ABSTRACT

The locally available clayey soil or the cohesive soil often possess such properties which do
not fulfill the engineering requirements of all such activities. Due to which improvement in
soil properties are required by a technique known as Soil Stabilization. It is a process to treat a
soil to maintain or improve the performance of soil as a construction material. Stabilization
can increase the shear strength of a soil and/or control the shrink-swell properties of a soil,
thus improving the load bearing capacity of a sub-grade to support pavements and
foundations. Soil Stabilization can be utilized on roadways, parking areas, site development
projects, airports and many other situations where sub-soils are not suitable for construction.
Stabilization can be used to treat a wide range of sub-grade materials, varying from expansive
clays to granular materials. This process is accomplished using a wide variety of additives,
including lime, fly-ash, calcium carbide and Portland cement. Other material byproducts used
in Stabilization include Fly Ash and Calcium Carbide Residue.

The Highway Research Board (HRB) classification of the soil strata is done using suitable
sampling technique such as Core Cutter Method. To determine the characteristics like
Grading by Sieve Analysis, Atterbergs Limits i.e Liquid limit using Cone Penetration Method
and Casagrande Method, Plastic limit by rolling the sample to 3mm diameter thread,
Shrinkage limit using Shrinkage apparatus, Optimum Moisture Content and Maximum Dry
Density using Standard Proctor Test and also California Bearing Ratio by conducting CBR
test.

In this project, different proportions of fly ash and calcium carbide Residue has been mixed
with the locally available soil and the modified strength are to be compared with the Std.
Results. Initially the physical properties of clay have been found by conducting wet sieve
analysis , liquid limit, plastic limit, then for the purpose of determining the shear strength of
virgin soil, Unconfined Compressive strength Test, Triaxial Test has been conducted.

i
 INTRODUCTION

In this present era where urbanization is at its peak and rapid construction of bridges, roads,
buildings etc. is going on to meet the needs and demands of the growing population, it
becomes one of the most important task of knowing the important soil strength parameters so
as to start the construction. It often happens that the desired properties necessary for such
engineering constructions are not found But in order for the construction to be done, soil
strength parameters are often modified in positive manner. This technique of alteration
of soils to enhance their physical properties is known as Stabilization .

Soil is the basic foundation for any civil engineering structures. It is required to bear the loads
without failure. In some places, soil may be weak which cannot resist the oncoming loads. In
such cases, soil stabilization is needed. Numerous methods are available in the literature for
soil stabilization. But sometimes, some of the methods like chemical stabilization, lime
stabilization etc. adversely affects the chemical composition of the soil.

Principles of Soil Stabilization:

i. Evaluating the soil properties of the area under consideration.
ii. Deciding the property of soil which needs to be altered to get the design value and choose
the effective and economical method for stabilization.
iii. Designing the Stabilized soil mix sample and testing it in the lab for intended stability and
durability values.
 Advantages of Soil Stabilization
Soil properties vary a great deal and construction of structures depends a lot on the bearing capacity
of the soil, hence, we need to stabilize the soil which makes it easier to predict the load
bearing capacity of the soil and even improve the load bearing capacity. The gradation of the
soil is also a very important property to keep in mind while working with soils. The soils may
be well-graded which is desirable as it has less number of voids or uniformly graded which
though sounds stable but has more voids. Thus, it is better to mix different types of soils
together to improve the soil strength properties. It is very expensive to replace the inferior
soil entirely soil and hence, soil stabilization is the thing to look for in these cases.

 It improves the strength of the soil, thus, increasing the soil bearing capacity.
 It is more economical both in terms of cost and energy to increase the bearing capacity
of the soil rather than going for deep foundation or raft foundation.
 It is also used to provide more stability to the soil in slopes or other such places.
 Sometimes soil stabilization is also used to prevent soil erosion or formation of dust, which
is very useful especially in dry and arid weather.
 Stabilization is also done for soil water-proofing; this prevents water from entering into
the soil and hence helps the soil from losing its strength.
 It helps in reducing the soil volume change due to change in temperature or moisture
content.
 Stabilization improves the workability and the durability of the soil.

Clay
Definition of Clay
The properties of clayed soil depend significantly on its initial conditions. The properties of saturated
soil differ significantly from moist soil and dry soil. Soil with high amount of the clays
consist of a variety of clayey and silty soils that were deposited by rivers flowing into the
ancient oceans millions of years ago. The colors of the soils range from bluish grey to red and
yellow. Clayed soil occurs as discontinuous layers of silts and clays, often with scattered thin
sand layers. Although the clay has gained wide local usage, geologists think that the
sediments were deposited near the shoreline in fresh or brackish water rather than in a true
marine (ocean) environment.
Properties of Clay
Properties of the clays include small particle size with high plasticity. Individual clay particles
are generally smaller than 0.004 mm. The natural moisture content of the marine clay is
extremely variable, and range from 39% to 129%. Generally, the natural water content of the
clays is always close to its liquid limit. Clay is uncommon type of clay and normally exists in
soft consistency.

The specific gravity of soil solids (Gs) ranges from 2.55 to 2.65. The typical range of plastic
limit (PL) varies from 18% to 51%, liquid limit (LL) ranges from 50% to 127%, where by
plastic index (PI) varies from 19% to 77%. Clays have poor drainage properties, low bearing
strength and high compressibility.

Problems with Clay

The Clays contain a variable mixture of fine-textured soils, clay and silt with frequent
discontinuous sand layers. The most troublesome areas occur on steeper slopes and where the
content of clay and silt is much higher than other soil types. Surface drainage is often a
problem since water percolates very slowly through the clays and does not drain well from
level yard areas. The structure built on clay deposit exhibits very high settlement. Differential
settlement may lead to distress of the structure. Hence construction in such areas needs to be
done only after improving the conditions of ground.

Need for stabilization of Clayey Deposits

Due to the advancements and exponential developments in the construction industry in the
recent times, large number of roadways and industries are being built. Further, the land
available for the development of commercial, housing, industrial and transportation,
infrastructure etc. are scarce particularly in urban areas. This has necessitated the use of land,
which has weak strata, wherein the geotechnical engineers are challenged by presence of
different problematic soils with varied engineering characteristics. Many of these areas are
covered with thick soft clay deposit, with very low shear strength and high compressibility.
Following list can give a concise picture of the needs of the soil stabilization:
i) Stabilization improves shear strength parameters .
ii) Stabilization makes the soil water proof .
iii) Stabilized soil can function as the working platform for any construction work.
iv) Stabilization helps reduce soil volume change due to temperature or moisture.
v) Stabilization improve soil workability.
vi) Stabilization reduces dust in work environment .
vii) Stabilization upgrade marginal materials.
viii) Stabilization improves durability.
ix) Stabilization dries wet soil.
x) Stabilization saves aggregate materials.
xi) Stabilization reduce cost and thus makes it economical .

Methods of Soil Stabilization

In order to improve the engineering properties of clays, several improvement techniques are
available in the present time . Each of these methods has its own pros and cons and its
application is based upon the requirements as per the construction firm and the economy
involved .Following are the methods:-
 Stabilization with Calcium carbide Residue and Fly Ash
 Stabilization with Lime Column
 Stabilization with cement
 Stabilization with red brick powder
 Stabilization with saw dust, quarry dust, marble dust etc.
 Stabilization with geosynthetic reinforcement .

Of the above methods stabilization of Clayey Soil Using Calcium Carbide Residue and Fly
Ash turns out to be very economical . Therefore In this project , the study of Clayey Soil
Stabilization using Calcium Carbide Residue and Fly Ash is done .
Fly Ash
it is one of the residues formed in combustion, and consists of the fine particles that rise with the flue gases. It is
also known as flue-ash. Fly ash is captured from the chimneys of coal-fired power plants. It mainly
consists of SiO2 and Al2O3due to which it is pozzolanic in nature. The mineralogical composition, fine
particle size and amorphous character of flyash shows that it is generally pozzolanic and in some cases self
cementitious. compression test as per IS 2720 (part 10) was performed on the samples after 7, 14 and 28
days of curing. All specimens were prepared at the same density and water content by means of Proctar's
compaction to control the effect of density and moisture on the strength.

Calcium carbide residue: Calcium carbide residue is a by- product, which is obtained from the acetylene gas
production. Most of the residue has been sent to landfills, causing many environmental problems such as
dust and high alkalinity of the disposal area. In the present study it was collected from Ajay acetylene
private limited, Ernakulum district, Kerala. The primary chemical composition of calcium carbide residue
in slurry is calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2. The secondary compositions are calcium carbonate (CaCO3),
Silica oxide (SiO2) and other metal oxides.

Calcium carbide residue (CCR) is a by-product of the acetylene production process that mainly contains
calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2. The study of soil stabilization with a mixture of CCR and pozzolanic
materials is an engineering, economic, and environmental challenge for geotechnical engineers and
researchers. Understanding the mechanism controlling strength development in blended CCR-stabilized
clay is necessary for estimating the optimal CCR: FA ratio for different binder contents. The study of soil
stabilization with a mixture of CCR and pozzolanic materials is an engineering, economic, and
environmental challenge for geotechnical engineers and researchers. This paper investigates the possibility
of solely utilizing CCR with fly ash to stabilize problematic weak clayey soils. The unconfined
compressive strength was used as a practical indicator to investigate strength development. Flyash is one of
the most plentiful industrial waste products. It is a solid waste product created by the combustion of coal.
Its appearance is generally that of light to dark grey powder.
 LITERATURE REVIEW

Few papers related to soil stabilization have been studied and analysed which in brief in
described below

Paper Analysis

Various research Papers related to the topic were searched through the archives and few have been
described in this chapter which provided a path in making of this project

Noolu V. et al. (2018) have observed that the use of CCR and fly ash has enhanced the index
properties namely compaction characteristics and Atterberg limits to a great extent. It has also been
noticed that up to 8% CCR addition, the strength properties like California bearing ratio and
unconfined compressive strength increase significantly. There is a decreasing tendency for LL and
PI when the CCR stabilized black cotton soil is provided with fly ash

Jafer H et al. (2018) have successfully figured out the impact of palm oil fuel ash (POFA)
pozzolanic reactivity on the soft soil engineering properties, stabilized with high calcium fly ash
(HCFA). According to UCS and Atterberg limits the HCFA and POFA combination leads to higher
compressive strength and lower plasticity index (PI) compared to the HCFA-based treated soil
alone.

Murmu A. et al. (2018) have performed certain experiments by differing the content of fly ash
in the range of 5% to 20% and handing the samples at a considerably least concentrated 5M NaOH
solution. A laboratory test was conducted to determine the California bearing ratio, unconfined
compressive strength, resilience modulus, and California bearing ratio of stabilized samples. The
addition of fly ash from 0% to 20% has slightly decreased the liquid limit and increased the plastic
limit. very high Ca(OH)2 content of 76.7% is found in CCR. A soil that contains a high percentage
of natural pozzolanic material can be improved by using it alone. They also mentioned that if the
natural pozzolanic material is completely absorbed by the input CCR, CCR and FA can be used
together for higher strength requirements.
Du Y. et al. (2016) worked on finding the mechanical properties of CCR stabilized soft clayey soil
which is utilized as a subgrade course material for the highways. In an adjacent field section, Quicklime
was used as a control binder to compare its performance with CCR

Jiang N. et al. (2015) have compared the stabilized quicklime soil by conducting a multi-scale
laboratory investigation focusing on the several properties viz., mechanical, physical and also
microstructural of stabilized CCR clayey soils. It was observed that within the initial 28d, stabilized CCR
soil has significantly lower pore volume as compared to stabilized quicklime soil. However, this difference
in pore volume is almost negligible at 120d. A converse correlation was noticed between the stabilized soil
and a larger volume of pore in the soil. At the initial stage, the vital contributor to the rapid and complete
development of flocculation and agglomeration of soil particles are high pH value, significant specific area
and fine size particle of CCR soil when compared to quicklime.

Raut J. et al. (2014) have tried to examine the property enhancement of expansive soil by varying the
percentage of fly ash and murrum. With an increase in the percentage of fly ash and murrum, the MDD and
unconfined compressive strength is found to be increasing till a certain limit and thereafter their value
decreases. They have reported that the optimal combination for property enhancement of clay is attained
by mixing 5% of fly ash and 7.5 % of murrum with it.

Kampala A. et al. (2013) have focused their study to have a basic idea about the engineering
properties of stabilized CCR soil in its recycled form. Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) images
manifest that the recycled form of stabilized CCR soil grains is bigger than the CCR and clay particles. The
reason for this is the attached pozzolanic products with the recycled stabilized CCR soil. The large grains
of the recycled CCR stabilized clay reduces linear shrinkage and free swell ratio. Since the hard pozzolanic
products resist compaction, the recycled CCR stabilized clay has a lower unit weight compared to the CCR
stabilized clay for the same amount of compaction energy and CCR content
Sabat A. et al. (2013) have analyzed the mutual effects of two industrial wastes namely, fly ash and
quarry dust on several properties such as compaction characteristics, shear strength parameters, UCS,
California bearing ratio (CBR), and swelling pressure of expansive soil. The highest value for UCS is
achieved concerning 45% fly ash-quarry dust mixture. The UCS value further decreases with an increment
in its percentage. As the percentage of fly ash-quarry dust mixes increases, the MDD increases and the
OMC decreases.

Vichan S. et al. (2013) have conducted experimental work to investigate the effects of blending CCR
and biomass ash (BA) which acts as a stabilizing chemical additive, and leads to a pozzolanic reaction.
Their research work suggests that calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 was formed when CCR dissolves in water.
Pozzolanic products were obtained by dissolving the amorphous Si from BA in a higher pH solution
(pH=12.6). It has also been observed that the combined effects of CCR and BA on clay strength
development were observed when the binder content reached 30% of the dry soil weight.

Horpibulsuk S. et al. (2013) have analyzed the improvement in the strength of stabilized CCR and
FA clay. Avery high Ca(OH)2 content of 76.7% is found in CCR. A soil that contains a high percentage of
natural pozzolanic material can be improved by using it alone. They also mentioned that if the natural
pozzolanic material is completely absorbed by the input CCR, CCR and FA can be used together for higher
strength requirements

Tastan E. et al. (2011) have reported that blending fly ash into soft organic soils increases their
unconfined compressive strength and resilient modulus. It is possible to increase the unconfined
compressive strength of organic soils with an addition of fly ash, but the amount of advancement depends
on soil type and fly ash characteristics. Stabilization is adversely affected by soil organic content. Soil with
more organic matter will have less strength, indicating that soil with more fly ash will have less strength.
 OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the work consists of the following tests being conducted for the
properties of the naturally available clayey soil
I. Natural Water Content
II. Bulk Density and Dry Density
III. Specific gravity of soil
IV. Determination of index properties (Atterberg Limits)
i) Liquid limit by Casagrande‟s apparatus
ii) Plastic Limit
iii) Shrinkage Limit
V. Particle size distribution by
i) Wet Sieve Analysis
VI. Determination of the maximum dry density (MDD) and the corresponding optimum
moisture content (OMC) of the soil by Light compaction test
VII. Determination of the California Bearing Ratios in Unsoaked and Soaked states

Material used and their Description

i) Clay
ii) Calcium Carbide Residue
iii) Fly Ash
Bulk density and dry density using core cutter
Core Cutter Method of Field Density test is conducted in the field to know whether
the specified compaction is achieved or not.

There are several methods for determining the density of soil in place, i.e., Sand Replacement
Method, Core Cutter Method.

Cylindrical core cutters of 130mm long and 100mm diameter are used for testing the in-situ
compaction of cohesive and clay soils placed as fill. By using core cutter method, bulk
density of soil can be quickly calculated and by determining the moisture content of the soil
the dry density of the fill can be calculated and hence the voids percentage. A high percentage
of voids indicates poor compaction of soil.

A cylindrical core cutter is a seamless steel tube. For determination of the dry density of the
soil, the cutter is pressed into the soil mass so that it is filled with the soil without disturbing

𝑀⁄
the core contents. The cutter filled with the soil is lifted up. The mass of the soil in the cutter

is determined. The dry density is obtained as 𝜌 = 𝛾

= 𝑉
1+𝑤 1+𝑤

Where, M= mass of the wet soil in the cutter

V= internal volume of the cutter
w = water content.

Core Cutter
 Table Specific gravity
Sl No. Observation No .

1 Weight of Pycnometer (W1) in gm

2 Weight of Pycnometer + dry soil (W2 ) in gm

3 Weight of Pycnometer + dry soil + water (W3) in gm

4 Weight of Pycnometer filled with water (W4) in gm

5 Specific Gravity

Result :-Avg. Specific Gravity =

Atterberg Limit

The physical properties of clays are considerably influenced by the amount of water present in
them. Depending upon the water content, the soil can be in either in liquid state, or plastic
state, or semi-solid state, or solid state. The boundary water content at which the soil
undergoes a change from one state to another is called consistency limits, or Atterberg limits.

Liquid Limit Determination

Liquid was determined using casagrande apparatus as per method specified in IS: 2720 (Part
V). About 250gm of 425micron passing soil was taken and mixed with certain amount of
water. The soil was transferred to casagrande apparatus and a straight groove was cut using
casagrande tool. The cup was given blows at a rate of 2 drops per second. When the groove is
closed for a length of 13 mm, the number of blows was noted and moisture content was
determined by oven drying method. Experiment was repeated by varying the consistency.
Water content corresponding to 25 blows on the flow curve is the liquid limit.
 Dry Density And Water Content

Test No.

Internal diameter of mould (d) cm

Height of mould (h) cm

Volume of mould (V)=( π/4) d2h cc

Weight of empty mould + base plate
(W1) gms
Weight of mould + compacted soil +
Base plate (W2) gms
Weight of Compacted Soil (W=W2-
W1) gms

Bulk Density ϒb=W/V (gm/cc)

Container no.

Weight of Container (X1) gms .

Weight of Container + Wet Soil (X2)
gms .
Weight of Container + dry soil (X3)
gms

Weight of dry soil (X3-X1) gms .

Weight of water (X2-X3) gms

Water content W%= (X2-X3/X3-
X1)*100

Avg Water Content %(W)

Dry density ϒd= ϒb /1 + (W/100)
gm/cc

Maximum Dy density =
Optimum Moisture Content =

Preparation of Samples

Following steps are carried out while the Calcium Carbide Residue and Fly Ash is mixed with the
soil-

 4.5 to 5 kg of soil was taken along with other variables.

 All the soil samples are compacted at their respective maximum dry density (MDD) and

optimum moisture content (OMC), corresponding to the standard proctor compaction

tests.
 The different values adopted in the present study for the percentage of Calcium Carbide
Residue and Fly 5 % and 10 % by weight of soil.
 After mixing the above ingredients properly, the prepared sample was divided into 3
equal parts for the CBR Test .
 Calculate the weight of the wet soil at the required water content to give the desired
density when occupying the standard specimen volume in the mould from the
expression.
 W =desired dry density * (1+w) V

Where W = Weight of the wet soil, w = desired water content

V = volume of the specimen in the mould = cm3 (as per the mould
available in laboratory)

 Take the weight W (calculated as above) of the mix soil and place it in the mould.
 Place a filter paper and the displacer disc on the top of soil.
 Keep the mould assembly in static loading frame and compact by pressing the displacer
disc till the level of disc reaches the top of the mould.
 Keep the load for some time and then release the load. Remove the displacer disc.
 The test may be conducted for both soaked as well as unsoaked conditions.
 If the sample is to be soaked, in both cases of compaction, put a filter paper on the top of
the soil and place the adjustable stem and perforated plate on the top of filter paper.
 Put annular weights to produce a surcharge equal to weight of base material and pavement
expected in actual construction. Each 2.5 kg weight is equivalent to 7 cm construction. A
minimum of two weights should be put.
 Immerse the mould assembly and weights in a tank of water and soak it for 96 hours.
Remove the mould from tank.
 Note the consolidation of the specimen.

Test Methodology
CBR Test procedure was followed in this . The steps as per IS-2720 (Part XVI)-1965 for
penetration test are
1. Place the mould assembly with the surcharge weights on the penetration test machine.
2. Seat the penetration piston at the center of the specimen with the smallest possible load,
but in no case in excess of 4 kg so that full contact of the piston on the sample is
established.
3. Set the stress and strain dial gauge to read zero. Apply the load on the piston so that the
penetration rate is about 1.25 mm/min.
4. Record the load readings at penetrations of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10 and
12.5 mm. Note the maximum load and corresponding penetration if it occurs for a
penetration less than 12.5 mm.
5. Detach the mould from the loading equipment. Take about 20 to 50 g of soil from the
top 3 cm layer and determine the moisture content.

Definition of CBR

It is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with standard circular
piston at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. to that required for the corresponding penetration of a
standard material.

C.B.R. = Test load/Standard load 100

The following table gives the standard loads adopted for different penetrations for the
standard material with a C.B.R. value of 100%

Penetration Values Vs Std Load

Penetration of plunger (mm) Standard load (kg)
2.5 1370

5.0 2055

7.5 2630

10.0 3180

12.5 3600

The test may be performed on undisturbed specimens and on remoulded specimens which
may be compacted either statically or dynamically.
Nomenclature used for CBR Tests

For convenience , the various CBR tests conducted under unsoaked and soaked conditions
using the test variables in various percentages have been named according to the the
representations given below :-
1. The letter “U” and “S” in this represents the Unsoaked and Soaked conditons respectively
2. The letter „FA” and “CCR” represents Fly Ash and Calcium Carbide Residue respectively.
3. Numerals have been used in the notation after the letters FA or CCR representing their
percentages used for any particular CBR Test.

Considering example - An unsoaked CBR test consisting of soil with 5% Fly Ash and 10%
Calcium Carbide Residue by weight of soil would be represented as U-FA5CCR10 and a
soaked test on 5% Fly Ash and 5 % CCR is represented as S-FA5C5 .
It is to be noted that the CBR test conducted on virgin soil with 0% Fly Ash and 0% CCR is
represented as FA0CCR0.
The table of the above nomenclature is given in the table.
Table Notations for Unsoaked CBR Tests
Sl no % of Fly Ash % of Calcium Notation
Carbide Residue
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Notations for Soaked CBR Tests

Sl No % of Fly Ash % of Calcium Notation
Carbide Residue
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Test Variables

The variables are those parameters whose value change with respect to time .
For different tests , we have taken the following material as variables
i) Calcium Carbide Residue
ii) Fly Ash
Both these variables vary as 5 , 10 % by weight of the soil .

Test Parameter

This project revolves around finding out the CBR value for unsoaked and soaked conditions

Loading Frame

The frame consists of a loading machine with a capacity of 5000 kg and is equipped with a
movable base and head with a plunger of 50 mm diameter to penetrate through the soil sample
at the rate of 1.25 mm/minute

The loading frame consists of CBR apparatus given below

CBR Apparatus
 RESULTS &
DISCUSSION
The results as per the objective has been estimated as per the CBR tests by varying the variables i.e.
Fly Ash and Calcium Carbide Residue as per the description given .

CBR Tests Results

1. Virgin Soil with X % F l y A s h and X% Calcium Carbide Residue (0,0)
2. FA(5%) and CCR(0%).
3. FA(0%) and CCR(5%)
4. FA(5%) and CCR(5%)
5. FA(10%) and CCR(5%)
6. FA(5%) and CCR(10%)
7. FA(10%) and CCR(10%)

The Load vs Penetration Graph of the different proportion of mixed soil of each individual is to be drawn.
. This corresponding CBR values is given value:-
Unsoaked Soaked

CBR at 2.5 mm = CBR at 2.5 mm =

CBR at 5 mm= CBR at 5 mm=

Comparision of Results
1. Comparision of CBR Values in unsoaked Condition
2. comparision of CBR Value in Soaked Condition
Summary of Results
Under both the circumstances unsoaked and soaked as well and with all the proportions of
Fly Ash and Calcium Carbide, a table has been prepared which compares the values of
various CBR tests . Table is depicted below :-

Fly Ash Calcium Test Unsoaked CBR Soaked CBR

Carbide Notation
At 2.5 At 5 At At 5
mm mm 2.5 mm
mm

Summary of Results
CONCLUSION
 FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK

Soil Stabilization is being widely used for improving the engineering properties of the soil
used under road construction . Our work in stabilizing of the Clayey soil using Calcium
Carbide Residue and Fly Ash has brought out the same. This also call for a check for
application of repeated static as well as cyclic loading on the subgrade confirming its real
world viability for the construction industry.

During the period of heavy rainfall, the inability of the water to seep through the stabilized
subgrade may damage the road pavement. Therefore, this calls for a check of the seepage
through the prepared sample under large scale.
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