Received: 6 November 2017 Revised: 4 January 2018 Accepted: 24 January 2018

DOI: 10.1002/fam.2515

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Heat release rate determination of pool fire at different

pressure conditions
Qiuju Ma1 | Jiachen Chen2 | Hui Zhang3

1
College of Resources and Safety Engineering,
China University of Mining and Technology Summary
Beijing, Beijing 100083, China This research deals with the experimental determination of the heat release rate (HRR) of
2
China Zhongyuan Engineering Corporation, n‐heptane pool fire at different pressure conditions based on oxygen consumption method.
Beijing 100191, China The method, initially developed for open atmosphere fires, is modified for pool fires in ventilated
3
Institute of Public Safety Research, Tsinghua chamber under different pressure conditions. The calculation equation of the HRR with consider-
University, Beijing 100084, China
ation of ambient pressure is presented. The experiments are performed in the large‐scale venti-
Correspondence
lated altitude chamber of size 2 × 3 × 4.65 m under series of pressure, 24, 38, 64, and 75 to
Hui Zhang, Institute of Public Safety Research,
Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China. 90 kPa. Based on the experimental data, the effects of pressure on the mass burning rate and
Email: zhhui@tsinghua.edu.cn HRR are discussed; meanwhile, the calculation method of HRR is verified. The results show that
the mean mass burning rate at the steady burning stage increases exponentially with pressure as
Funding information _ α , with α = 0.68. The maximum HRR increases from 27 to 63 kW as the pressure rises from
m∼P
National Key R&D Program of China, Grant/
24 to 90 kPa. It is concluded that the ambient pressure has a significant effect on the fire HRR
Award Number: 2017YFC0803300; National
Science Foundation of China, Grant/Award and will further influence on other fire parameters.
Numbers: 91646201 and U1633203;
Tsinghua‐Boeing Joint Research Center KEY W ORDS
Program; Civil Aviation Administration of
China, Grant/Award Number: ambient pressure, heat release rate, mass burning rate, oxygen consumption, pool fire
MHRD20160103

1 | I N T RO D U CT I O N The HRR is a critical parameter in fire hazard assessment. It can

characterize the burning behavior of a fire load in fire hazard analysis.
The fire environment in high‐altitude locations or aircraft is character- The experimental determination of fire HRR remains a key issue in
ized with high altitude, low pressure, and thin oxygen. The low pres- fire science. In 1917, Thornton1 found that for a large number of
sure will significantly influence the fire burning rate and heat release organic liquids and gases, the released energy is almost the same
rate (HRR), which are key parameters to evaluate fire hazard. Under- per unit mass of oxygen consumed. And then, Huggett2 confirmed
standing the dependency relationship between the fire behavior and that the energy released in combustion of per unit mass of oxygen
the pressure is one of the most important fundamentals for fire sup- is 13.1 MJ/kg ± 5%. A common method to measure HRR is devel-
pression and protection design of commercial air transport. oped by measuring how much oxygen is consumed in the combus-
tion,3-5 which is known as oxygen consumption method. Later,
Babrauskas6 successfully developed the first cone calorimeter based
−1
Nomenclature: m, _ mass burning rate (kg s ); P, ambient pressure (Pa); D, on the oxygen consumption method, which can be used to research
diameter of the fuel pan (m); Α, cross‐sectional area of exhaust duct (m2); kt, HRR and smoke components. The oxygen consumption method is
ratio of the average mass flow per unit area to mass flow per unit area in the
widely applied2,7 with the development of accurate oxygen analyzer.
center of the exhaust duct; kρ, Reynolds number correction for the
bidirectional probe; Re, Reynolds number; ΔP, pressure difference measured by Equations for calculating the HRR by oxygen consumption method
the bidirectional probe (Pa); ρ0, air density at 0°C and 0.1 MPa (kg m−3); T0, were reviewed, modified, and applied under many testing condi-
temperature under standard condition (K); Ts, temperature in the exhaust duct
tions,8-13 but the application was limited at sea level with the ambi-
(K); P0, pressure under standard condition (Pa); Ps, pressure in the exhaust duct
(Pa); ρs, exhaust gas density (kg m−3); ρsO2 , oxygen density in the exhaust duct ent pressure of 1.01 bar, not properly used in some lower pressure
(kg m−3); ρ0O2 , oxygen density at standard condition (kg m−3); E0, heat release conditions. However, there are so many fire accidents at high pla-
per unit mass of oxygen consumed (MJ/kg); μ, expansion factor; Ф, oxygen
teaus all over the world and the high altitude has lower ambient pres-
depletion factor; x0O2 , initial fraction of oxygen analyzer reading; xO2 , testing
fraction of oxygen analyzer reading; x0CO2 , initial v of dioxide analyzer reading; sure. So the effect of pressure should be considered in the
_ heat release rate (kW)
xCO2 , testing fraction of dioxide analyzer reading; Q, calculation of HRR.

Fire and Materials. 2018;1–7. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/fam Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1
2 MA ET AL.

The mass burning rate of burning combustibles is also an impor- inlet supplying rate and the air outlet rate (vacuum system), meanwhile,
tant parameters in fire hazard assessment. The mass burning intensity enough fresh air required for combustion is simultaneously replenished
is determined by the convective and radiative heat feedback to the through the inlet air supplying system.
fuel, and the convective part is the major contributor to fuel evapora-
tion.14-16 At high plateau, the Wieser et al17 first conducted the EN54
fire tests in a mobile test platform at 4 different altitudes (420, 1000, 2.2 | Analysis section of the exhaust duct
1800, and 3030 m) and the experimental results indicated that the The exhaust duct, which is located at the upper part of the chamber for
mass burning rate increased with the pressure P approximately as collecting the combustion products, is designed in such a way that all
~P1.3. It is furthermore demonstrated that the burning rate depended of the combustion products leaving the fire room through the top of
on both ambient pressure P and fuel pool size D18 and can be summa- the hood during a test are collected. Figure 2 presents the straight
_ Pα . The power exponent factor α was dem-
rized as a formal relation me exhaust duct of exhaust duct and the analysis section. The exhaust
D

onstrated varying with the flame heat feedback on fuel surface from duct is 5 m long with a diameter of 40 cm. The analysis section, 1 m

the flame. 19,20

In present work, we also take concerns about the long, is fixed at the downstream of the straight exhaust duct and has

effects of pressure on the mass burning rate. At the same time, the the same diameter as the exhaust duct.

HRR of n‐heptane pool fire can be theoretically equated to the product The gas analyzer collects the flue gas from the analysis section of

of the fuel mass burning rate and its combustion enthalpy. The calcu- the exhaust duct by a gas‐sampling probe to analyze the gas compo-

lation of HRR based on mass burning rate can be a good way to verify nent. The flow velocity and volume flow rate can be obtained from

the calculation method based on oxygen consumption. the analysis section of the duct.

This research aims to develop a calculation method of HRR based

on oxygen consumption method with consideration of the pressure
2.3 | Experimental setup
effect and investigate the effect of ambient pressure on the burning
rate and HRR of n‐heptane pool fire. Pool fire tests under different The experimental setup for measurement of HRR and mass loss rate in
pressures (24, 38, 64, and 75 to 90 kPa) were performed in a large‐ the liquid pool fire test is shown in Figure 3. The fire source is posi-
scale ventilated altitude chamber. tioned in the center of the chamber. The fuel is a hydrocarbon, n‐hep-
tane with chemical formula of C7H16, which is liquid at room
temperature and pressure. The varying parameters are the pressures
inside the chamber (24, 38, 64, 75 and 90 kPa), and they are all have
2 | EXPERIMENTAL PLATFORM AND FIRE
some degree of air vacuum.
T E S TS
A steel fuel pan of 34 cm in diameter and 15 cm in height is used.
The fuel pan is positioned 0.15 m above the ground in the center of the
2.1 | Experiment apparatus device. The fuel pan is placed on the top of an AMPT418 high‐accu-
A ventilated altitude chamber with dimensions (3 × 2 × 4.65 m3) was racy electronic scale with the precision of 0.1 g, which is placed on a
applied in this work. A schematic diagram of the chamber is shown in platform welded by angle steels. Weight loss rate and burning rate
Figure 1. An inlet air supplying system and a vacuum pump along with are calculated based on the weight loss measured from this electronic
a controlling system are used to obtain the required experimental pres- scale. The sampling rate of the electronic scale is 1 Hz. A 20‐cm‐diam-
sure. Previous chambers in the open literatures are not able to control eter round stool with 4 feet and a 60 × 60 cm insulation board is placed
oxygen level. The results are therefore not the same as the experi- between the pan and scale to protect the scale.
ments in an open environment. In this chamber, the pressure inside Cold water is added beneath the fuel to cool the pan and minimize
the chamber is maintained via controlling the ratio between the air the temperature rise in the fuel. The sample gas collected from the

(A) Schematic view of the facility (B) Picture of the chamber

FIGURE 1 Ventilated altitude chamber. A, Schematic view of the facility. B, Picture of the chamber [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
MA ET AL. 3

Analysis Section Exhaust Duct

FIGURE 2 Analysis section of the exhaust duct [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

exhaust duct is analyzed in the gas analysis rack. The measured param- center of the exhaust duct, which can be calibrated by propane gas
eters include mass, burning rate, chamber pressure, and concentration combustion; and kρ is the Reynolds number correction for the bidirec-
of gas components. At each pressure, at least 3 fire tests were carried tional probe suggested by McCaffrey and Heskestad.21 In the exhaust
out. duct, Re is usually larger than 3800; hence, kρ can be taken as constant
and equal to 1.08; ΔP is the pressure difference measured by the bidi-
rectional probe; ρ0 is the air density at 0°C and 0.1 MPa; T0 = 273.15 K;
3 | C A LC U L A TI O N O F HR R
Ts is the temperature in the exhaust duct; P0 = 0.1 MPa; Ps is the pres-
sure in the exhaust duct; ρs is the exhaust gas density at the exhaust
The method of oxygen consumption is based on that a constant
duct, ρs = ρ0PsT0/(P0Ts).
amount of energy is released per unit mass of oxygen consumed for
The rate of heat release from the combustible can be calculated
most gases, liquids, and solids, ie, E0 = 13.02 ± 5% (MJ/kg).
from the equation
In the exhaust duct, the gas volume flow can be calculated by the
following equation.
_ ¼ ρs VE0 x0 Φ
Q ; (2)
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
O2 O2
Φðμ‐1Þ þ 1
Akt 2ΔP Akt 2ΔPP0 T s
V¼ ¼ ; (1)
kρ ρs kρ ρ0 Ps T 0 where ρsO2 is the oxygen density at atmospheric temperature and pres-
Ps T 0
where A is the cross‐sectional area of exhaust duct; kt is the ratio of sure; ρsO2 ¼ ρ0O2 with ρ0O2 as the oxygen density at 0°C and
P0 T s
the average mass flow per unit area to mass flow per unit area in the 0.1 MPa; E0 is the heat release per unit mass of oxygen consumed,
E0 = 13.02 MJ/kg; x0O2 is the ambient mole fraction of oxygen; μ is
the expansion factor due to chemical reaction of the air with the value
of 1.105; and Ф is the oxygen depletion factor, given by

 
x0O2 ð1−xCO2 Þ−xO2 1−x0CO2
Φ¼ ; (3)
x0O2 ð1‐xCO2 ‐xO2 Þ

where x0O2 and xO2 are the initial and testing values of oxygen analyzer
reading and x0CO2 and xCO2 are the initial and testing values of dioxide
analyzer reading.
Therefore, the rate of HRR can be expressed as

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
_ 0 Ps T 0 Ak t 2ΔPP0 T s Φ
Q ¼ ρO2 E0 x0O2 (4)
P0 T s k ρ ρ0 Ps T 0 Φðα‐1Þ þ 1
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
0 Ak t 2ΔPs Ps T 0 Φ
¼ ρO2 E0 x0O2
kρ ρ0 P0 T s Φðα‐1Þ þ 1
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffisffiffiffiffiffi
Akt ΔPs Ps Φ
¼ 29:3 E0 x0O2 :
kρ T s P0 Φðα‐1Þ þ 1

In conclusion, HRR can be calculated from Equation 4 as long as

FIGURE 3 The schematic diagram of the test setup for liquid pool fire the exhaust gas temperature, pressure differential, and the concentra-
tests [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] tion of the gas components all can be obtained from the fire tests.
4 MA ET AL.

Note that under the low‐pressure environment, an pressure affection

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
factor, Ps =P0 , should be added into the HRR calculation formula
compared with the HRR calculation under normal pressure.

4 | P R E S S U RE B A LA N C E I N T H E C H A M B ER

Figure 4 shows the pressure‐time history curves for cases under pres-
sure of 24, 38, 64, 75, and 90 kPa controlled in the chamber. It is
observed that the pressure is stable enough to meet the test require-
ment. During the pressure controlling, the air inlet rate can be fixed,
and air outlet valve, which is connected to the vacuum pump, will
change all the time based on the pressure feedback to maintain the
required pressure level. Therefore, there are obvious fluctuations at
FIGURE 5 Comparison of mass history under 5 different fixed
the beginning and end section of the curve, which is caused by the
pressures [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
ignition and flame extinction, respectively. At the flame extinguish
moment, there is a rapid decrease in the temperature, which will result
in the momentary pressure drop. Immediately, based on the pressure
feedback, the pressure control system will regulate the air outlet valve
opening to maintain the pressure at the required level.

5 | E F F E C T S OF P R E S S U R E O N M A S S
B U R NI NG R A TE

Low‐pressure environment will change the physical and chemical char-

acteristics of materials and will also affect the chemical reaction bal-
ance during combustion. Fire behavior parameters, such as flame
height, temperature, turbulent convection, and thermal radiation, will
all directly affect the heat feedback from flame to fuel surface, thus
affecting the burning rate. Previous study demonstrated that burning
intensity is mainly determined by heat transfer from flame to fuel sur- FIGURE 6 Comparison of burning rate under 5 different fixed
face through conduction, convection, and radiation. 19,22,23 pressures [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

Figures 5 and 6 show the comparison of mass loss curves and

burning rate curves under fixed pressures of 24, 38, 64, 75, and rate maintains a stable value platform until all n‐heptane fuel is con-
90 kPa. The burning rate in Figure 5 is obtained through derivation sumed. Figure 5 shows that the combustion process can be divided
to the weight curve of the fuel for the entire burning time. It is into 3 stages: ignition stage (shown as solid lines), steady burning stage
observed that after the ignition, the fuel begins losing weight rapidly, (shown as symbols), and extinguish stage (shown as dash‐dot lines).
and the burning rate rises to a relatively high value. Then the burning The period during which the burning rate is constant (steady burning
stage) can be regarded as a period during which the fires are in a com-
parable state. Such periods occur shortly after ignition as well as at the
moment when combustion reaches its peak. Because of the cold water
added under the fuel, boiling combustion, which is universally reported
in previous study, does not occur for all cases in current experiments.
Therefore, the burning rate in steady burning stage maintains stable
for a long time without a sudden rise until extinguish.
The burning rate will maintain almost constant for about 950, 800,
580, 450, and 350 seconds, respectively, for the fixed pressure of 24,
38, 64, 75, and 90 kPa, and it then slowly goes down.
The mean burning time increases from about 450 seconds to
approximately 1100 seconds with the pressure descending from 90
to 24 kPa. Since the total weight of n‐heptane for all cases are almost
same, the high pressure results in high burning rate and short burning
time. Burning time for 90 kPa case is the shortest, which reaches
FIGURE 4 The pressure in the chamber for different pressure cases approximately 450 seconds, while burning time for 24 kPa case is the
[Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] longest, which reaches to approximately 1000 seconds. It can be
MA ET AL. 5

observed that the peak of the burning rate descends from 1.60 to
0.7 g/s with the pressure descending from 90 to 24 kPa.
For steady burning stage, the stable combustion intensity, ie,
burning rate per unit area, is a good description of pool fire com-
bustion. The time average of the mass burning rate per unit area
at steady burning stage for the 5 pressures can be used as a com-
parable quantity, which are shown in double logarithmic coordinate
in Figure 7. The deviation of the 3 repeat test is indicated by the
error bar, in which the data can be exactly fitted with a linear func-
tion. It is indicated that the mean mass burning rate increases expo-
_ α . The slope of this linear fitting
nentially with pressure as meP
equation is 0.68. The exponent factor α = 0.68. This result is consis-
tent with previous results that mass burning rate varies with pres-
sure as _ Pα .17 The value of α depends on the competitive
m∼
D FIGURE 8 Heat release rate (HRR)‐time curves at different pressures
mechanism of heat transfer: heat transfer domination stages corre- [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
spond to the value of α.24 For conduction‐dominated combustion,
α < 0; for convection‐dominated combustion, 0 < α < 2/3; for radi-
Figure 9 illustrates the time average of the HRR at the steady
ation‐dominated combustion, 1 < α < 2.19 In current pool fire test,
burning stage (stage II in Figure 8) for all the cases. The deviation of
α = 0.68 indicates that the heat feedback of burning process for
the 3 repeat test is indicated by the error bar. The maximum average
all cases is convectively dominated.
HRR appears in the case at 90 kPa, which reaches to 63 kW, while
the minimum average HRR is in the case at 24 kPa, which reaches to
27 kW. The maximum HRR increases as the pressure rises from 24
6 | HEAT RELEASE RATE (HRR) to 90 kPa (there is a positive correlation between HRR and the
pressure).
To calculate HRR from Equation 4, a set of experimental data were To verify the calculation method of HRR based on oxygen method,
taken out, including carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxygen, exhaust the HRR results were compared with the product of the mass burning
gas temperature, and pressure differential, all which are real‐time data rate and the combustion enthalpy (48.07 kJ/g) of n‐heptane (see
throughout the whole fire tests. Figure 10). Curves of HRR show a similar trend with curves of the
Figure 8 presents the HRR‐time histories calculated from Equa- product of mass burning rate and combustion enthalpy under each
tion 4 under pressures of 24, 38, 64, 75, and 90 kPa and the compar- pressure, which indicates that the HRR obtained by the oxygen
ison of them. It should be noted that the sharp descent of HRR at the method with consideration of pressure described previously is advis-
end of the curve is due to that the fuel is burned out. From Figure 8, it able. Additionally, it also demonstrated that the HRR is largely affected
can be observed that the HRR increases quickly after the ignition, and by the mass burning rate. At the high‐altitude plateau, low pressure
then come into a stable stage at about 300 seconds, which is previ- makes the flame burn more moderate, and at the sea level, flame burns
ously named steady burning stage. When the fuel burns out, HRR more vigorously. Note that HRR curves have a time delay as compared
curves decline to 0. with the burning rate curves, which is because the time interval from
the moment exhaust gas is produced to the moment gas sample
collected.

FIGURE 7 The mass burning rate per unit area in steady burning stage
for different chamber pressure [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com] FIGURE 9 Average heat release rate (HRR) at different pressures
6 MA ET AL.

FIGURE 10 Comparison of heat release rate (HRR) and the product of mass burning rate and combustion enthalpy [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]

7 | C O N CL U S I O N ORCID
Qiuju Ma http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4309-1304
An equation on calculating HRR based on the oxygen consumption
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