last name, include the initials. This rule applies even if the
year of publication is different.

B. Swaen (2017) states that … , as does G. H. Swaen (2008).

Citing a source within a source (secondary source)

If you want to cite a source that you found in another source, you can do one of two things. First of all, you should try to
find the original source (primary source). If you’re able to find it you can use regular APA guidelines.

If you are not able to find the primary source, you should cite it through the source that led you to it (secondary source). The
in-text citation looks like this:

Porter (as cited in Johnson, 2017) states that…

Note that you only need to include the publication year of the source you consulted (here Johnson).

Personal communication

Personal communication such as phone calls, emails and conversations are not cited in the reference list because they can’t
be found anywhere. However, you should still cite them using an in-text citation.

Give the initials and the last name of the person you communicated with and provide as exact a date as possible.

Sales are declining in the second quarter (P. G. Brown, personal communication, June 13, 2018).

NOTE 5

How to write a research methodology

Muhammed Sani, Department of Civil Engineering Tech., Fed. Polytech. Nasarawa

In your thesis or dissertation, you will have to discuss the methods you used to do your research. The methodology chapter
explains what you did and how you did it, allowing readers to evaluate the reliability and validity of the research. It should
include:

 The type of research you did

 How you collected your data
 How you analyzed your data
 Any tools or materials you used in the research
Page 15 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

 Your rationale for choosing these methods

The methodology section should generally be written in the past tense.

Step 1: Explain your methodological approach

Begin by introducing your overall approach to the research.

What research problem or question did you investigate? For example, did you aim to systematically describe the
characteristics of something, to explore an under-researched topic, or to establish a cause-and-effect relationship? And what
type of data did you need to achieve this aim?

 Did you need quantitative data (expressed in numbers) or qualitative data (expressed in words)?
 Did you need to collect primary data yourself, or did you use secondary data that was collected by someone
else?
 Did you gather experimental data by controlling and manipulating variables, or descriptive data by gathering
observations without intervening?

Depending on your discipline and approach, you might also begin with a discussion of the rationale and assumptions
underpinning your methodology.
 Is it relevant in answering your research questions?
 Is this a standard methodology in your field or does it require justification?
 Were there any ethical or philosophical considerations?
 What are the criteria for validity and reliability in this type of research?

In a quantitative experimental study, you might aim to produce generalizable knowledge about the causes of a phenomenon.
Valid research requires a carefully designed study under controlled conditions that can be replicated by other researchers. In
a qualitative ethnography, you might aim to produce contextual real-world knowledge about the behaviors, social structures
and shared beliefs of a specific group of people. As this methodology is less controlled and more interpretive, you will need
to reflect on your position as researcher, taking into account how your participation and perception might have influenced the
results.

Step 2: Describe your methods of data collection

Once you have introduced your overall methodological approach, you should give full details of your data collection methods.

Quantitative methods

In quantitative research, for valid generalizable results, you should describe your methods in enough detail for another
researcher to replicate your study.

Explain how you operationalized concepts and measured your variables; your sampling method or inclusion/exclusion criteria;
and any tools, procedures and materials you used to gather data.

Page 16 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

Surveys
Describe where, when and how the survey was conducted.

 How did you design the questions and what form did they take (e.g. multiple choice, Likert scale)?
 What sampling method did you use to select participants?
 Did you conduct surveys by phone, mail, online or in person, and how long did participants have to respond?
 What was the sample size and response rate?

You might want to include the full questionnaire as an appendix so that your reader can see exactly what data was collected.

Experiments
Give full details of the tools, techniques and procedures you used to conduct the experiment.

 How did you design the experiment?

 How did you recruit participants?
 How did you manipulate and measure the variables?
 What tools or technologies did you use in the experiment?
In experimental research, it is especially important to give enough detail for another researcher to reproduce your results.

Existing data
Explain how you gathered and selected material (such as publications or archival data) for inclusion in your analysis.

 Where did you source the material?

 How was the data originally produced?
 What criteria did you use to select material (e.g. date range)?

Quantitative methods example: The survey consisted of 5 multiple-choice questions and 10 questions that were measured on a
7-point Likert scale. The aim was to conduct the survey with 350 customers of Company X on the company premises in The
Hague from 4-8 July 2017 between 11:00 and 15:00. A customer was defined as a person who had purchased a product from
Company X on the day of questioning. Participants were given 5 minutes to fill in the survey anonymously, and 408 customers
responded. Because not all surveys were fully completed, 371 survey results were included in the analysis.

Qualitative methods
In qualitative research, since methods are often more flexible and subjective, it’s important to reflect on the approach you took
and explain the choices you made.

Discuss the criteria you used to select participants or sources, the context in which the research was conducted, and the role
you played in collecting the data (e.g. were you an active participant or a passive observer?)

Interviews or focus groups

Describe where, when and how the interviews were conducted.

 How did you find and select participants?

 How many people took part?

Page 17 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

 What form did the interviews take (structured, semi-structured and unstructured)?
 How long were the interviews and how were they recorded?

Participant observation
Describe where, when and how you conducted the observation or ethnography.

 What group or community did you observe and how did you gain access to them?
 How long did you spend conducting the research and where was it located?
 What role did you play in the community?
 How did you record your data (e.g. audiovisual recordings, note-taking)?

Existing data
Explain how you selected case study materials (such as texts or images) for the focus of your analysis.
 What type of materials did you analyze?
 How did you collect and select them?

Qualitative methods example: In order to gain a better insight into the possibilities for improvement of the
product range, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 8 returning customers from the main target
group of Company X. A returning customer was defined as someone who usually bought products at least
twice a week from Company X. The surveys were used to select participants who belonged to the target group
(20-45 years old). Interviews were conducted in a small office next to the cash register, and lasted
approximately 20 minutes each. Answers were recorded by note-taking, and seven interviews were also filmed
with consent. One interviewee preferred not to be filmed.

Step 3: Describe your methods of analysis

Next, you should indicate how you processed and analyzed the data. Avoid going into too much detail—you
should not start presenting or discussing any of your results at this stage.

Quantitative methods

In quantitative research, your analysis will be based on numbers. In the methods section you might include:

 How you prepared the data before analyzing it (e.g. checking for missing data, removing
outliers, transforming variables)
 Which software you used to analyze the data (e.g. SPSS, Stata or R)
 Which statistical tests you used (e.g. two-tailed t-test, simple linear regression)

Quantitative methods example: Before analysis the gathered data was prepared. The dataset was checked
for missing data and outliers. For this the “outlier labeling rule” was used. All values outside the calculated
range were considered outliers (Hoaglin & Iglewicz, 1987). The data was then analyzed using statistical
software SPSS.
Qualitative methods

Page 18 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

In qualitative research, your analysis will be based on language, images and observations (often involving some form of textual
analysis). Specific methods might include:

 Content analysis: categorizing and discussing the meaning of words, phrases and sentences
 Thematic analysis: coding and closely examining the data to identify broad themes and patterns
 Discourse analysis: studying communication and meaning in relation to their social context

Qualitative methods example: The interviews were transcribed and thematic analysis was conducted. This involved coding
all the data before identifying and reviewing six key themes. Each theme was examined to gain an understanding of
participants’ perceptions and motivations.

Step 4: Evaluate and justify your methodological choices

Your methodology should make the case for why you chose these particular methods, especially if you did not take the most
standard approach to your topic. Discuss why other methods were not suitable for your objectives, and show how this approach
contributes new knowledge or understanding.

You can acknowledge limitations or weaknesses in the approach you chose, but justify why these were outweighed by the
strengths.

Lab-based experiments can’t always accurately simulate real-life situations and behaviors, but they are effective for testing
causal relationships between variables. Unstructured interviews usually produce results that cannot be generalized beyond the
sample group, but they provide a more in-depth understanding of participants’ perceptions, motivations and emotions.

ASSIGNMENT 2
1. Extract the:
i. BACKGROUND,
ii. AIM,
iii. METHODS,
iv. RESULTS,
v. CONCLUSION and
vi. KEYWORDS from the following abstracts;
i. Combined treatment techniques have been adopted by many pavement designers and site engineers to improve the strength
and stability of subgrades or foundation soils of expansive sites. In this regard, research was conducted to investigate the effect
of curing time on strength development of black cotton soil (BC soil) stabilized with 10% quarry fines (QF) and varying
percentages (0-16%) of cement kiln dust (CKD). Preliminary tests such as Atterberg limits, compaction parameter test together
with a series of unconfined compression tests were conducted on soil mixtures. Specimens for unconfined compression tests
were prepared at their respective optimum moistures, compacted using British standard light (BSL) compaction effort and
tested at curing times of 7,14,21, and 28 days. Data from the study revealed that the curing duration exerted a significant
influence on the stress-strain behavior of soil mixtures together with the strain at failure which decreased by about 30-50% as
the curing time increased. Unconfined compressive strength data showed improved strength values ranging from 1.25 to 5.25
times higher than the value for specimens tested immediately after preparation. Data developed in this study are expected to
be useful to pavement designers and site engineers in the field implementation of the establishment scheme such as when to
open the stabilized layer to construction traffic or when to proceed with further construction works.
Keywords: subgrade soil, expansive sites, curing time, black cotton soil, quarry fines, cement kiln dust.

(ii.) Delay in highway construction project has become pervasive in Nigeria. It is vital to investigate the cause and impact of such
delay especially as it affects road construction. To achieve that, questionnaires were drafted and randomly administered to and
received from 43 respondents that included engineers, consultants, architects, project managers. Descriptive statistic such as
relative importance index (RII), Pearson correlation, Cronbach’s Alpha reliability test, mean, and standard deviation was utilized
in analyzing the retrieved data from survey using statistical package for social sciences (SPSS). The RII of the obtained data was
computed and the rank of each factor assigned from the calculated RII value. The factor with the highest value of RII was assigned

Page 19 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

the first rank while factor with least value of RII (known to be a factor with least significance) assigned the worst/last rank. The
research findings showed that the five most significant factors that contributed to the delay and cost increase in Nigeria highway
industry were poor site management, shortage of materials on site, late payment by the owner for the complete work, shortage of
skilled labour and delays in obtaining permit from government. Conversely, the three factors with least significance were found to
be accidents due to poor site safety, environmental effects and personal conflicts among labours.
Keywords: Highway construction projects, construction delay, delay causes, delay impacts

2. In a tabular form, differentiate between the following words/phrases

i. Survey and experiment
ii. Quantitative data and qualitative data
iii. Primary data and secondary data
iv. Raw data and processed/derived data
v. Validity test and reliability test

3. Briefly explain the following terms under result discussion and conclusion section of student projects (as a technical report).
 Interpretations
 Implications
 Limitations
 Recommendations

4. Arrange the following reference list according to the APA 6th edition format. Also, state the title and publisher of each paper.

Bentham, G. (1996). Association Between Incidence Of Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma And Solar Ultraviolet Radiation In England
And Wales. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 312(7039), 1128-1131. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/29731519

Mead, G., & Whitehouse, J. (1986). Regular Review: Modern Management Of Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma. British Medical
Journal (Clinical Research Edition), 293(6547), 577-580. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/29524395

Preston, R. (2010). Observations in acute care: Evidence based approach to patient safety. British Journal of
Nursing 19, 442-447. Retrieved from http://www.britishjournalofnursing.com

Cioe, J. (2012). The normal distribution [Lecture notes]. Retrieved from http://moodle.vle.monash.edu.au

5.

i. Highlight the two ways by which appendices are presented in a technical report.

ii. List and explain any four items that can be added to the appendix in a technical report.

6. fill the blank spaces provided under with the correct in-text citations:

i. suggested that mahogany ash could be a good replacement for cement if further researches are done to that
regard.

ii. Mahogany ash could be a good replacement for cement if further researches are done to that regards

Assuming the statements above were taken from an article authored by A. M. Sani in the year 2020.

Page 20 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

iii. Also, fill the blank spaces in i & ii above assuming same article was co-authored by A. S. Osu, A. M. Sani, and M.
H. Hamza in January, 2021.

Use your lecture notes 1-7 as guide and show same while submitting the assignment.
A handwritten copy of not more than six pages should be submitted on/before 15th February, 2021.

NOTE 6

How to Write the Discussion and Conclusion Sections (plus Appendix)

Muhammed Sani, Department of Civil Engineering Tech., Fed. Polytech. Nasarawa

The discussion chapter is where you delve into the meaning, importance and relevance of your results. It should focus on
explaining and evaluating what you found, showing how it relates to your literature review and research questions, and making
an argument in support of your overall conclusion. There are many different ways to write this section, but you can focus your
discussion and conclusion around four key elements:

 Interpretations: what do the results mean?

 Implications: why do the results matter?
 Limitations: what can’t the results tell us?
 Recommendations: what practical actions or scientific studies should follow?

There is often overlap between the discussion and conclusion, and in some dissertations these two sections are included in a
single chapter. Occasionally, the results and discussion will be combined into one chapter. If you’re unsure of the best structure
for your research, look at sample dissertations in your field or consult your supervisor.
Summarize your key findings

Start this chapter by reiterating your research problem and concisely summarizing your major findings. Don’t just repeat all the
data you have already reported – aim for a clear statement of the overall result that directly answers your main research question.
This should be no more than one paragraph.

Examples

 The results indicate that…

 The study demonstrates a correlation between…
 This analysis supports the theory that…
 The data suggests that…

Give your interpretations

The meaning of the results might seem obvious to you, but it’s important to spell out their significance for the reader and
show exactly how they answer your research questions.
Page 21 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

The form of your interpretations will depend on the type of research, but some typical approaches to interpreting
the data include:

 Identifying correlations, patterns and relationships among the data

 Discussing whether the results met your expectations or supported your hypotheses
 Contextualizing your findings within previous research and theory
 Explaining unexpected results and evaluating their significance
 Considering possible alternative explanations and making an argument for your position
You can organize your discussion around key themes, hypotheses or research questions, following the same
structure as your results section. You can also begin by highlighting the most significant or unexpected results.

Examples

 In line with the hypothesis…

 Contrary to the hypothesized association…
 The results contradict the claims of Smith (2007) that…
 The results might suggest that X. However, based on the findings of similar studies, a more
plausible explanation is Y.

Discuss the implications

As well as giving your own interpretations, make sure to relate your results back to the scholarly work that you
surveyed in the literature review. The discussion should show how your findings fit with existing knowledge, what
new insights they contribute, and what consequences they have for theory or practice. Ask yourself these
questions:

 Do your results agree with previous research? If so, what do they add to it?
 Are your findings very different from other studies? If so, why might this be?
 Do the results support or challenge existing theories?
 Are there any practical implications?

Your overall aim is to show the reader exactly what your research has contributed and why they should care.

Examples

 These results build on existing evidence of…

 The results do not fit with the theory that…
 The experiment provides a new insight into the relationship between…
 These results should be taken into account when considering how to…
 The data contributes a clearer understanding of…
 While previous research has focused on X, these results demonstrate that Y.

Acknowledge the limitations

Page 22 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

Even the best research has some limitations, and acknowledging these is important to demonstrate your credibility. Limitations
aren’t about listing your errors, but about providing an accurate picture of what can and cannot be concluded from your study.

Limitations might be due to your overall research design, specific methodological choices, or unanticipated obstacles that
emerged during the research process. You should only mention limitations that are directly relevant to your research objectives,
and evaluate how much impact they had on achieving the aims of the research.

For example, if your sample size was small or limited to a specific group of people, note that this limits its generalizability. If
you encountered problems when gathering or analyzing data, explain how these influenced the results. If there are potential
confounding variables that you were unable to control, acknowledge the effect these may have had.

After noting the limitations, you can reiterate why the results are nonetheless valid for the purpose of answering your research
questions.

Examples

 The generalizability of the results is limited by…

 The reliability of this data is impacted by…
 Due to the lack of data on X, the results cannot confirm…
 The methodological choices were constrained by…
 It is beyond the scope of this study to…

State your recommendations

Based on the discussion of your results, you can make recommendations for practical implementation or further
research. Sometimes the recommendations are saved for the conclusion.

Suggestions for further research can lead directly from the limitations. Don’t just state that more studies should
be done – give concrete ideas for how future work can build on areas that your own research was unable to
address.

 Further research is needed to establish…

 Future studies should take into account…

What to leave out of the discussion

There are a few common mistakes to avoid when writing the discussion section of your dissertation.

 Don’t introduce new results – you should only discuss the data that you have already reported in the
results chapter.
 Don’t make inflated claims – avoid over interpretation and speculation that isn’t supported by your data.
 Don’t undermine your research – the discussion of limitations should aim to strengthen your credibility,
not emphasize weaknesses or failures.

Page 23 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

As if somebody asks a question: how would you go about comparing your data collected to other alike studies if there is
little to no research that is the same as yours? (no one has collected the same data as me for me to compare mine with).
And an expert answers the question: It is fine if there are no studies exactly the same as yours – most research aims to address
a gap and contribute something unique. You might still want to mention studies that explored questions related to yours, that
collected similar data from different populations, or that looked at different aspects of the same topic; alternatively, you might
discuss how well your data fits with theories or models on the topic.

Keep in mind that there is no universal formula for the discussion – your aim is just to explain your findings as thoroughly and
convincingly as possible. But it's rare that absolutely no research has been done on your topic, and your explanation will be
more convincing if you can show how your findings relate to existing knowledge.

An appendix to a dissertation

An appendix is a useful tool for providing additional information in a dissertation. You can use appendices to make sure your paper
is not too long, avoid disrupting the text with a lot of tables and figures, and add background information on your topic.

The role of an appendix

In the main body of your dissertation, it’s important that you provide clear and concise information that supports your argument.
However, you’ll often find that you have a lot of further information about your topic that would be useful to share with your
readers.

Any detailed information that is not immediately needed to make your point can go in an appendix. This helps to keep your main
text focused and not unnecessarily long.

However, bear in mind that readers have to be able to understand your dissertation without the appendices. This means it’s
important to make sure you don’t move anything that is critical. The appendices only serve to provide additional information.

Items included in appendices

An appendix can be used for different types of information, including the following:

Results

Research results are often presented in different ways, including tables and figures. However, which results should you put in the
main body of your dissertation and which should go in an appendix? The main results that are relevant to your research question
should always appear in the main text. Less significant results, such as detailed descriptions of your sample or supplemental
analyses that you undertook (that do not help answer your main question), can be put in an appendix. If you used statistics software,
your supervisor my also want you include the outputs of your analysis.

Further information on surveys, interviews, etc.

Page 24 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

Written materials related to things such as surveys and interviews can also be put in an appendix. It’s important to include these
items in your dissertation, so readers can see what you have based your conclusions on – but they generally do not belong in the
main body of the text.

Copies of relevant letters and forms

If you use a lot of abbreviations or symbols in your dissertation, it can be helpful to create a list of abbreviations. If you utilise
many specialised or technical terms, it can also be helpful to create a glossary. Both of these items can be put in an appendix,
although they can also be placed at the front of the document.

Tables, figures and other graphics

You may find you have too many tables, figures and other graphics (such as charts and illustrations) to include in the main body
of your dissertation. If this is the case, any that aren’t critical can go in an appendix.

Formatting an appendix

You can opt to have one long appendix (in which case you would refer to it as just “the Appendix” in your paper) . However,
separating components – such as interview transcripts , abbreviations and results – into different appendices makes the information
simpler to navigate.

Start each appendix on a new page and assign it both a number and a clear title, such as “Appendix 1. Interviews transcripts”. This
makes it easier for the reader to find the appendix as well as for you to refer to it in your main text.

We also recommend that you number and title the individual elements within each appendix (e.g., tables, figures, and transcripts)
to make it clear what you are referring to if you mention something in your main text. The regular rules for tables and figures
generally apply. Be sure to re-start the numbering in each appendix (for instance, if you have tables in more than one appendix,
each appendix would start with Table 1).

Referring to an appendix

It is important that you refer to each appendix at least once in the main body of your dissertation. This can be done by mentioning
the appendix and its number either in parentheses or within the main part of a sentence. It is also possible to refer to a particular
component of an appendix (such as a specific figure).

Example 1. Referring to an entire appendix

Page 25 of 26
 Technical Report Writing – CEC 216 | Engr. A. M. Sani

The interview (see Appendix 1) revealed that…

Appendix 2 presents the correspondence exchanged with company X.

Example 2. Referring to an appendix component

These results (see Appendix 2, Table 1) show that…

Table 1 in Appendix 2 presents an overview of the correspondence with company X.

It is common to capitalize “Appendix” when referring to a specific appendix, but it is not mandatory; you could instead choose to
write it in all lowercase. The key is just to make sure that you are consistent throughout your entire dissertation. (Just as it is
generally important to be consistent in how you capitalize headings and titles in a dissertation.)

Please note that lowercase should always be used if you are referring to appendices in general, and not a specific appendix. For
instance, “The appendices to this dissertation include additional information about both the survey and the interviews.”

Appendices or appendixes

Either spelling can be used in connection with attachments to a written document, but “appendices” is

more common (including in APA Style). Consistency is again key.

Where to put appendice

The simplest option is to add your appendices after the main body of your text (namely after the reference list). If this is what you
do, just continue with the same page numbering. Another option is to put the appendices in a separate document that is delivered
with your dissertation.

Appendices (with titles and page numbers) should be listed in the table of contents.

Page 26 of 26