Buddhism
The term Buddha is not a proper name but a title which means “the enlightened one” or “the
awakened one.” This means anyone can be a Buddha or be given the title Buddha, if one is able
to attain enlightenment. And since Buddhism teaches that enlightenment is something that an
ordinary human, with proper training, discipline, and attitude, can attain, becoming a Buddha is
not exclusive to one or a few individuals. In the history of Buddhism, there are in fact several
who have attained enlightenment or Buddhahood.
But when one speaks of “the Buddha” (in contrast to “a Buddha”), one refers to the historical
Buddha who is recognized as the founder of Buddhism as a world religion. There may have
been Buddhas previous to this historical Buddha but it was through him that the teachings of
Buddhism were expressed, handed down to later generations, and later on written. This
historical Buddha refers to Gautama Buddha, whose pre-enlightenment name was Siddhartha
Gautama. Siddhartha Gautama achieved enlightenment when he was 35 years old. From then
on, he has been called Gautama Buddha. Because Gautama belonged to the Shakya clan, some
of his followers, especially the Chinese, also call him “Shakyamuni,” which means “the sage of
Shakyas.”
Buddhist Sacred Text
The word “Tripitaka” means “three baskets,” signifying the way in which these teachings were
originally written down and stored—they were written down on long, narrow leaves, which
were sewn together on one side and were grouped into bunches and stored in baskets.
The first is the Discipline Basket (Vinaya Pitaka), whose contents were recalled by a monk
named Upali. It deals with the rules and guidelines for monks and nuns. These rules and
guidelines concern everything involved in living the monastic life of the sangha—from basic
morality, interaction between monks and nuns and between monks and nuns and the laity, to
robe-making.
The second is the Discourse Basket or the Sayings Basket (Sutta Pitaka). It consists of records of
the teachings and sermons mostly of the Buddha on theological matters and moral behavior of
all Buddhists. Some of these teachings and sermons are attributed to Buddha’s disciples.
The third is the Special Teachings Basket (Abhidhamma Pitaka. It is a collection of short texts
consisting of songs and poetry, stories of Buddha and his previous lives, and discussions of
Buddhist doctrines based on the everyday life of the Buddha.
The Three Jewels of Buddhism
The Three Jewels of Buddhism refer to the three essential or fundamental components of
Buddhism which are the three foundational structures of Buddhism. Buddhism will not stand if
any of them is absent. These Three Jewels are the (1) Buddha, (2) Dharma, and (3) Sangha
(Molloy2010,131-32).
The Buddha, having achieved enlightenment in his lifetime, represents the ideal human being
whose life all Buddhists strive to emulate. What the Buddha represents—enlightenment—is
the main goal of Buddhism. Dharma (in Sanskrit) or Dhamma (in Pali) is the sum totals of
Buddhist teachings about how to view the world, lives properly and ultimately achieve
enlightenment. In other words, Dharma represents the path toward achieving the goal of
Buddhism, which is enlightenment.
Sangha, on the other hand, is the community of Buddhist monks and nuns. These monks and
nuns preserve the Dharma and teach them to the laymen. In sum, Buddhism exists because it
has a goal, offers a path toward achieving that goal, and has a community of devoted disciples
that preserve and share the teachings concerning that goal and path.
The Three Marks of Existence
The Three Marks of Existence (or the Three Marks of Reality) refer to the Buddhist concept of
the three fundamental characteristics or traits of existence; namely: (1) impermanence (Annica
in Pali; Anitya in Sanskrit); (2) no-self (or not-self) (Anatta in Pali; Anatma in Sanskrit); and (3)
suffering or unsatisfactoriness (Dukkha in Pali; Duhkha in Sanskrit) (Molloy 2010, 132-33). The
realization of these three marks of existence was part of what the Buddha had come to know
after much meditation and his achievement of enlightenment.
Impermanence. According to this mark of existence, anything that exists is subject to change.
There is nothing permanent in the world; nothing remains the same. What presently exists will
later on cease to exist. That there is something that does not change and eternal is an illusion.
This fundamental Buddhist view of reality has many important consequences. This Buddhist
view apparently also comes into conflict with the belief in God, for God is regarded as a being
whose divine nature and existence are not subject to change. (This, among other things, like the
Buddhist view that the belief in God is not necessary to achieve nirvana, is one reason why
Buddhism is regarded as an atheistic religion.)
No-Self. The concept of self or I is what explains the personal identity of a human individual. It
refers to what makes the person the same person throughout the changes that he/she
undergoes in his/her lifetime. The usual explanation for what makes personal identity possible
is the individual’s possession of an enduring and independent self or I, corresponding to what is
traditionally called “soul.” The no-self teaching applies to all things, not just to humans. Things
have no essences or enduring selves (or natures) that explain their respective identities (which
in turn differentiate them from one another). They are simply collections of various elements
overlapping and connected in certain ways, and these collections are what explain their
identities.
Suffering. The word suffering is just a convenient translation of dukkha, a word that
corresponds to what a number of English terms convey like unsatisfactoriness, disquietude,
pain, dissatisfaction, and stress. Suffering is a universal characteristic of all things in so far as all
things, being impermanent and empty of essence, can be conditions for suffering. The
experience of suffering, however, is a trait only of sentient or conscious beings, which include
humans and animals. The impermanence of things does not cause suffering; what causes
suffering in a sentient being, say a human, is the attitude he/she adopts towards
impermanence, which in turn is brought about by his/her ignorance. If one is ignorant of the
impermanence of things, one may easily get attached to these things in the sense that he/ she
may desire or crave for these things to last. He/she eventually suffers for things do not really
last. It is therefore the attitude of craving in the context of the reality
SAMSARA, KARMA, AND NIRVANA
Samsara and Karma. The Buddhist concepts of samsara and karma have basically the same
meaning as those of the Hindus. Samsara, or rebirth, to recall, refers to the continuous cycle of
birth, life, and death. When one is born, one lives, dies, is reborn, lives again, dies again, is
reborn again, and so on. Karma (which literally means “action”) refers to the moral law of cause
and effect governing one’s actions within one’s present lifetime and across lifetimes. A bad
deed will result in undesirable consequences, while a good deed will result in desirable
consequences. Karma also determines the quality of life one will have in the next life, say
whether one will be reborn as an animal or a human.
Nirvana. Nirvana is freedom or liberation from samsara and suffering. One who enters into this
state will no longer be reborn. When we add the concept of nirvana to the three marks of
existence (impermanence, no-self, and suffering), the result is what Buddhists call the Four
Dharma Seals.
Nirvana is not the same as enlightenment; nirvana is the state one enters into after achieving
enlightenment. This explains why it is possible to be enlightened already and still not be in the
state of nirvana (this is the case of the boddhisattvas, those who have already attained
enlightenment but decided to postpone their entry into the state of nirvana in order to help
others achieve enlightenment—a teaching traditionally identified with the Mahayana branch of
Buddhism which we shall discuss in the next section). When one becomes fully aware of the
true nature of things and acts accordingly (as specified in the Four Dharma Seals, Four Noble
Truths, and Law of Dependent Origination), one achieves enlightenment (“bodhi”), after which
one may enter into the state of nirvana.
The Four Noble Truths
1. Suffering exists. The first noble truth is that suffering exists. Eliminating suffering in one’s life
begins with recognizing its reality. Suffering can be physical, emotional, and mental. Physical
suffering includes the physical pain brought about by old age, sickness, and death (the first
three of the Four Passing Sights of the Buddha). Emotional suffering includes those brought
about by failure and separation from and loss of loved ones. Mental suffering includes those
brought about by ignorance, worry, and misunderstanding.
2. Suffering arises from craving/desire. Desires create emptiness within oneself, in that in
desiring for something, one creates a lack that one needs to fill up. Thus the more your desires
are, the greater is the lack that you need to fill up in your life. Furthermore, desires create
further desires. Fulfilling a desire will just lead one to more and greater desires, and it goes on
and on. In the end, we are never satisfied; we are always in the state of dissatisfaction. Craving
may also come in the form of being attached to desirable things. When we get attached to an
enjoyable experience or to a person whom we love, we want the experience and the
relationship to last. This craving is bound to fail for experiences and relationships, as well as
ourselves and our loved ones, are not permanent.
3. Eliminating craving eliminates suffering. If craving is the cause of suffering, then the
termination of suffering requires termination of craving. One, however, cannot just stop making
desires by no longer making desires. It would be impossible to live without having any desire.
To totally refrain from making desires is to put an end to one’s life. This means that we need to
qualify or determine which desires result in suffering and thus need to be eliminated.
Accordingly, the desires that cause suffering are those made out of ignorance (ignorance about
the fact that the objects of desire are impermanent) and the attitude of attachment (with the
objects of desire). In short, the desires that need to be eliminated are the ignorant and attached
desires. These desires are actually interrelated: when we are not mindful of the impermanent
nature of the things that we desire, we get attached to them. In contrast, what we should
cultivate are the enlightened and detached desires.
4. The way to eliminate craving and consequently suffering is by following the eightfold path.
We noted that to eliminate suffering, we need to eliminate the ignorant and attached kind of
desires and cultivate the enlightened and detached kind of desires in our lives. Now how do we
cultivate the right kind of desires? The Buddha provides us with the following eightfold path as
an answer:
a. Right understanding—understanding of the true nature of things, specifically,
knowledge of the three marks of existence, the four dharma seals, and the four noble
truths.
b. Right intention/thought—cultivating thoughts and motives that are pure and not
selfish.
c. Right speech—speaking honestly and kindly; avoiding lies, exaggeration, harsh words,
and expressions that hurt people.
d. Right action—doing actions that do not hurt people and animals, which include not
stealing and engaging in sexual misconduct.
e. Right work/livelihood—pursuing a means of livelihood that does no harm to oneself,
other people, and animals.
f. Right effort—improving oneself while avoiding extremes or observing moderation or the
middle way.
g. Right meditation (right mindfulness)—focusing one’s energies on the right and positive
things.
h. Right contemplation—cultivating mental states or thoughts that bring inner peace.
All the steps above are interdependent and are divided into three groups of training: (1) the
way of morality or good conduct (consisting of right speech, right action, and right work); ( 2)
the way of mental development (consisting of right effort, right mindfulness, and right
concentration); and (3) the way of wisdom (consisting of right understanding and right
intention).
Some Buddhist Practices
The Five Precepts. The basic code of ethics for lay followers of Buddhism is called the Five
Precepts, which are training rules whereby one commits oneself to abstain from five kinds of
action, namely, (1) killing and harming living beings, (2) stealing, (3) engaging in sexual
misconduct, (4) lying, and (5) drinking alcohol. The first precept cultivates the virtue of ahimsa
or nonviolence. In some Buddhist traditions, those who wish to practice Buddhism more strictly
follow eight precepts instead of just five. The additional three are avoiding the following
actions: (6) eating at the wrong time; (7) singing, dancing, playing music, attending
entertainment performances, wearing perfume, and using cosmetics and garlands (decorative
accessories); and (8) using luxurious places for sitting or sleeping, and oversleeping. There are,
however, novice monks and nuns in Buddhism who commit themselves to ten precepts which
divide the seventh precept into two and add another one. The additional actions that must be
avoided are (7) singing, dancing, playing music, and attending entertainment performance, (8)
wearing perfume, cosmetics and garlands; (9) using luxurious places for sitting or sleeping, and
oversleeping; and (10) accepting money (Matthews 2010, 109-110).
Meditation and Chanting. Through meditation, one primarily trains the mind to control its own
thoughts. The practice of meditation is central to most Buddhist traditions for its important role
in achieving enlightenment. Chanting is also one way of training the mind by repetitiously
uttering the Dharma or Buddha’s teachings.
Bowing, Lighting Incense, and Altar Offerings. Buddhists show respect to a statue of the
Buddha or a boddhisattva by putting their palms together and bowing (or prostrating) in front
of the statue three times. Lighting incense is another way of showing respect to the Buddha. It
is also done as part of the offerings to the Buddha when asking for his blessings. Altar offerings
at temples, in the form of flowers, fresh fruits, and small vegetarian dishes, are a form of
thanksgiving for Buddha’s teachings and blessings received from the Buddha or a boddhisattva.
