1.

​ Women, Peace, and Security (WPS) Challenges in Africa

Challenges of Implementing the WPS Framework in Africa

The Women, Peace, and Security (WPS) framework, established by UN Security

Council Resolution 1325 (2000) and subsequent resolutions, aims to ensure women's
participation in conflict prevention, resolution, and peacebuilding. However, its
implementation in Africa faces several challenges, including:

1.​ Lack of Political Will & Commitment​

○​ Many African governments have ratified WPS policies but fail to allocate
resources or enforce them effectively.
○​ Political instability and regime changes disrupt the continuity of WPS
initiatives.
2.​ Weak Legal and Institutional Frameworks​

○​ While some countries have National Action Plans (NAPs) for WPS, they
often lack strong legal backing and enforcement mechanisms.
○​ Inadequate monitoring and evaluation systems hinder progress tracking.
3.​ Limited Women's Participation in Peace Processes​

○​ Women remain underrepresented in peace negotiations, security

institutions, and governance structures.
○​ Patriarchal norms and cultural barriers limit their involvement in
decision-making roles.
4.​ Persistent Gender-Based Violence (GBV)​

○​ Sexual violence, especially in conflict zones (e.g., DR Congo, Sudan,

Central African Republic), remains a major issue.
○​ Weak judicial systems and impunity for perpetrators discourage survivors
from seeking justice.
5.​ Insufficient Funding and Resources​

○​ Many African countries rely on international donors for WPS initiatives,

leading to inconsistent implementation.
○​ Lack of dedicated national budgets for WPS policies slows progress.
6.​ Armed Conflicts and Insecurity​
 ○​ Ongoing conflicts (e.g., in the Sahel, Horn of Africa, and Great Lakes
region) make WPS implementation difficult.
○​ Extremist groups such as Boko Haram and Al-Shabaab actively suppress
women's rights and target female activists.
7.​ Weak Coordination Among Stakeholders​

○​ Poor collaboration between governments, civil society, and international

organizations hinders effective implementation.
○​ In some cases, WPS initiatives operate in silos with minimal impact.

Inclusiveness of the Peace Process in Africa

Despite efforts to enhance inclusivity in peace processes, several challenges persist:

1.​ Marginalization of Women and Youth​

○​ Women are often excluded from peace negotiations, with their roles
limited to community mobilization rather than decision-making.
○​ Youth are similarly overlooked, despite their significant role in conflict and
peacebuilding.
2.​ Dominance of Political and Military Elites​

○​ Peace talks are often dominated by male political and military leaders,
sidelining civil society and grassroots actors.
○​ Warlords and former combatants receive more attention than female-led
peacebuilding initiatives.
3.​ Lack of Representation for Minority and Indigenous Groups​

○​ Ethnic minorities, refugees, and internally displaced persons (IDPs) often

have little or no voice in peace negotiations.
○​ Marginalized communities, including women in rural areas, struggle to
access decision-making platforms.
4.​ Tokenistic Inclusion​

○​ Women’s participation is sometimes symbolic, with no real influence on

the outcomes of peace agreements.
○​ Gender-sensitive policies are included in peace agreements but lack
practical implementation.
 5.​ Weak Implementation of Peace Agreements​

○​ Many peace deals fail to integrate gender-sensitive provisions effectively.

○​ There is often no accountability for ensuring that women benefit from
peace dividends.

Conclusion

Addressing these challenges requires strong political commitment, adequate

funding, gender-sensitive policies, and grassroots participation. African
governments, civil society, and international partners must work together to ensure
meaningful inclusion of women in peace processes and full implementation of the WPS
framework.

2. Security Resolutions on Women, Peace, and Security (WPS)

The Women, Peace, and Security (WPS) agenda is built upon several United Nations
Security Council (UNSC) Resolutions that emphasize the protection, participation,
and empowerment of women in peace and security matters. Below are key resolutions
shaping the WPS framework:

1. Resolution 1325 (2000) – The Foundation of WPS

Adopted on October 31, 2000, UNSCR 1325 is the cornerstone of the WPS agenda. It
calls for:

●​ Women’s participation in conflict prevention, peace negotiations, and

post-conflict reconstruction.
●​ Protection of women and girls from sexual violence in armed conflicts.
●​ Gender perspectives to be integrated into peacekeeping, peace agreements,
and post-war recovery.
●​ Training of peacekeeping forces on gender sensitivity and women’s rights.

This resolution was groundbreaking as it formally recognized the disproportionate

impact of conflict on women and the importance of their involvement in peace
efforts.
2. Resolution 1820 (2008) – Addressing Sexual Violence in Conflict

This resolution emphasizes:

●​ Rape and sexual violence as a weapon of war, recognizing them as war crimes
and crimes against humanity.
●​ The need for justice and accountability, urging states to prosecute
perpetrators.
●​ Stronger prevention measures, including training for peacekeepers to protect
civilians.

3. Resolution 1888 (2009) – Strengthening Protection Against Sexual

Violence

This resolution builds on 1820 by:

●​ Calling for the appointment of a Special Representative on sexual violence in

conflict.
●​ Mandating the deployment of expertise, such as women protection advisors, in
peacekeeping missions.
●​ Strengthening monitoring mechanisms to track sexual violence in conflict
zones.

4. Resolution 1889 (2009) – Strengthening Women’s Role in

Peacebuilding

This resolution focuses on:

●​ Women’s participation in post-conflict reconstruction and peace

negotiations.
●​ The creation of indicators to track progress in implementing Resolution 1325.
●​ Improved reporting mechanisms to ensure accountability for gender-sensitive
peace processes.

5. Resolution 1960 (2010) – Ending Impunity for Sexual Violence

This resolution calls for:

●​ Public lists of perpetrators of sexual violence in conflict.

●​ Better monitoring and reporting on sexual violence to hold individuals and
groups accountable.
●​ Sanctions and legal measures against those responsible for sexual violence in
war.

6. Resolution 2106 (2013) – Strengthening Accountability for Sexual

Violence

It builds on 1960 by:

●​ Enhancing justice and accountability for sexual violence crimes.

●​ Expanding training for peacekeepers and security personnel to combat
gender-based violence.
●​ Recognizing the role of civil society organizations in documenting and
responding to sexual violence.

7. Resolution 2122 (2013) – Women’s Leadership in Peacebuilding

This resolution reinforces:

●​ Women’s full and equal participation in conflict resolution and leadership

roles.
●​ The need for gender-sensitive conflict analysis in UN missions.
●​ Better financial and technical support for women-led peace initiatives.

8. Other Relevant Resolutions

●​ Resolutions 2242 (2015), 2467 (2019), and 2493 (2019) further strengthen the
WPS agenda by:
○​ Integrating WPS into counterterrorism strategies.
○​ Recognizing the link between climate change and gender security.
○​ Strengthening monitoring mechanisms for sexual violence in conflicts.
Conclusion

The WPS resolutions provide a strong legal and policy framework to enhance
women’s role in peace and security. However, implementation remains a challenge,
requiring stronger commitment from governments, better funding, and active
participation of civil society organizations.

3. Mainstreaming Gender Perspectives in Conflict Resolution and

Post-Conflict Reconstruction

Mainstreaming gender in conflict resolution and post-conflict reconstruction ensures

that peace processes, policies, and recovery efforts address the specific needs and
contributions of women and men. This approach enhances inclusive peacebuilding,
sustainable development, and long-term stability.

1. Women, Gender, and the Peace Process

Despite international frameworks like UNSCR 1325, women remain underrepresented
in peace negotiations and post-conflict governance. However, research shows that
peace agreements are 35% more likely to last 15 years or longer when women are
involved.

Challenges to Women’s Inclusion in Peace Processes

●​ Exclusion from negotiations: Women often face cultural, political, and

institutional barriers that prevent them from participating in formal peace
talks.
●​ Stereotypes and patriarchal norms: Women are frequently seen as victims
rather than active agents of peace.
●​ Lack of political will and commitment: Governments and armed groups rarely
prioritize gender-sensitive policies.
●​ Security risks: Women peacebuilders and activists are often targeted by armed
groups.

Ways to Strengthen Gender Inclusion in Peace Processes

✔ Mandatory Gender Quotas: Ensure a minimum percentage of women in
negotiation teams and decision-making bodies.​
✔ Gender-Sensitive Peace Agreements: Include specific provisions on women’s
rights, gender equality, and protection from sexual violence.​
✔ Capacity Building for Women Negotiators: Train women in mediation, leadership,
and diplomacy to enable effective participation.​
✔ Support for Women’s Civil Society Organizations (CSOs): Strengthen grassroots
initiatives that empower women in peacebuilding.

2. Gendering Peace Operations

What is Gendering Peace Operations?

Gendering peace operations means ensuring that UN peacekeeping missions and

post-conflict interventions integrate gender perspectives in their policies, strategies,
and field operations.

Key Areas of Gender-Sensitive Peace Operations

1.​ Women’s Role in Peacekeeping Forces​

○​ Increasing the number of women in military, police, and civilian

peacekeeping roles enhances trust between peacekeepers and local
communities.
○​ Female peacekeepers play a crucial role in gender-sensitive patrols,
community engagement, and preventing sexual violence.
2.​ Protection Against Gender-Based Violence (GBV)​

○​ Peacekeeping missions must prioritize protection measures for women

and girls in conflict zones.
○​ Establish safe reporting mechanisms and ensure accountability for GBV
cases.
3.​ Gender-Responsive Humanitarian Assistance​

○​ Women and men experience displacement, poverty, and trauma

differently in post-conflict settings.
○​ Humanitarian aid must consider gender-specific needs, such as
reproductive health services, protection from exploitation, and women-led
economic recovery programs.
 4.​ Post-Conflict Economic Empowerment​

○​ Women are often the primary caregivers and economic providers in

post-conflict societies.
○​ Policies should focus on women’s access to education, employment,
and financial resources.
5.​ Rehabilitation of Female Ex-Combatants​

○​ Many DDR (Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration) programs

focus mainly on male fighters.
○​ Female ex-combatants and survivors of sexual violence require
psychosocial support, skills training, and economic reintegration.

Conclusion
Mainstreaming gender perspectives in conflict resolution and post-conflict
reconstruction is essential for sustainable peace. Governments, international
organizations, and peacekeeping missions must commit to:​
✅ Involving women in peace negotiations​
✅ Ensuring gender-responsive policies in peacekeeping​
✅ Providing economic opportunities and protection for women in post-conflict
societies

By addressing gender inequalities in peacebuilding, societies can achieve more

inclusive, just, and lasting peace.

4. Roles Played by Women and Girls in Conflict Situations

Women and girls play dual roles in conflicts—they are often victims of violence and
oppression but also active participants in resistance, peacebuilding, and post-conflict
recovery. Their experiences shape the course of conflicts and influence peacebuilding
efforts in significant ways.

1. Women and Girls as Victims in Conflict

In many conflicts, women and girls are disproportionately affected due to their
vulnerabilities in war zones. Their suffering often includes:

a) Gender-Based Violence (GBV)

●​ Sexual violence, including rape as a weapon of war, is used to terrorize

communities (e.g., DR Congo, Sudan).
●​ Forced marriages, sexual slavery, and human trafficking increase in conflict
zones.

b) Forced Displacement

●​ Women and girls make up the majority of refugees and internally displaced
persons (IDPs).
●​ They face increased risks of exploitation in refugee camps and humanitarian
settings.

c) Loss of Livelihoods & Economic Hardships

●​ Conflicts destroy economies, leaving women to struggle as sole providers for

families.
●​ Many turn to informal or exploitative labor, including child labor and survival
sex.

d) Psychological Trauma & Health Issues

●​ Conflict-related violence leaves women and girls with severe mental health
challenges.
●​ Limited access to maternal health services worsens conditions for pregnant
women and mothers.

e) Political and Social Marginalization

●​ After conflicts, women struggle to regain land ownership, inheritance rights,

and political voice.
●​ Reintegration into society is difficult for survivors of sexual violence and
abduction.

2. Women and Girls as Active Participants in Conflict

Despite being victims, many women and girls actively shape the outcomes of conflicts
through various roles, including combatants, peacebuilders, and resistance fighters.

a) Women as Combatants and Fighters

●​ Women have served as soldiers, spies, and revolutionaries in conflicts across

Africa (e.g., in Liberia, Uganda, Eritrea).
●​ Some join voluntarily, while others are forced into armed groups.

b) Women as Peacebuilders and Mediators

●​ Women play a crucial role in negotiating peace agreements and rebuilding

societies post-war.
●​ Examples include Ellen Johnson Sirleaf and Leymah Gbowee in Liberia, who
mobilized women for peace.

c) Women in Resistance Movements

●​ Many women lead protests, advocacy campaigns, and humanitarian efforts

against oppressive regimes.
●​ Women’s groups often act as mediators between warring factions.

d) Women as Caregivers and Community Leaders

●​ In the absence of men, women take on leadership roles in families and

communities.
●​ They ensure food security, education, and basic services for displaced
populations.

e) Female Journalists and Human Rights Activists

●​ Women in the media document war crimes, human rights violations, and
peace efforts.
●​ Activists like Malala Yousafzai (Pakistan) and Fatou Bensouda (Gambia) have
championed justice and women’s rights globally.

Conclusion
Women and girls in conflict are not just victims but also powerful agents of change.
While they suffer disproportionately, they also contribute to combat, resistance,
peacebuilding, and social reconstruction. Recognizing and supporting their roles is
essential for achieving sustainable peace and security.

5. Traditional Perspectives of Gender in Conflict and Their

Implementation for Peacebuilding and Post-Conflict Reconstruction in
Cameroon

In Cameroon, traditional gender perspectives in conflict are deeply rooted in cultural,

social, and historical norms. These perspectives shape how men and women
experience, engage in, and contribute to conflict and peacebuilding. Understanding
these roles is crucial for effective post-conflict reconstruction and sustainable peace.

1. Traditional Gender Roles in Conflict in Cameroon

a) Women as Caregivers and Peacemakers

●​ In many Cameroonian ethnic groups, women are seen as nurturers and conflict
mediators.
●​ Elders and women’s groups (such as the Takumbeng women in the North West
and South West Regions) have historically used peaceful protests, prayers,
and traditional rituals to de-escalate conflicts.

b) Men as Warriors and Protectors

●​ Traditional norms assign men the role of fighters and defenders of the
community.
●​ In some cases, male elders or chiefs negotiate peace on behalf of their
communities.

c) Gendered Impact of Conflict

●​ Women and children are the most affected by displacement, gender-based

violence, and economic hardship.
 ●​ Men and young boys often become targets for recruitment into armed groups
or suffer from economic displacement.

2. Challenges of Traditional Gender Roles in

Peacebuilding
While traditional perspectives can aid peacebuilding, they also create barriers to
inclusive and sustainable peace efforts:

a) Exclusion of Women from Formal Peace Processes

●​ Despite their role as mediators in communities, women are rarely included in

formal peace negotiations.
●​ Customary laws often prevent women from owning land or holding leadership
positions, limiting their post-conflict recovery.

b) Reinforcement of Harmful Gender Norms

●​ Men are expected to be warriors, making reintegration difficult for

ex-combatants.
●​ Women survivors of sexual violence face stigma and rejection from their
communities.

c) Lack of Economic and Political Empowerment

●​ Post-conflict reconstruction often focuses on male combatants, leaving women

and girls with fewer resources to rebuild their lives.
●​ Women’s economic contributions are undervalued, making it harder for them to
access credit, training, and jobs.

3. Implementing Traditional Gender Perspectives for

Peacebuilding in Cameroon

a) Leveraging Women’s Traditional Roles in Conflict Resolution

✔ Strengthening Women-Led Peace Movements: Groups like Takumbeng women
should be formally involved in peace negotiations.​
✔ Integrating Traditional Mediation Practices: Chiefs and elders can work alongside
modern peace institutions to resolve disputes.

b) Supporting Economic Empowerment for Women and Youth

✔ Microfinance Programs: Providing financial support and training for women’s

cooperatives.​
✔ Skills Training: Encouraging traditional female crafts like weaving, farming, and
trade as a means of livelihood.

c) Reforming Customary Laws to Promote Gender Equality

✔ Granting Land Rights to Women: Ensuring that post-conflict policies allow women
to own and inherit land.​
✔ Encouraging Women’s Political Participation: Traditional councils should include
women in decision-making.

d) Community-Based Reintegration for Former Fighters

✔ Cultural Healing Rituals: Traditional cleansing ceremonies can help reintegration

of ex-combatants, especially in communities affected by the Anglophone Crisis and
Boko Haram insurgency.​
✔ Male Engagement in Gender Equality: Encouraging men to be allies in rebuilding
gender-inclusive societies.

Conclusion
Traditional gender perspectives in Cameroon play a dual role—both reinforcing
inequalities and offering opportunities for peacebuilding. A balanced approach that
respects cultural values while promoting gender equality, economic empowerment,
and inclusive governance is essential for sustainable post-conflict reconstruction.