CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter present series of literature related to this study. This

literature review gave the researchers ideas and concepts to their study to

widen their understanding and enrich this knowledge with accordance to this

study.

Kindergarten teachers

A kindergarten teacher works with young children ages four through six,

promoting students academic, physical, and social development. They instruct

students by using enthusiastic and hands-on teaching methods and tools,

including games, music, art, books, and computers.

Kindergarten

Is a preschool education approach based on playing, singing, practical

activities such as drawing, and social interaction as part of the transition from

home to school. Such institutions were originally made in the late 18 th century

in Germany, Bevara and Alsace to serve children whose parents both worked

outside home. The term was coined by German peda gogue friendrish Frobel,

whose approach globally influenced early-years education. Today, the term is

used in many countries to describe a variety of educational institution and

learning spaces for children ranging from 2 to 6 years of age, based on a

variety of teaching mettods.

The classroom teacher has a variety of roles and responsibilities that

change according to the students he or she instructs. Teaching the kindergarten

level encompasses a broad spectrum of choices with respect to delivery

strategies and hands-on activities that enhance instruction. In this next section,

the teacher’s roles include individualizing and differentiating instruction,

selecting age-appropriate teaching strategies, and acting as the facilitator of

learning.

Individualized Instruction

According to Dunn and Dunn (1972), a student contract “should be a

part of every dynamic educational program,” and as a powerful teaching tool it

should stimulate individualized learning (p. 31). They also stated that

“individualized instruction is the one-on-one relationship between a student

and what he learns” (Dunn & Dunn, 1975, p. 5). This instructional tool gave

the students more opportunities to be actively involved in the educational

process, and it enabled the teacher to offer a variety of learning opportunities

for the mixed-ability students. The learning opportunities changed with the

types of assignments, the availability of resources for hands-on activities,

enrichment activities, and review activities for reinforcing curriculum

concepts.

Differentiating Instruction
 The challenge for the primary school teacher is to differentiate or to

adapt instruction to respond to the diverse student needs found in inclusive,

mixed-ability classrooms (Tomlinson, 1995c). A differentiated classroom

offers a variety of learning options designed to tap into different readiness

levels, interests, and learning profiles. According to Tomlinson (1995c), 18

“Teachers utilize (a) a variety of ways for students to explore curriculum

content, (b) a variety of sense-making activities or processes through which

students can come to understand and ‘own’ information and ideas, and (c) a

variety of options through which students can demonstrate or exhibit what they

have learned” (p. 1).

The teacher uses four strategies to shape teaching and learning in an

effective, differentiated classroom (Tomlinson, 1995a): (1) “Instruction is

concept focused and principle driven.” All students come to understand the

key principles. Such instruction enables struggling learners to grasp and use

powerful ideas and at the same time, encourages advanced learners to expand

their understanding and application of the key concepts and principles. This

type of instruction stresses understanding rather than retention of fragmented

bits of information. (2) “On-going assessment of student readiness and growth

are built into the curriculum.” Teachers do not assume that all students need

the same segment of study, but continuously assess student interest and

provide assistance when needed. (3) “Flexible grouping is consistently used.”

It encourages students to work in many patterns, whether in-groups or

individually, or as one large group. (4) “Students are active explorers,” and

“teachers guide the exploration.” (p. 1) In the differentiated classroom the

teacher works as a guide or facilitator of learning. Students learn to be

students’ learning contract is one of many strategies that offers the foundation

necessary for the learners to assume the responsibility for their individual

learning journey.

According to Tomlinson (1995b), there must be a reason to differentiate

instruction. To be successful, the teacher must draw on classroom management

and routines, prepare both students and parents for a differentiated approach to

learning, and work with other faculty members to coordinate a team approach

to learning. These considerations move the students toward student-centered

learning, or self-directed learning, and help prepare them as they start their

journey as life-long learners.

Strategies for Learning Teachers plan strategies to differentiate instruction to

help students find a good learning plan. The following list of strategies help:

“(a) multiple texts and supplementary materials; (b) computer programs; (c)

interest centers; (d) compacting; (e) tiered sense-making activities and tiered

products; (f) tasks and products designed with a multiple intelligence

orientation; (g) independent learning contracts; (h) complex group

investigation; (i) product criteria negotiated jointly by students and teachers;

(j) graduated task and product rubrics; and (k) learning contracts” (Tomlinson,

1995c, p. 2). At the University of Connecticut, Joe Renzulli developed

curriculum compacting as a strategy to help advanced learners maximize their

time for learning. The process contains three stages. In stage 1, the teacher

identifies the students and assesses their knowledge about a particular topic.

With stage 2, the teacher notes those concepts that the students did not show

mastery, and he or she develops a plan for the students to learn those concepts.
In stage 3, the students and teacher design a project that the students can work

on while the other students work with general studies. According to Tomlinson

(1995a) “advanced learners gain little by continuing to relearn the known, but

they gain much from the expectation that they will continually engage in

challenging and productive learning in school. Compacting helps eliminate the

former and facilitate the latter” (p. 49).

Tiered lessons are a way of “taking the same concepts and essential

understanding of a lesson and adapting them to the various ability levels,

interests, and learning profiles of students” (C. A. Tomlinson, personal

communication, September 8, 2000). Both of these strategies, compacting and

tiered-sense-making activities, while new to me as the teacher-researcher,

could be used within the guidelines of a learning contract in the future.

Thompson and Poppen (1972) stated that learning contracts allow the

teacher to initiate a number of learning strategies. These learning strategies

focus on the students as the individuals responsible for: “(a) making choices

about meeting learning objectives; (b) making commitments to complete

personal learning goals; (c) learning through independent learning activities;

(d) using learning styles to develop alternatives to learning; (e) working

cooperatively with peers; (f) sensing a freedom from threat of failure; (g)

identifying the area where the task is challenging; (h) finding the opportunity

for stimulating learning experiences; (i) completing course objectives; and (k)

connecting the learning process to real-life encounters” (p. 118). Thompson

and Poppen’s strategy list helped in planning activities for curriculum

development and concept mastery using a learning contract. These strategies

added more variety to instructional methods, and they allowed students to use
what they learned in the classroom and then apply it to real-life situations.

Students made choices about which additional activities they wanted to

complete, and they worked cooperatively with their classmates. There was a

sense of freedom from the threat of failure because the students worked

cooperatively within their teams as they completed course objectives. When

the students signed up for a grade, they identified personal learning goals. The

opportunities for stimulating learning experiences occurred with class

discussions, lab activities, modeling, computer lab exercises, and group

projects.

Facilitators of Learning

The traditional instructor accepts the responsibility for what and how

students learn. To achieve the goal of teaching students how to learn,

instructors should become facilitators of learning (Cristiano, 1993). “Knowing

how to learn is the most basic of all skills because it is the key that unlocks

future success. Individuals who know how to learn can more easily acquire

other skills. Without this essential skill however, one’s learning is not as rapid

or as comprehensive and long lasting” (Carnevale, Gainer, & Meltzer, 1990, p.

37). 21 Carl Rogers (1983) wrote about the role of the teacher as facilitator,

and he suggested that the instructor ask the following questions:

Malcolm Knowles (1986) summarized these feelings when he said:

Faculty members must change their psychic reward system from valuing

the extent to which the learners conform to their direction to valuing the extent

to which the learners take the initiative in directing their own learning.

Traditional teachers tend to get satisfaction from controlling the energy of

(p. 246)

Perhaps a better way of saying this is that “creative leadership is that form of

leadership that releases the creative energy of the people being led” (Knowles,

1990, p. 183). Malcolm Knowles (1990) in his transition from teacher to

facilitator of learning recalled: I saw my role shifting from content-transmitter

to process manager and only secondarily-content resources. …I found myself

performing a different set of functions that required a different set of skills.

Instead of performing the functions of content planner and transmitter, which

required primarily presentation skills, I was performing the function of process

designer and manager, which required relationship building, needs assessment,

involvement of students in planning, linking students to learning resources,

and encouraging student initiative. I have never been tempted since then to

revert to the role of teacher. (p. 181)

The Student’s Role in the Learning Process

“Much of the emphasis in individual differences research is on how

learning professionals should alter their learning facilitation and leadership to

make learning more meaningful to learners. A complementary response has

been an emphasis on helping learners expand their learning abilities through

‘learning-how-to-learn’ interventions.” (Knowles, et. al., 1998, p. 166). A

learning contract is just one of these interventions for the student learner.

Education needs to be an active rather than a passive process (Code,

1996). The students’ roles include participating in their own learning and

developing the skills of self-directed inquiry. The learning contracts allow

White and Greenwood (1992) explained, “the learning contract allows the

students to have a say in what and how they will learn” (p. 20). Student choice

is a democratic process for making assignments. The students assume more

responsibility for their learning plan when given choices. Learning contracts

empower the students as learners to be in control. They establish a climate in

the classroom that signals, “students are valued, respected, and capable of

assuming responsibility for a large portion of their learning” (p. 20). The

learning contract enabled students to identify their learning objectives within

the parameters of the course objectives and served as a means for students to

learn how to learn in their subject area (Cristiano, 1993).

Students and Diversity

Students’ development ranges from a strong dependence on the home

and family to peers as a source of standards and models of behavior. “Group

membership is a strong social need, and the student will go to great lengths to

acquire it and respond readily to what they see as peer pressure” (McKay,

1995, p. 20). The developmental stage ranges from limited thinking and

reasoning skills to formal abstract thinking. “The right and left-brain

development and growth periods lead to a wide range of academic ability

among these students” (McKay, 1995, p. 20).

Students and Ability Grouping

Johnston and Markle (1983) reported that although a majority of

teachers believe that ability grouping improves effectiveness, the practice has a
deleterious effect on teacher expectations and instructional practices,

especially for low-ability students. This affects students in the areas of

perceptions of self, of others, and of academic performance. Furthermore,

“ability grouping limits opportunities for students to learn from and accept

peers of different social and economic backgrounds. It may perpetuate the

notions of superior and inferior classes of persons” (McKay, 1995, p. 19).

Students and Learning Processes

According to Knowles (1986) a learning contract typically specifies five

major themes: (a) how the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values are to be

acquired by the learner (learning objectives); (b) how the learning objectives

are to be accomplished, (learning resources and strategies); (c) how to assign a

target date for their accomplishment; (d) how the evidence to be presented will

demonstrate that the objectives have been accomplished; and (e) how the

evidence will be judged, or validated, or how much credit will be awarded to

the learner, or what grade.With a learning contract, students use a variety of

assignments to achieve a final grade. However, in the situation where a class

uses a midterm and a final examination to arrive at a grade, a student’s grade is

based on a very narrow sampling of his performance capability (Newcomb &

Warmbrod, 1974). “But sampling behavior by testing in education is like

standing by a river with a cup, dipping into the stream as it moves by. In

assessing learning, like dipping the cup into the river, one seldom gets an

adequate sample” (Frymier, 1965, p. 235).

Allowing students which activities, they will engage in, and how they

will demonstrate that they have satisfactorily completed their studies permits a
teacher to seize upon powerful motivating forces within individual students.

These student-centered choices “shifts responsibility for learning from the

teacher to the student, but at the same time offers an incentive by insuring

success under known conditions. Students are challenged without being

threatened. Students are almost never dissatisfied with grades, whatever they

may be” (Frymier, 1965, p. 263-264).

Local studies

Proficiency in literacy is paramount during a child’s education. Lack of

proficiency can have lasting effects throughout a student’s academic

career. Interactions

preschool teachers have with students related to their language and

literacy development

can predict fourth grade vocabulary (Dickinson & Porche, 2011).

Additionally, Bingham

and Patton-Terry (2013) found the language and literacy gains children

make in
preschool, with specific instruction, are maintained through the end of

first grade. Early

literacy instruction can affect a student’s later success and is a high

priority at the

national, state, and local levels of education.

In this qualitative case study, kindergarten teachers’ experiences teaching

early

literacy to subgroups of students (i.e., ethnic minority and children who

qualify for

free/reduced meals) and reasons for below goal literacy status on school

district testing of

subgroups were investigated. In addition, a comprehensive understanding

of current
literacy-building instructional practices/strategies being used, and related

to, early

literacy skills to reduce the literacy gap for subgroups of students was also

investigated.

The research site for this investigation was a suburban Connecticut public

school district.

Since 2005, Connecticut’s achievement gap has always been greater than

the national

average in reading (National Assessment of Educational Progress [NAEP],

2013). This

gap in achievement has affected much of the population within the state,

local town, and the specific school identified in this study (NAEP,2013).

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Abstract

Teachers’ language practice during shared book reading may

significantly affect the rate and outcome of early language proficiency.

The current study has focused on 37 kindergarten teachers and 440 4- to

5-year-old kindergartners during their shared book reading sessions in

Singapore, exploring teachers’ variation in instructional strategies and

linguistic features, and its relations with children’s language development

and teacher’s background. Results demonstrated that teacher’s language

strategies and linguistic features varied considerably. Instructional

strategies with a medium level of cognitive load were found to be

positively related to children’s growth in receptive vocabulary and word

reading skills. Teacher’s lexical sophistication was found to be positively

associated with children’s vocabulary size. Years of teaching experience

was revealed to predict teacher’s variation in medium-level instructions.