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GEN 006: ETHICS 2. NONMORAL STANDARDS- Refers to norms that are

unrelated to moral or ethical considerations such
ETHICS as etiquette, fashion standards, rules in the game,
 A branch of philosophy that consists of the house rules, and legal statutes.
fundamental issues of practical decision making, 3. IMMORAL STANDARDS- Describes a person or
and its major concerns on the nature of ultimate behavior that conscientiously goes against
value and the standards by which human actions can accepted morals or the proper ideas and beliefs
be judged as right or wrong. about how to behave in a way that is considered right
 It is concerned with knowing what is right and and good by most people. It connotes the intent of
wrong. evilness or wrongdoing.
 It came from the Greek word, “ethos”, which means 4. UNMORAL STANDARDS- This means that there is
character. no moral perception and is not influenced or guided
by moral considerations. Unmoral is used to describe
nonhuman or inanimate things incapable of
MORALITY understanding right and wrong (e.g., hurricanes and
 It refers to the extent to which an action is machines).
considered right or wrong. It concerns the 5. AMORAL STANDARDS- Defined as having or
recognition of the inherent values of people (culture showing no concern about whether the behavior is
and religion), a value that is not reducible to how morally right or wrong—compendiously, “without
others benefit us. morals” (e.g., An infant who is unlearned in what is
 It means “Doing what is right and avoiding what is right and wrong, and people with mental illness).
wrong.”.
IMPORTANCE OF MORALS/RULES
DIFFERENT STANDARDS 1. Regulates unwanted or harmful behavior and
1. MORAL STANDARDS- Refers to norms (rules and encourages wanted or beneficial behavior in
values) about the types of actions that are morally society.
acceptable. the rules people have about the kinds of 2. Dictated by the values of the culture regarding what
actions they believe are morally right, as well as the is viewed as acceptable or unacceptable for
values they place on the kinds of objects they believe individuals in a society.
are morally good
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3. Specific sets of norms of behavior and a prescribed Virtues of Character: (1) Generosity and (2)
guide for conduct or action useful in guiding and Temperance
monitoring the interactions of humans in a society.
4. Prevent chaos and encourage uniformity. Rules Virtues of Thought: (1) Wisdom, (2) Intelligence, and
also tend to make things fairer and provide a stable (3) Comprehension
environment for humans to co-exist in a society which The doctrine of the Mean/Golden Mean. Moral
leads to peace and development. behavior is the balance between the vices of virtues
(deficiency and excess), between pleasure (excess)
VIRTUE ETHICS
and pain (deficiency).
1. Believes in pursuing virtues or ideal character
traits rather than following a set of rules is what
DEONTOLOGY (DUTY ETHICS)
makes us moral. Focusing on being a good person
Concerned with the adherence to certain rules or duties which
will eventually lead to doing the right actions.
means that the morality of an action should be based on
2. Concerned with the whole of a person's life, rather
whether that action is right or wrong under a series of rules. It
than episodes or actions for it focuses on the
is more concerned with what people do (intent), not with the
characteristics and behavior a good person seeks to
achieve. consequences of their actions.
ARISTOTLE’S THEORY OF VIRTUE ETHICS IMMANUEL KANT’S DUTY-BASED ETHICS
1. Believes that human action is directed towards the 1. Believed that ethical actions follow universal moral laws
pursuit of the concept of Eudaemonia (supreme (e.g., Don’t cheat. Don’t lie. Don’t steal) which all human
happiness) which could be achieved through beings must honor and be obligated to do for it is their
Phronesis (practical wisdom) or Arête (virtue). duty as moral agents.
2. Believes that virtues are dispositions that act to 2. Believed that there was a supreme principle of morality
effectively perform one’s proper function in similar referred to as ‘Categorical Imperative’ which determines
situations creating habits of behaving in certain ways. what moral duties are.
Thus, for a person to be good, they must be the best in Categorical Imperatives. Commands that are intended to be
the performance of various tasks which is the result of the basis of all other rules which you should be doing
repeated action and correction of conduct (e.g., a regardless of your interest and/or desire (e.g., Even if you
singer does their best performance if they want to cheat on your taxes so you have more money, you
practice/rehearse their songs before the concert). are not able to do so).
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1. The Universalizability Principle. Always act in such a TELEOLOGICAL ETHICS (CONSEQUENTIALISM)

way that the maxim of your action should become a Derives moral obligation from what is good or desirable as an
universal law (e.g., ‘Do not break promises’ implies a end to be achieved. Morality of an action is contingent on the
universal judgement for anybody in an identical action’s outcome which means that the rightness or
situation should have not broken their promises). wrongness of an action depends on outcomes/consequence,
2. The Formula of Humanity. Act so that you treat if it brings a good end or intrinsic value.
humanity, both in your own person and in that of
another, always as an end and never merely as a 1. Ethical Egoism. Moral duty is exclusive for the self
means. People should not be tricked, manipulated, or which means that one ought to do/pursue whatever is
bullied into doing things. (e.g., ‘Lying to your friend in one’s own best interest (e.g., developing a career).
about their birthday party so it would be a surprise’ is 2. Utilitarianism. Consequences of actions are more
considered morally wrong). favorable than unfavorable to everyone which means
Fundamental Duties. Specific principles (maxims and moral that one ought to perform actions which tend to
laws) that emphasizes morality requires the fulfillment of produce the greatest overall happiness for the greatest
moral duties and not on self-seeking desires. number of people (e.g., promoting social justice).
TAOISM
1. Perfect Duties. These are duties that do not allow Also known as Daoism, is an indigenous Chinese religion
exceptions and are universal which means that they often associated with the
apply to all rational beings despite the consequences Daode Jing (Tao Te Ching), a philosophical and
of the actions (e.g., ‘Lying’ is considered universally political text purportedly written by Laozi (Lao Tzu)
wrong for communication with be difficult if everyone sometime in the 3rd or 4th centuries B.C.E. Rejects
would lie, it would be difficult to determine sincere and the hierarchy and strictness brought by
deceitful statements).
Confucianism and would prefer a simple lifestyle and
2. Imperfect Duties. There are duties that do not always
its teachings thus aim to describe how to attain that
need to be followed in one way or all the time for this is
life.
dependent on the rationality and autonomy of an
individual. People have their own sense of duty TAO OR DAO
towards themselves and others (e.g., ‘giving to charity’  A Chinese word signifying 'way', 'path', 'route', 'road'
is a duty dependent on the rational nature and or sometimes more loosely 'doctrine', 'principle' or
personal expression of an individual’s sense of duty; of 'holistic beliefs’.
what is the right thing to do).
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 It is the natural order of the universe whose character better chance to become enlightened in a future life.
one’s human intuition must discern in order to One who take the precepts is called a lay person.
realize the potential for individual wisdom.
 This intuitive knowing of “life” cannot be grasped as a EIGHTFOLD PATH
concept; it is known through actual living experience 1. Right View or Right Understanding. Insight
of one’s everyday being. into the true nature of reality.
YIN AND YANG 2. Right Intention. The unselfish desire to realize
 Two halves that together completes enlightenment.
wholeness. They are the starting point for 3. Right Speech. Use speech compassionately.
change. When something is whole, by 4. Right Action. Using ethical conduct to manifest
definition, it’s unchanging. So, when you compassion.
split something into two halves, it upsets the 5. Right Livelihood. Making a living through
equilibrium of wholeness. Both halves are ethical and non-harmful means.
chasing after each other as they seek a new 6. Right Effort. Cultivating wholesome qualities
balance. and releasing unwholesome qualities.
 Yin signifies softness, darkness, passivity, 7. Right Mindfulness. Body-mind awareness.
femininity, etc. while Yang signifies 8. Right Concentration. Meditation as a
hardness, brightness, activity, masculinity, dedicated, concentrated practice.
etc. CONFUCIANISM
 The way of life propagated by Confucius in the
BUDDHISM 6th–5th century BCE and followed by the
 Based on the teachings of a Nepali prince named Chinese people for more than two millennia.
Siddharta Gautama who lived around 500 BCE. Although transformed over time, it is still the
Eventually he succeeded, becoming the Buddha, “The substance of learning, the source of values,
Enlightened One”. He spent the remaining 45 years and the social code of the Chinese.
of his life teaching the dharma (path to liberation from  A code of ethical conduct, of how one should
suffering) and establishing the sangha (community of properly act according to his/her relationship
monks). with other people. The identity and self-
concept of the individual are interwoven with
 For a Buddhist, taking refuge (meditation) is the first
the identity and status of his/her community
step on the path to enlightenment. Even if
enlightenment is not achieved in this life, one has a
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or culture, sharing its pride as well as its 2. Salah. Obligation to pray.

failures. 3. Zakat. Obligation to give alms.
 Self-cultivation is seen as the ultimate purpose 4. Saum. Obligation to fast.
of life. The cultivated self in Confucianism is 5. Hajj. Obligation to do pilgrimage to Mecca.
what some scholars call a “subdued self” HINDUISM
wherein personal needs are repressed for the  The world's oldest religion, with roots and customs
good of many, making Confucian society also dating back more than 4,000 years and the third-
hierarchal for the purpose of maintaining order largest religion behind Christianity and Islam.
and balance in society.  The broad term "Hinduism" encompasses a wide
variety of traditions, which are closely related and
ISLAM share common themes but do not constitute a unified
 Derived from the word “salam” which means peace or set of beliefs or practices. Hinduism is not a
surrender whereas ‘Islam’ means the perfect peace out homogeneous, organized system.
of total surrender to Allah (God).  Caste System. The system which divides Hindus into
 Prophet Muhammad dedicated the remainder of his life rigid hierarchical groups based on their karma (work)
to spreading a message of monotheism in a and dharma (duty) is generally accepted to be more
polytheistic world. In 622, he fled north to the city of than 3,000 years old.
Medina to escape growing persecution. This event ATMAN
marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. Eight  The soul’s state of suffering because of its
years later, Muhammad returned to Mecca with an attachments to the senses or to the pleasures of the
army and conquered the city for Islam. By flesh. This makes the Atman a slave of Maya (magic or
Muhammad's death, 50 years later, the entire Arabian illusion). Upanishads are teachings that would
Peninsula had come under Muslim control. relinquish the Atman from its enslavement for it
 Morality in Islam encompasses the concept of allows the unification with the Universal Essence
righteousness, good character, and the body of (Brahman).
moral qualities and virtues prescribed in Islamic  It must be noted that Hindus believe that a righteous
religious texts. The principle and fundamental purpose life is necessary towards Atman’s union with the
of Islamic morality is love, love for God and love for Brahman which will achieved through the Samsara
God's creatures. (Reincarnation) for the purpose of purification. Thus,
PILLARS the moral injunction of Hinduism lies right in the
1. Shahada. Obligation to profess the faith. heart of the teachings in the Upanishads.
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UPANISHADS even if their lower brain (brainstem) continues to

 Literally means, "sitting down near" or "sitting close function like persons in a persistent vegetative
to" and implies listening closely to the mystic state and permanent coma. The upper brain
doctrines of a guru or a spiritual teacher, who has controls voluntary muscle movements while the
cognized the fundamental truths of the universe. lower brain controls life processes like
 It also means 'Brahma-knowledge' by which respiration.
ignorance is annihilated. EXISTENTIAL
NATURE OF DEATH Death is a kind of human possibility.
METAPHYSICAL
1. Death as a Thrown Possibility. Pioneered by
 Death is an event or phenomenon. This provides
Martin Heidegger, it is the possibility that we find
justifications for providing treatments or medical ourselves already having even though we did
services to a critically ill person; when a person is not decide on having it or not.
considered dead, by virtue of these approaches,  Death is Certain. Death is a possibility that will surely
medical practitioners and families of the patient could happen whether one likes it or not.
make necessary decisions regarding the situation of  Death is Indefinite. Death is indefinite as to when it
the patient such as engaging in physician-assisted will come. It is something that can happen at any
death. moment.
 Death is One’s Own Most. A person cannot relegate
1. Cardiopulmonary. A person is considered
his/her death to anybody. A person cannot have
dead when the heart and lungs have ceased to
proxies or representatives. Death is non-transferable.
function.
 Death is Not to be Outstripped. Death cannot be
2. Whole-Brain. A human person is considered
taken away from a person. He/she cannot choose not
dead when their entire brain has irreversibly
to die.
ceased to function. They are no longer
 Death is Nonrelational. In meeting death, a person
conscious and no longer breathing on their own.
cannot be with somebody else. A person has no
A person whose brain has ceased to function
choice but to face death alone. This makes a person
but is still breathing through life-support if
aware of individuality and independence from the
referred to as brain-dead.
world.
3. Higher-Brain. A human person is considered
2. Death as a Wall. From the moment we were
dead when their upper brain (cerebrum and
born, we are facing a wall and every step we
cerebellum) has irreversibly ceased to function
take is towards it, no matter which way we turn.
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Death is a future possibility of no longer having

possibilities.
3. Death as a Door for Another Life. Involves
spiritual concepts of death such as reincarnation
and salvation.

IMPORTANCE OF DEATH
 Living towards death in time gives one's life a
direction and framework within which to understand
the changes that life brings, where the young look
forward and the old looks back.
 Changes in perspectives, especially mortality.
 It is useful to think about death only to the point that it
frees us to live fully immersed in the life we have yet
to live.