David Held's Models of Democracy
Introduction
David Held, a prominent political theorist, classified different interpretations and practices of
democracy into various models. His work, particularly in Models of Democracy (1987), provides
a historical and conceptual analysis of democracy, tracing its evolution from classical times to
contemporary political systems. Held's models offer a framework to understand the varied
democratic traditions, each emphasizing different aspects of governance, participation, and
representation.
1. Classical Democracy
Rooted in the Athenian city-state, classical democracy is a direct form where citizens actively
participate in decision-making. It is characterized by open debate, voting in assemblies, and a
commitment to civic duty. However, its limitations include exclusion based on gender, class, and
citizenship status.
2. Protective Democracy
Emerging in the 17th and 18th centuries, this model is associated with thinkers like Hobbes and
Locke. Protective democracy views the state as a necessary institution to safeguard individual
rights and private property. It supports representative democracy, where citizens elect officials to
govern on their behalf. The focus is on constitutionalism, rule of law, and limited government
intervention.
3. Developmental Democracy
Influenced by Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John Stuart Mill, developmental democracy
emphasizes the moral and intellectual growth of individuals through political participation. It
argues that democracy should not only protect rights but also enhance civic engagement and
self-governance. Mill, for example, advocated for public education and participatory institutions
to develop an informed citizenry.
4. Direct Democracy
This model promotes direct participation of citizens in decision-making rather than through
representatives. Referendums, popular assemblies, and participatory budgeting are examples.
While it ensures greater public involvement, practical challenges such as scale, complexity, and
informed decision-making limit its feasibility in large, modern states.
5. Deliberative Democracy
Inspired by Jürgen Habermas, deliberative democracy focuses on rational discourse and
consensus-building. It argues that democratic legitimacy arises from open, inclusive, and
reasoned debate among citizens. This model promotes informed decision-making and active
participation in public deliberation.
6. Marxist Democracy
Based on Karl Marx’s critique of capitalist democracy, this model sees democracy as a tool of
the ruling class to maintain economic and political dominance. Held explores socialist and
communist adaptations that propose economic democracy, worker participation, and a classless
society as alternatives to bourgeois democracy.
7. Liberal Democracy
A dominant model in modern political systems, liberal democracy combines representative
democracy with constitutional protections of individual rights. Institutions like free press, an
independent judiciary, and competitive elections ensure political accountability. Held critiques its
limitations, such as corporate influence and political inequality, which can undermine true
democratic representation.
8. Cosmopolitan Democracy
A contemporary model proposed by Held, cosmopolitan democracy envisions democratic
governance beyond nation-states. It advocates for global political structures that regulate
transnational issues like climate change, human rights, and economic globalization. Institutions
like the United Nations and international courts exemplify this approach.
Conclusion
David Held’s models of democracy provide a comprehensive framework to understand the
diverse interpretations and practical challenges of democratic governance. His work highlights
the evolution of democracy and suggests pathways for enhancing democratic participation,
accountability, and inclusivity in a globalized world.
