Ethics

PHILOSOPHY: DEFINITION,
NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY
NATURE AND HISTORICAL  It is in the very nature of philosophy
OUTLINE that man searches for the meaning of
 Have you ever asked yourself, “Why himself and his world.
am I feeling this way?” (cause)  It can truly be said that philosophy
 How can I overcome it? (process) was born when the very first-time man
 How will it affect my life and the started wondering at what he saw
people around me? (consequences) around him.

3 QUESTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY TO EARLY GREEKS, PHILOSOPHY

 Where am I?  “On a total world picture, in the unity
 How do I know it? of all truths – whether they were
 What should I do? scientific, ethical, religious, or
aesthetic.
PHILOSOPHY DEFINITION  A Greek philosophos was concerned
 Greek word: Philo and Sophia = Love not only with types of knowledge, but
and Wisdom with all types.”
 “Pursuit of knowledge and truth”
 “systematic investigation” BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
 Philosopher = lover of Wisdom
 Philosophy = search for meaning; COGNITIVE
Search means: To look, To Find, To seek  Provide description of being and
 There is definitely a world of difference knowing.
between the ordinary and the
philosophical meaning of search. “WHERE AM I?”
o Metaphysics – reality and existence
PHILOSOPHER
 searches for the meaning of life – “HOW DO I KNOW THIS?”
o its importance, o Epistemology – theory of
o value, knowledge/ nature and human
o relevance. knowledge
o Logic – correct thinking and
3 ELEMENTS FOUND IN PHILOSOPHICAL reasoning
SEARCH
 The object of the search is of real to NORMATIVE
the subject  Concerned with the standard of good
 It consumes the whole person
 It is continued with let-up until (a) the “WHAT SHOULD I DO?”
answer is found, or (b) the answer is o Ethics/Morality – morality of human act
not yet found, but the conviction. whether good or bad.
o Politics - principle of proper social
PHILOSOPHICAL ACTIVITY system.
 Involves widest generalizations o Aesthetic – study of beautiful
 All about Fundamentals = foundation
 Philosophy is driven by the desire to
integrate things into one coherent
whole. – Holistic
UNIVERSITIES WITH A MAJOR IN
PHILOSOPHY USUALLY OFFER THE ETHICS AND
FOLLOWING CORE SUBJECTS
 Logic – correct thinking and reasoning MORALS
 Ethics -morality of human acts ETHICS
 Epistemology – theory of knowledge,  Ethos = custom / character
the goal of truth  Studies the rightness and wrongness
 Metaphysics – human reality and of human action
fundamental concepts  Question: how human persons ought
 Cosmology – inanimate things like to act and a search for the definition of
universe a right conduct and living a good life.
 Aesthetic – study of beautiful  To seek the “good” through the aid of
 Rational/ philosophical psychology – reasons is the traditional goal to
life principle of living things (specially ethicists.
of man)  Aristotle: “good life” = “nature of
 Theodicy – study of God happiness”
 Social philosophy – man in relation to  Not only present a theory of happiness
family, state and church. but also provides ways in which
 Philosophy of man – inquiry of man happiness is attained.
and his dimension and existent being.  Judeo-Christian Tradition - the ideals of
righteousness before God.
SHORT HISTORICAL OUTLINE  Describe the nature and dynamics of
 FREDERICK COPLESTON, SJ (Several ethics base on specific time and
Volumes) context
 WILLIAM S . SAHAKIAN AND MABEL
LEWIS SAHAKIAN (ideas of “Realms”) Ethics is not the same as morals, but it
 BY W .T . JONES, FREDERICK SONTAG, can be used interchangeably.
MORTON O . BECKNER, AND ROBERT Ethics
FOGELIN, EDITORS (Historical Period)  Science of Morals
 Standards of right and wrong in a
HISTORICAL OUTLINE THAT FOLLOWS IS social, professional, or legal
BASED ON THESE 3 SOURCES context
 Pre-socratic Period  Undertakes the systematic study of
 Greeks – Socrates, Plato, and the underlying principles of morality
Aristotle  Rules of conduct or societal norms
 Romans with respect to a group or culture
 Middle ages  Ethics refers to the rules that a social
 Early Modern Period system provides us with
 19th Century
 Contemporary Period Morals
 Practices of Ethics
PRACTICAL USES OF PHILOSOPHY  Person’s or society’s idea of right
 Critical analysis and interpretation and wrong
 Improves problem-solving and  Prescriptive in nature
decision-making  Encourage us to follow the right way
 Develop clean and adequate  End governed rational enterprise = to
articulation of ideas equip people with body of norms that
 Wisdom – application of knowledge make peaceful living.
 Self-development  Habits or behaviors with respect to
what an individual believes is right or
wrong.
 Moral are our own principles
 place in creation and there is an
BRANCHES OF ETHICS ultimate commandment from
which all duties and obligations
DESCRIPTIVE ETHICS/ COMPARATIVE derive.”
ETHICS o Moral rules:
 Deals with what people actually By universality – moral action
believe for made to believe to be right must apply it to all people
or wrong. By principle of reciprocity – do
 Moral principles as per changing time as you would be done by.
and have expected people to behave  Consequentialism (Teology) – the
accordingly. morality of an action is contigent with
 It compares the ethics or past and the outcome of that action.
present; ethics of one society and  Morally right/wrong = good/bad
another. outcome
o Utilitarianism – right action
NORMATIVE ETHICS/ PRESCRIPTIVE leads most happiness of
ETHICS greatest number of people
 Deals with “norms” or set of o Hedonism – anything that
consideration how one should act. maximizes pleasure is right
 “Ethical action” and sets out the o Egoism – anything that
rightness or wrongness of the actions maximizes the good for self is
 It rests on the principles which right
determine whether an action is right o Asceticism – abstinence from
or wrong. egoistic pleasures to achieve
 Golden rule: “doing to other as we spiritual goals is right action.
want them to do to us” o Altruism – to live for others and
 It provides justification for punishing a not caring for self is right action
person who disturbs social and moral  “The ends justify the means”. An
order. action that might not be right in the
Theories in Normative Ethics light of moral absolutism may be a
 Virtue Ethics - focuses on one’s right action under teleology.
character and the virtues for
determining or evaluating ethical META ETHICS / ANALYTICAL ETHICS
behaviour.  deals with the origin of the ethical
o Major advocate: Plato, Aristotle concepts themselves.
and Thoman Aquina  Question: what goodness or rightness
o Four cardinals by Plato: or morality itself is?
prudence, justice, temperance
and fortitude(courage) Key Theories
o Aristotle, categorized the  Naturalists and non-naturalists – true
virtues as moral and or false.
intellectual.  Emotivists – approval or disapproval
o “Wisdom”  Prescriptivists - arguing that moral
 Deontological Ethics - focuses on the judgments are prescriptions or
rightness and wrongness of the prohibitions of action, rather than
actions rather than the consequences statements of fact about the world.
of those actions.
o Immanuel Kant’s Categorical APPLIED ETHICS
Imperative or Kantianism (first  Deals with the philosophical
famous deontological theory) – examination, from a moral standpoint,
“human beings occupy special of particular issues in private and
 public life which are matters of moral
judgment. Aristotle
 Most important for professionals in  “Ethical system that may be termed
different walks of life including self-realizationism”
doctors, teachers, administrators,  When a person acts in accordance
rulers and so on. with his nature and realizes his full
potential, he will do good and be
Key Domains: content.
o Decision ethics – ethical decision-  Baby = potential person (not a person)
making process  To become a REAL PERSON = child’s
o Professional ethics – for good inherent potential must be REALIZED
professionalism  Unhappy and frustration (unrealized
o Clinical ethics – good clinical practices potential person) = failed goals and
o Business ethics – good business poor life
practices  "Nature does nothing in vain.”
o Organization ethics – ethics within and  Act nature and develop their talents =
among organizations complete and content
o Social ethics – rightness or wrongness  Self-realization, the awareness of
of social, economical, cultural and one’s nature and the development of
religious issue. one’s talents, is the surest path to
happiness.
Epictetus (stoicism)
 “Death is not feared”
SCHOOL OF  The greatest good was contentment
and serenity.
THOUGHTS FROM  Highest value = Peace of
mind/Apatheia
THE PHILOSOPHERS  self-mastery over one’s desires and
emotions leads to spiritual peace.
Socrates  Individual’s will SHOULD BE
 “Knowledge of virtue” independent and inviolate.
 First Greek Philosopher = encourage  Allowing other person disturb the
to turn their attention from the outside mental equilibrium = offering yourself
world to the condition of humankind. in slavery.
 Highest = human life knowledge  If a person free to anger you at will,
 Secondardy = all other knowledge you have no control to the internal
 Self-knowledge – success and world = no freedom
inherently an essential good  Freedom from material attachment
 Self-aware – act completely within his (necessary)
capabilities  Stoic philosophy says to accept things
 Ignorant person – flounder and that cannot be changed, resigning
encounter difficulty oneself to existence and enduring in a
To Socrates; rational fashion.
o Person must aware of every fact  Epictetus said difficult problems in life
relevant o his existence should not be avoided, but rather
o People will naturally do what is good, if embraced.
they know what is right.  He also stated that sex and sexual
o Evil and bad action = ignorance desire are to be avoided as the
o “The truly wise man will know what is greatest threat to the integrity and
right, do what is good, and therefore equilibrium of a man’s mind.
be happy.”
 CONTEMPORARY VIRTUE ETHICS  No concern with the future, the
 Popularized during the late 20th present for immediate pleasure
century in large part as a response to  Encouraged the pursuit of
G.E.M. Anscombe’s “Modern Moral enjoyment and indulgence
Philosophy” without hesitation, believing
 Anscombe (consequentialist and pleasure to be the only good.
deontological ethics) – only feasible as
universal theories if the two schools
ground themselves in divine law. EPICUREANISM
 In essence, Anscombe believed that  form of virtue ethics
ethical systems without a religious  Epicurus – pleasure = will coincide
foundation were flawed. She proposed with virtue / detrimental to human
that either embrace virtue ethics or beings
find a religious basis for other ethical  Excessive pleasure = lead to pain
theories.  Fear and pain to be avoided
 “If there was an afterlife and
ALASDAIR MACLNTRYE immortality, the fear of death was
 who wrote the book “After Virtue” irrational.”
 supports a relativistic account of virtue
based on cultural norms, not objective POSTMODERN ETHICS
standard.  The 20th century saw a remarkable
expansion and evolution of critical
MARTHA NUSSBAUM theory
 Non-Relative Virtues: An Aristotelian  Marxist Theorist – to locate individuals
approach (object to Maclntrye within larger structural frameworks of
relativism) ideology and action.
 Anti-humanists (Louis Althusser,
Foucault and structuralist such as
HEDONISM
Roland Barthes) = challenged the
 Maximizing pleasure and minimizing
possibilities if individual agency and
pain.
the coherence the notion of the
 There are several schools of Hedonist
individual itself.
thought ranging from those
 20th century:
advocating the indulgence of even
post-structuralism = problematize
momentary desires to those teaching
human relationships to knowledge and
a pursuit of spiritual bliss.
objective reality.
 In their consideration of
 Jacques Derrida – real was always
consequences, they range from those
deffered
advocating self-gratification regardless
 Jean Baudrillard – sign and symbol or
of the pain and expense to others, to
simulacramask reality
those stating that the most ethical
 Post-structuralism and postmodernism
pursuit maximizes pleasure and
argue that ethics must study the
happiness for the most people.
complex and relational conditions of
actions.
CYBERNAIC HEDONISM  Narrative is always about particular
 Founded by Aristippus of Cyrene lived experiences in all their
 Cyrenaics supported immediate complexity rather than the assignment
gratification or pleasure. ― Eat, drink of an idea or norm to separate an
and be merry, for tomorrow we die. individuated action.
 fear the opportunity should be forever  Zygmunt Bauman - Postmodernity is
lost. best described as Modernity without
illusion, the illusion being the belief
 that humanity can be repaired by charlatanism and moral
some ethic principle. unscrupulousness.
 David Couzens Hoy - describes post-  Historical Sophist- made genuine and
critique ethics as the obligations that original contributions to Western
present themselves as necessarily to thought.
be fulfilled but are neither forced on
one or are enforce-able RELATIVISM
 Sophist believed that virtually nothing
is good or bad by nature, but ONLY
CUSTOM AND PREFERENCE
Sophist  ARGUED: truth is relative and
 As early Greek civilization grew more knowledge is determined by specific
complex, mythology and religion qualities of the observer
began to develop into philosophy.  Cultural relativism – all values are
 Greek word: Sophos = Wise culturally determined
 2 crucial principles:  Individual relativism – right and wrong
(1) Difference between the way things relative to the unique experiences and
appear and the way they really are. preferences of the individual.
(2) Unseen causes of events; things  Relativism – knowledge is determined
happen as they do for some reason by specific qualities of the observer
 First philosopher were noted for their
attempts to use reason and
observation to figure out how the THE CONSEQUENCES
world works.  No ulitimate truth exist = no moral
code
Sophist meaning  Protagoras of Abdera - morals are
 Sophist = wisdom (Sophia) and wise nothing more than the social
(Sophos) traditions, or mores, of a society or
 Sophia - used to describe group and that following local mores is
disingenuous cleverness long before the best way to live successfully and
the rise of the sophistic movement. well in that place.
 In return for a fee, the sophists offered  Famous remark: “Man is the measure
young wealthy Greek men an of all things.”
education in aretē (virtue or  The task of the truly wise observer is
excellence), thereby attaining wealth to record accurately and describe
and fame while also arousing without bias what works and what
significant antipathy. does not work
 Famous representative: Protagoras,
Gorgias, Antipon, Hippias, Prodicus
PRAGMATISM
and Thrasymachus
 From the Greek for ― deed; ideas
 The historical and philological
have meaning or truth value to the
difficulties confronting an
extent that they produce practical
interpretation of the sophists are
results and effectively further our
significant. Only a handful of sophistic
aims; empirically based philosophy
texts have survived and most of what
that defines knowledge and truth in
we know of the sophists is drawn from
terms of practical consequences.
second-hand testimony, fragments
and the generally hostile depiction of MORAL REALISM
them in Plato’s dialogues.  Contrast to Protagoras
 Sophistry - signify the deliberate use  Moral realism – all values reflect the
of fallacious reasoning, intellectual interest of the strong.
  Callicles (doctrine of the superior  Essentially, the ring represents the
individual) – nature dictates that the temptation of absolute power and its
strong should dominate the weak. potential to corrupt even the most
o “what is right by nature from moral individuals.
what is right by convention.”
o In nature, the survival of the
fittest is the rule: the superior
and powerful individual has a
natural right to dominate
others.
o All people are no more created
equal than all animals are.
Plato and Socrates
CALLICLES PHILOSOPHY PLATO
 Nickname: Aristocles
CALLICLES ASSERTS  Son of one of the oldest and most elite
 This passage explores the concept of Athenian families.
justice and power dynamics. He  Member of the Athenian aristocracy
argues that the weak, who make up and Socrates’ most famous and
the majority, create laws and important pupil.
conventions to benefit themselves and  Socrates' trial and death convinced
control those stronger than them. Plato that Athenian democracy was
 They label actions that benefit the irrational mob rule.
strong as "ugly" and "unjust" to  “Knowledge is unchanging”
maintain their power.  Plato’s theory of Forms was part of his
 He believes that nature dictates a refutation of sophistry.
natural hierarchy where the strong
THE REPUBLIC
should rule over the weak, and this is
 There is a reciprocal relationship
the true form of justice.
between the individual and the kind of
 He see this principle reflected in the
society in which he or she lives.
animal world and even in human
 The ideal state meets three basic
societies.
categories of needs:
 The author encourages readers to
(1) nourishing needs;
emulate strong and reputable
(2) protection needs;
individuals rather than those who
(3) ordering needs.
oppose this natural order.
 These needs are best met by
members of three corresponding
THE RING OF GYGES
classes of people:
 The Ring of Gyges is a thought
(1) workers;
experiment from Plato's Republic. It
(2) warriors;
tells the story of a shepherd who finds
(3) guardians or philosopher-kings.
a magical ring that makes him
 Republic contrasts two views of
invisible. With this power, he becomes
morality:
a king by committing adultery,
(1) Instrumental theory of morality
murder, and usurping the throne.
asserts that right and wrong must be
 Plato uses this story to argue that
determined by consequences our acts
even the most virtuous person, if
produce
given the power to do wrong without
(2) Functionalist theory of morality –
consequence, would succumb to their
right and wrong = affect our overall
selfish desires.
functioning as human being
  Just state functions FULLY; Unjust state o Polemarchus - refinement of the
functions DYSFUNCTIONAL definition of Justice; He proposed
 Human soul resembles (divided into 3 Justice is giving back what is
parts): owed.
o Reason = healthy o “Justice means doing good to a
o Spirit = good friend and harming your enemies”
o Appetite = virtuous (Polemarchus)
 One ruled by guardians
SOCRATES
Four Cardinal Virtues:  First major western philosopher
 Temperance – worker classes/ all  Socrates challenged sophist doctrine
classes of people of relativism (protagoras, callicles etc.)
 Courage – warrior class (person with  Contrast to sophist: “No one who took
stamina and energy) money for teaching could teach the
 Wisdom – guardians and rational part truth”
of the soul  Sought a cure for the ills of the society
 Justice – result of 3 cardinals virtues not in politics, but in philosophy.

SOCRATES’ FAMOUS STATEMENTS

 “Know thyself” - among other things,
PLATO’S DUALISM that a life devoid of philosophical
speculation is hardly a human life,
World of Form (PERFECT) because only philosophical reflection
 Essence of a thing can help us discover what is real and
 Quality that makes it what it is important from the standpoint of the
 Form = eidos (idea) psyche
 Independent of any minds (real)  “Real person(not a body) = psyche”
World of Sensible (IMPERFECT)
 Participation in = sharing in
 Resembling = reflecting the form SOCRATIC METHOD
 Socratic method or Dialectic – style of
THRASYMACHUS philosophical inquiry
 Sophist who is LESS INTERESTED in  Consists of a series of guided question
theories and philosophy than in that continually refines the ideas
political and social action. under scrunity.
 The values that prevail in areas of life  Definitions are required for all key
(education, political, racial, economic) terms, and logical inconsistencies are
reflect the interest of the strong. brought to light and resolved.
 “Justice is the advantage of the
stronger party” (Thrasymachus)
ORACLE OF DELPHI
 Book 1, section 3 of the Republic –
 Sum of human wisdom (know thyself)
Plato paints a portrait of the volatile,
 Symbolizes divine wisdom and
aggressive style Thrasymachus used
knowledge
in confronting his opponents
 Importance: self-examination and
 Republic consist of a series of
leading an examined life.
dialogues between Socrates and
 “There was no man wiser than
various individuals:
Socrates” = No man knew himself
o Cephalus - justice involves nothing
better that Socrates
more than telling the truth and
 Uses the story to justify his method of
repaying one’s debts.
questioning and his persuit of wisdom.
THE TRIAL AND DEATH OF SOCRATES
 Socrates was accused of two things:
(1) Impiety against Athens’ gods by
introducing new gods; and
(2) The corruption of Athenian youth.
 MORAL LESSON OF THE APOLOGY OF
SOCRATES
(1) That Socrates was willing to face
death rather than deny his wisdom;
and
(2) It is evident that socrates’ love for
wisdom outweighs human fear of
death

PHYSICIAN OF THE SOUL

 Believed that people make choices
either good or bad, they are unaware
of how to choose to live in happiness
and fulfillment.
 Betterment of the soul (for improving
us)
 Soul(core) is the essence of a person
 Soul = immortal (exist before and
after body dies)

ETHICAL THEORY
 “Virtue is Wisdom” = It is precisely
because knowledge (wisdom) always
produces behavioral results, because
behavior is always guided by beliefs. –
“To know the good is to do the good.”
 Virtue = arete (excellence of function/
that at which something excels)
 Importance: on how well it function
(body/human)
 True beauty (inner beauty) = spirit and
character