Module 14

An Era of Social
Change
Essential Question
How are significant and lasting social changes created?

About the Photograph: Hippies gather In this module you will learn about how the Kennedy and Johnson
in El Rito, New Mexico, at a Fourth of July administrations pushed for social reforms from within the government.
parade in 1969. You will also learn how citizens banded together to create movements
that changed the social climate in the 1960s and 1970s.

What You Will Learn . . .

Explore ONLINE! Lesson 1: Kennedy and the New Frontier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
The Big Idea John F. Kennedy brought energy, initiative, and
VIDEOS, including... important new ideas to the presidency.
• Kennedy Elected Lesson 2: Johnson and the Great Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
• JFK: A New Generation The Big Idea The demand for reform helped create a new awareness
of social problems, especially on matters of civil rights and the effects
• Assassination of John F.
of poverty.
Kennedy
Lesson 3: Culture and Counterculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
• LBJ’s Management Style The Big Idea The ideals and lifestyle of the counterculture challenged
the traditional views of Americans.
Document-Based Investigations
Lesson 4: Environmental Activism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
Graphic Organizers The Big Idea During the 1960s and 1970s, Americans strengthened
their efforts to address the nation’s environmental problems.
Interactive Games
Carousel: Kennedy Style
Carousel: Pollution in the 1970s

674 Module 14
 Timeline of Events 1959–1980 Explore ONLINE!

United States Events World Events

1959

1960 John F. Kennedy

is elected president.

1961 Soviet cosmonaut Yuri

Gagarin becomes the first
human in outer space.
1962 Rachel Carson publishes Silent Spring.
1963 President Kennedy is assassinated;
Lyndon B. Johnson becomes president.

1964 Lyndon B. Johnson is elected president.

1964 Congress passes the Economic Opportunity Act

and Civil Rights Act.

1966 Indira Gandhi becomes

1967 Thurgood Marshall prime minister of India.
becomes the first African
American justice of the
Supreme Court.
1968 Richard M. Nixon is elected president.

1969 400,000 people attend the Woodstock

Music and Art Fair in upstate New York.

1970 America celebrates the

first Earth Day.

1972 The U.S. government 1972 Terrorists kill 11 Israeli athletes at

outlaws DDT. the XX Olympiad in Munich.

1973 Israel and Arab states fight the Yom Kippur War.

1975 Communists capture Saigon; South Vietnam surrenders.

1976 Jimmy Carter is elected president.

1978 Egyptian and Israeli leaders meet and sign

the Camp David Accords with President Carter.

1979 A nuclear power accident occurs at 1979 Iranian militants seize the U.S. embassy
Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania. in Tehran and hold 52 people hostage.

1980

An Era of Social Change 675

 Lesson 1

Kennedy and the New Frontier

One American’s Story

The Big Idea
John F. Kennedy became the 35th president of the United States on
John F. Kennedy brought energy,
a crisp and sparkling day in January 1961. Appearing without a coat
initiative, and important new
in freezing weather, he issued a challenge to the American people.
ideas to the presidency.
He said that the world was in “its hour of maximum danger,” as Cold
Why It Matters Now War tensions ran high. Rather than shrinking from the danger, the
Kennedy’s programs and propos- United States should confront the “iron tyranny” of communism.
als addressed important social
issues and laid groundwork
for reforms that would make “Let the word go forth from
America a more innovative and this time and place, to friend
progressive nation. and foe alike, that the torch
Key Terms and People has been passed to a new gen-
John F. Kennedy
eration of Americans, born in
this century, tempered by war,
New Frontier
disciplined by a hard and bit-
mandate
ter peace, proud of our ancient
Peace Corps heritage, and unwilling to wit-
Alliance for Progress ness or permit the slow undo-
Warren Commission ing of those human rights to
which this nation has always
been committed. . . .
After taking the oath of office,
President Kennedy delivers his
Let every nation know, wheth- inaugural address.
er it wishes us well or ill, that
we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship,
support any friend, oppose any . . . foe, in order to assure . . .
the survival and the success of liberty.”
John F. Kennedy, from his Inaugural Address, January 20, 1961

676 Module 14
 The Election of 1960
In 1960, as President Eisenhower’s second term drew to a close, a mood
of restlessness arose among voters. The economy was in a recession. The
USSR’s launch of Sputnik I in 1957 and its development of long-range mis-
siles had sparked fears that the American military was falling behind that
of the Soviets. Further setbacks including the U-2 incident and the align-
ment of Cuba with the Soviet Union had Americans questioning whether
the United States was losing the Cold War.
The Democratic nominee for president, Massachusetts senator John
Kennedy, promised active leadership “to get America moving again.” His
Republican opponent, Vice-President Richard M. Nixon, hoped to win by
riding on the coattails of Eisenhower’s popularity. Both candidates had
similar positions on policy issues. Two factors helped put Kennedy over the
top: television and the civil rights issue.
THE TELEVISED DEBATE AFFECTS VOTES Kennedy had a well-organized
campaign and the backing of his wealthy family. He was also handsome
Vocabulary and charismatic. Yet many felt that, at 43, he was too inexperienced. If
charismatic elected, he would be the second-youngest president in the nation’s history.
possessing personal
charm that attracts Americans also worried that having a Roman Catholic in the White
devoted followers House would lead either to influence of the pope on American policies or
to closer ties between church and state. Kennedy was able to allay worries
by discussing the issue openly.
One event in the fall determined the course of the election. This event
showed how the spread of mass media would impact politics for years to

John F. Kennedy (right) appeared confident and at ease during a televised debate with his
opponent, Richard M. Nixon.

An Era of Social Change 677

 come. Kennedy and Nixon took part in the first televised debate between
presidential candidates. On September 26, 1960, some 70 million TV view-
ers watched the two articulate and knowledgeable candidates debating
issues. Nixon, an expert on foreign policy, had agreed to the forum in hopes
of exposing Kennedy’s inexperience. However, Kennedy had been coached
by television producers. He looked and spoke better than Nixon. Kennedy
also had a tan from campaigning in Southern California and looked rested
and fit. According to some sources, Nixon was running a high fever the night
of the debate. He looked pale, ill, and tired in his gray suit. Radio listeners
thought Nixon narrowly won the debate, but those watching on television
gave Kennedy the edge.
Kennedy’s success in the debate launched a new era in American
politics: the television age. As journalist Russell Baker, who covered
the Nixon campaign, said, “That night, image replaced the printed
word as the natural language of politics.” Nixon and Kennedy’s debate
was the first of four televised debates between the candidates for
president. The debates brought the candidates into America’s living
room in a brand new way. The candidate could appeal directly to the
voters. Scenes of the candidates’ presentations could be repeated
indefinitely, adding to the public’s exposure to the candidates’ views.
As a result, television began to undercut the value of a party struc-
ture in drumming up support for a candidate. Running a political
campaign now demanded tapping into the power of television to gain
an advantage.
KENNEDY AND CIVIL RIGHTS A second major event of the campaign
took place in October. Police in Atlanta, Georgia, arrested the Rever-
end Martin Luther King Jr. and 33 other African American demon-
strators for sitting at a segregated lunch counter. Although the other
Kennedy campaign demonstrators were released, King was sentenced to months of hard labor.
poster, 1960
Officially his offense was a minor traffic violation. The Eisenhower adminis-
tration refused to intervene, and Nixon took no public position.
When Kennedy heard of the arrest and sentencing, he telephoned King’s
wife, Coretta Scott King, to express his sympathy. Meanwhile,
Reading Check Robert Kennedy, his brother and campaign manager, persuaded the judge
Analyze Effects who had sentenced King to release the civil rights leader on bail, pending
What effect do you appeal. News of the incident captured the immediate attention of the Afri-
think the televised
debate had on can American community. African American votes would help Kennedy
American politics? carry key states in the Midwest and South.

The Camelot Years

The election in November 1960 was the closest since 1884. Kennedy won
by fewer than 119,000 votes. His inauguration set the tone for a new era at
the White House: one of grace, elegance, and wit. On the podium sat over
100 writers, artists, and scientists that the Kennedys had invited. Included
was opera singer Marian Anderson, who had once been barred from singing
at Constitution Hall because she was African American. Kennedy’s inspir-
ing speech called for hope, commitment, and sacrifice. “And so, my fellow

678 Module 14
 Americans,” he proclaimed, “ask not what your country can do for you—
ask what you can do for your country.”
THE KENNEDY MYSTIQUE During his term, the president and his beau-
tiful young wife, Jacqueline, invited many artists and celebrities to the
White House. In addition, Kennedy often appeared on television. The press
loved his charm and wit and helped to bolster his image.
Critics of Kennedy’s presidency argued that his smooth style lacked
substance. But the new First Family fascinated the public. For example,
after learning that JFK could read 1,600 words a minute, thousands of
people enrolled in speed-reading courses. The First Lady, too, captivated
the nation with her eye for fashion and culture. It seemed the nation could
Background not get enough of the First Family. Newspapers and magazines filled their
The fictional King pages with pictures and stories about the president’s young daughter, Caro-
Arthur was based
on a real fifth- or
line, and his infant son, John.
sixth-century Celt.
In literature, Arthur’s THE BEST AND THE BRIGHTEST With JFK’s youthful glamour and his
romantic world is talented advisers, the Kennedy White House reminded many of a modern-
marked by chivalry day Camelot, the mythical court of King Arthur. Kennedy surrounded
and magic.
himself with a team that one journalist called “the best and the brightest.”
They included McGeorge Bundy, a Harvard University dean, as national
Reading Check security advisor; Robert McNamara, president of Ford Motor Company, as
Draw Conclusions secretary of defense; and Dean Rusk, president of the Rockefeller Founda-
What factors help tion, as secretary of state. Of all the advisers who comprised Kennedy’s
explain the public’s
fascination with the inner circle, he relied most heavily on his 35-year-old brother, Robert,
Kennedys? whom he appointed attorney general.

President and Mrs. Kennedy

enjoy time with their children,
Caroline and John Jr., while
vacationing in Hyannis Port,
Massachusetts.

An Era of Social Change 679

 The Promise of Progress
Kennedy had often promoted his plans for changing the nation in his cam-
paign speeches. Once in office, he set out to transform his broad vision of
progress into what he called the New Frontier. “We stand today on the edge
of a New Frontier,” Kennedy had announced upon accepting the nomina-
tion for president. He called on Americans to be “new pioneers” and explore
“uncharted areas of science and space, . . . unconquered pockets of ignorance
and prejudice, unanswered questions of poverty and surplus.”
EARLY CHALLENGES Kennedy had difficulty turning his vision into reality,
however. As part of his New Frontier plans, he offered Congress proposals to
provide medical care for the aged, rebuild blighted urban areas, and improve
education, but he couldn’t gather enough votes. The makeup of Congress
reflected the American public’s mood. Kennedy faced the same conservative
coalition that had blocked President Truman’s Fair Deal.
In his efforts to push his domestic reform measures through Congress,
Kennedy showed little skill. Since he had been elected by the slimmest
of margins, he lacked a popular mandate—a clear indication that voters
approved of his plans. As a result, he often tried to play it safe politically.
Nevertheless, Kennedy did persuade Congress to enact measures to boost
the economy, build the national defense, provide international aid, and fund
a massive space program. He also succeeded in making significant improve-
ments to education through measures such as increasing funding to school
libraries, allocating special funds to teach children with specialized needs,
and expanding opportunities for vocational training.
STIMULATING THE ECONOMY One domestic problem the Kennedy team
tackled was the economy. By 1960 America was in a recession. A recession
is, in a general sense, a moderate slowdown of the economy marked by
increased unemployment and reduced personal consumption. In 1961 the
nation’s jobless rate climbed from just under 6 percent to nearly 7 percent,
one of the highest levels since World War II. Personal consumption of sev-
eral major items declined that year. People worried about job security and, as
a result, spent less money.
During the campaign, Kennedy had criticized the Eisenhower administra-
tion for failing to stimulate growth. The American economy, he said, was
lagging behind those of other Western democracies and the Soviet Union.
Kennedy’s advisers pushed for the use of deficit spending, which had been
the basis for Roosevelt’s New Deal. They said that stimulating economic
growth depended on increased government spending and lower taxes, even
if it meant that the government spent more than it took in.
Accordingly, the proposals Kennedy sent to Congress in 1961 called for
increased spending. The Department of Defense received a nearly 20 percent
budget increase for new nuclear missiles and nuclear submarines, as well as
for an expansion of the armed services. Congress also approved a package
that increased the minimum wage to $1.25 an hour, extended unemploy-
ment insurance, and provided assistance to cities with high unemployment.

680 Module 14
 ADDRESSING POVERTY ABROAD One of the first
campaign promises Kennedy fulfilled was the creation
of the Peace Corps. It was a program of volunteer
assistance to the developing nations of Asia, Africa, and
Latin America. Critics in the United States called the
program “Kennedy’s Kiddie Korps” because many vol-
unteers were just out of college. Some foreign observers
questioned whether Americans could understand other
cultures.
Despite these reservations, the Peace Corps became a
huge success. It succeeded in its goal of increasing good-
will toward the United States throughout the world.
People of all ages and backgrounds signed up to work
as agricultural advisers, teachers, or health aides or to
do whatever work the host country needed. By 1968
more than 35,000 volunteers had served in 60 nations
around the world.
Today, the mission of the organization remains the
A Peace Corps volunteer gives a ride to a Nigerian girl.
same: to promote world peace and friendship. However,
the role of the Peace Corps has evolved along with the changing world.
Volunteers now bring along cutting-edge technology to tackle the mod-
ern challenges facing the countries they serve. Many volunteers serve as
teachers and health workers, but there is now a wider variety of volunteer
opportunities to address a broader span of global issues, such as gender
equality and climate change. In 2014 policy changes allowed volunteers to
choose specific countries and missions for the first time, causing a surge in
applications.
A second foreign aid program, the Alliance for Progress, offered eco-
nomic and technical assistance to Latin American countries. Between 1961
and 1969, the United States invested almost $12 billion in Latin America,
in part to deter these countries from picking up Fidel Castro’s revolution-
ary ideas. While the money brought some development to the region, it
didn’t bring fundamental reforms.
CONFRONTING DOMESTIC PROBLEMS Although progress was being
made internationally, many Americans suffered at home. Poverty contin-
ued to be a serious issue. The number of poor shocked many Americans. A
number of Americans also faced racial discrimination and segregation.
Gradually, the fight against segregation took hold. Throughout the
South, demonstrators raised their voices in what would become some of
the most controversial civil rights battles of the 1960s. Kennedy had not
pushed aggressively for legislation on the issues of poverty and civil rights,
although he effected changes by executive action. For example, Kennedy’s
administration introduced affirmative action policies to place more Afri-
can Americans in federal jobs and banned discriminatory hiring practices
by government contractors. However, now he felt that it was time to take
further actions to live up to his campaign promises.

An Era of Social Change 681

 In 1963 Kennedy began to focus more closely on the issues at home. He
called for a “national assault on the causes of poverty.” He also confronted
discrimination, ordering Robert Kennedy’s Justice Department to inves-
tigate racial injustices in the South. Finally, he presented Congress with a
Reading Check sweeping civil rights bill and a proposal to cut taxes by over $10 billion.
Make Inferences
In what directions did
President Kennedy
Tragedy in Dallas
seem to be taking In the fall of 1963, public opinion polls showed that Kennedy was losing
his administration popularity because of his advocacy of civil rights. Yet most Americans
in 1963?
still supported their beloved president. No one could foresee the terrible
national tragedy just ahead.
FOUR DAYS IN NOVEMBER On the sunny morning of November 22,
1963, Air Force One, the presidential aircraft, landed in Dallas, Texas. Presi-
dent and Mrs. Kennedy had come to Texas to mend political fences with
members of the state’s Democratic Party. Kennedy had expected a cool
reception from the conservative state. Instead, he basked in warm waves
of applause from crowds that lined the streets of downtown Dallas.
Jacqueline and her husband sat in the back seat of an open­-air limou-
sine. In front of them sat Texas governor John Connally and his wife,
Nellie. As the car approached a state building known as the Texas School
Book Depository, Nellie Connally turned to Kennedy and said, “You can’t
say that Dallas isn’t friendly to you today.” A few
seconds later, rifle shots rang out, and Kennedy
was shot in the head. His car raced to a nearby
hospital, where doctors frantically tried to
revive him, but it was too late. President Ken-
nedy was dead.
As the tragic news spread through America’s
schools, offices, and homes, people reacted with
disbelief. Questions were on everyone’s lips: Who
had killed the president, and why? What would
happen next?
During the next four days, television became
“the window of the world.” A photograph of a
somber Lyndon Johnson taking the oath of office
aboard the presidential airplane was broadcast.
Soon, audiences watched as Dallas police charged
Lee Harvey Oswald with the murder. His palm
print had been found on the rifle used to kill
John F. Kennedy.
The 24-year-old ex-Marine had a suspicious
past. After receiving a dishonorable discharge,
Oswald had briefly lived in the Soviet Union,
and he supported Castro. On Sunday, Novem-
John Kennedy Jr. salutes his father’s casket as it is prepared for the
trip to Arlington National Cemetery. His uncles Edward Kennedy
ber 24, millions watched live television cov-
and Attorney General Robert Kennedy, his mother, and his sister erage of Oswald being transferred from the
look on.

682 Module 14
 Dallas Police Department to the county jail. Then Jack Ruby, a Dallas
nightclub owner with ties to organized crime, broke through the crowd
and shot and killed Oswald.
The next day, all work stopped for Kennedy’s funeral as America
mourned its fallen leader. The assassination and televised funeral became
a historic event. Americans who were alive then can still recall what they
were doing when they first heard about the shooting of their president.
UNANSWERED QUESTIONS The bizarre chain of events made some
Vocabulary people wonder if Oswald was part of a conspiracy. In 1963 the Warren
conspiracy an Commission investigated and concluded that Oswald had shot the presi-
agreement by two or
more persons to take dent while acting on his own. Later, in 1979, a reinvestigation concluded
illegal political action that Oswald was part of a conspiracy. Investigators also said that two per-
sons may have fired at the president. Numerous other people have made
investigations. Their explanations have ranged from a plot by anti-Castro
Cubans, to a Communist-sponsored attack, to a conspiracy by the CIA.
What Americans did learn from the Kennedy assassination was that
their system of government is remarkably sturdy. A crisis that would have
crippled a dictatorship did not prevent a smooth transition to the presi-
dency of Lyndon Johnson. Some worried that the assassination would
have a negative impact on the progress being made on civil rights legisla-
tion, but Johnson vowed to continue the work that Kennedy had begun.
In a speech to Congress, Johnson expressed his hope that “from the
brutal loss of our leader we will derive not weakness but strength.” Right
Reading Check away, he began to push for the passage of the civil rights legislation that
Contrast How had been stalled in Congress. Johnson wanted to do more than follow
did the Warren
in Kennedy’s footsteps, however. He had ambitious plans of his own. As
Commission’s findings
differ from other president, Johnson would be a strong leader, using his considerable politi-
theories? cal talents to achieve greater legislative success than Kennedy.

Lesson 1 Assessment
1. Organize Information Use a web diagram to list the 3. Evaluate Do you think President Kennedy was a
programs of the New Frontier. successful leader and successful civil rights advocate?
Explain your viewpoint.
Think About:
• the reasons for his popularity
• the goals he expressed
The New Frontier • his foreign policy
• his legislative record
4. Make Inferences Why do you think Kennedy lost
popularity for supporting civil rights?
5. Draw Conclusions Why did the fate of President
Which do you think was most successful? Why? Kennedy affect people so deeply?
2. Key Terms and People For each term or person in the
lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance.

An Era of Social Change 683

GEOGRAPHY SPOTLIGHT

The Movement of Migrant Workers

The nation’s 2 million farm workers are responsible for harvesting much of the
fruit and vegetables that families eat each day. Most fieldworkers on United States
farms remain in one place most of the year. Others are migrant workers, who
move with their entire family from one region to the next as the growing ­seasons
change. Nationally, migrant workers make up some 50 percent of hired farm
­workers, depending on the season and other factors.
As the map shows, there were three major streams of migrant worker move-
ments in the 1960s: the Pacific Coast, the Midwest, and the Atlantic Coast
streams. While these paths may have changed slightly since then, the movement of
migrant workers into nearly every region of the nation continues today.

THE PACIFIC COAST

The Pacific Coast region’s
moderate climate allows for
year-round harvesting. Most
of California’s migrant farm
workers work on large fruit
farms for much of the year.
About 65,000 workers make
their way up to Washington
each year to pick cherries,
apples, and other crops.

THE MIDWEST
Workers along the Midwest and
East Coast streams, where crops
are smaller, must keep moving
in order to find work. These
workers picking strawberries
in Michigan will soon move on.
For example, one family may
travel to Ohio for the tomato
harvest and then return to
Michigan to pick apples before
heading back to Texas for the
winter months.

684 Module 14
 GEOGRAPHY SPOTLIGHT

WASHINGTON E
W
MAINE
S
MONTANA NORTH
DAKOTA MINNESOTA VERMONT
N.H.
OREGON
IDAHO NEW MASS.
SOUTH WISCONSIN YORK
DAKOTA
MICHIGAN R.I.
WYOMING
CONN.
PENNSYLVANIA
IOWA N.J.
NEVADA NEBRASKA
INDIANA OHIO DELAWARE
UTAH ILLINOIS WEST MARYLAND
COLORADO VIRGINIA
VIRGINIA
KANSAS
CALIFORNIA KENTUCKY
MISSOURI NORTH
CAROLINA
ARIZONA TENNESSEE
OKLAHOMA SOUTH
NEW ARKANSAS CAROLINA
MEXICO GEORGIA
MISS.
ALABAMA
LA.
Pacific Coast paths TEXAS FLORIDA
Midwest paths
Atlantic Coast paths
Year-round work
0 250 500 mi
Migrant base areas
0 250 500 km

The map shows the three major streams of

migrant worker movements in the 1960s.

HMH— High School U.S. History—2016

HS_SNLESE454194_574M
Movement of migrant Workers
Vital Information Area (per page): 49p wide x 32p6 deep
Mask Area (per page): 55p wide x 38p6 deep
First proof 03/11/16
Critical Thinking
1. Analyze Patterns Retrace the move-
ment of migrant workers in the three
THE ATLANTIC COAST regions. Why do you think migrant work-
While some workers along the Atlantic Coast stream ers have to keep moving?
remain in Florida, others travel as far north as New 2. Create a Database Pose a historical
Hampshire and New York, like the workers shown question about the relationship between
here harvesting onions. There, they work from March
crops and planting seasons. For example,
through September. Due to the winters, migrant
what types of crops are harvested in
workers in most of the Midwest and Atlantic regions
Michigan during the fall? Then research
can find work for only six months out of the year.
and create a database that answers this
and other such questions.

An Era of Social Change 685

 Lesson 2

Johnson and the Great Society

One American’s Story

The Big Idea
In 1966 family finances forced Larry Alfred to drop out of high school
The demand for reform helped
in Mobile, Alabama. He turned to the Job Corps, a federal program
create a new awareness of social
that trained young people from poor backgrounds. He learned to
problems, especially on matters
of civil rights and the effects of operate construction equipment, but his dream was to help people.
poverty. On the advice of his Job Corps counselor, he joined VISTA (Volun-
teers in Service to America). VISTA was often called the “domestic
Why It Matters Now
Peace Corps.”
Reforms made in the 1960s
have had a lasting effect on
Both the Job Corps and VISTA sprang into being in 1964, when Presi-
the American justice system
by increasing the rights of dent Lyndon Baines Johnson signed the Economic Opportunity Act.
minorities. This law was the main offensive of Johnson’s “war on poverty” and a
cornerstone of the Great Society.
Key Terms and People
Lyndon Baines Johnson
VISTA assigned Alfred to work with a community of poor farm labor-
Economic Opportunity Act ers in Robstown, Texas, near the Mexican border. There he found a
Great Society number of children with mental and physical disabilities who had
Medicare no special assistance, education, or training. So he established the
Medicaid Robstown Association
Immigration Act of 1965 for Retarded People. He
Warren Court started a parents educa-
reapportionment
tion program, sought
state funds, and created
a rehabilitation center.
At age 20, Larry Alfred
was a high school drop-
out, Job Corps graduate,
VISTA volunteer, and, in
Robstown, an authority
on people with disabili-
ties. Alfred embodied
Johnson’s Great Society
in two ways. Its pro-
grams helped him turn
his life around, and he
made a difference in
VISTA volunteers worked in a variety of capacities.
This woman is teaching art to young pupils. people’s lives.

686 Module 14
 LBJ’s Path to Power
By the time Lyndon B. Johnson, or LBJ, as he was called, succeeded to the
presidency, his ambition and drive had become legendary. In explaining his
frenetic energy, Johnson once remarked, “That’s the way I’ve been all my
life. My daddy used to wake me up at dawn and shake my leg and say, ‘Lyn-
don, every boy in town’s got an hour’s head start on you.’”
FROM THE TEXAS HILLS TO CAPITOL HILL A fourth-generation Texan,
Johnson grew up in the dry Texas Hill Country of Blanco County. The John-
sons never knew great wealth, but they also never missed a meal.
LBJ entered politics in 1937 when he won a special election to fill a vacant
seat in the U.S. House of Representatives. Johnson styled himself as a “New
Dealer” and spokesperson for the small ranchers and struggling farmers of
his district. He caught the eye of President Franklin Roosevelt, who took
Johnson under his wing. Roosevelt helped him secure key committee assign-
ments in Congress and steer much-needed electrification and water projects
to his Texas district. Johnson, in turn, idolized FDR and imitated his leader-
ship style.
Once in the House, Johnson eagerly eyed a seat in the Senate. In 1948,
after an exhausting, bitterly fought campaign, he won the Democratic pri-
mary election for the Senate by a margin of only 87 votes out of 988,000.
A MASTER POLITICIAN Johnson proved himself a master of party poli-
tics and behind-the-scenes maneuvering. After just one term as a senator,
he rose to the position of Senate majority leader in 1955. People called his
legendary ability to win over reporters and persuade senators to support his
bills the “LBJ treatment.”
Johnson’s deft handling of Congress led to the passage of the Civil Rights
Act of 1957. This act was a voting rights measure—the first civil rights legis-
lation since Reconstruction. By 1960 Johnson had more influence in Wash-
ington, DC, than any other Democrat. His knack for achieving legislative
results had captured John F. Kennedy’s attention, too, during Kennedy’s run

BIOGRAPHY

Lyndon B. Johnson (1908–1973) became the state director of the National Youth
Administration, a New Deal agency.
LBJ received his teaching
degree from Southwest Texas
As president, Johnson pushed hard for the passage
State Teachers College in 1930.
of the Elementary and Secondary Education
To finance his own education,
Act. In 1965 he signed the act at the one-room
Johnson took a year off from
schoolhouse near Stonewall, Texas, where his own
college to work at a Mexican
education had begun. Johnson later wrote,
American school in Cotulla,
Texas. He later taught public
speaking and debate at the “My education had begun with what I learned
Sam Houston High School in that schoolroom. Now what I had learned and
in Houston. At age 26 he experienced since that time had brought me back
to fulfill a dream.”

An Era of Social Change 687

 for the White House. To Kennedy, Johnson’s congressional connections and
Reading Check his Southern Protestant background compensated for his own drawbacks as
Analyze Motives a candidate. He asked Johnson to be his running mate. Johnson’s presence
Why did Kennedy
choose Johnson to be on the ticket helped Kennedy win key states in the South, especially Texas,
his running mate? which went Democratic by just a few thousand votes.

Johnson’s Domestic Agenda

In the wake of Kennedy’s assassination, President Johnson addressed a joint
session of Congress. It was the fifth day of his administration. “All I have I
would have given gladly not to be standing here today,” he began. Kennedy
had inspired Americans to begin to solve national and world problems. John-
son urged Congress to pass the civil rights and tax-cut bills that Kennedy had
sent to Capitol Hill. He asserted that the passage of these bills would be the
best way to honor the memory of the fallen president.
CONTINUING KENNEDY’S PROGRAMS In February 1964 Congress passed a
tax reduction of over $10 billion into law. As the Democrats had hoped, the
tax cut spurred economic growth. People spent more, which meant profits
for businesses. This in turn increased tax revenues and lowered the federal
budget deficit from $6 billion in 1964 to $4 billion in 1966.
Then in July, Johnson pushed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 through Con-
gress. He persuaded southern senators to stop blocking its passage. It pro-
hibited discrimination based on race, religion, national origin, and sex and
granted the federal government new powers to enforce its provisions.
THE WAR ON POVERTY Following these successes, LBJ pressed on with his
own agenda—to alleviate poverty. Early in 1964 he had declared “uncon-
ditional war on poverty in America.” He proposed sweeping legislation
designed to help Americans “on the outskirts of hope.”
In August 1964 Congress enacted the Economic Opportunity Act (EOA).
They approved nearly $1 billion for youth programs, antipoverty measures,
small-business loans, and job training. The EOA legislation created
• the Job Corps Youth Training Program,
• VISTA (Volunteers in Service to America),
• Head Start, an education program for underprivileged preschoolers, and
• the Community Action Program, which encouraged poor people to par-
ticipate in public-works programs.
THE 1964 ELECTION In 1964 the Republicans nominated conservative
senator Barry Goldwater to oppose Johnson. Goldwater believed the
federal government had no business trying to right social and economic
wrongs such as poverty and discrimination. He attacked such long-
An LBJ campaign button
established federal programs as Social Security, which he wanted to make
voluntary. He also attacked the Tennessee Valley Authority, which he
wanted to sell.
In 1964 most American people were in tune with Johnson. They believed
that government could and should help solve the nation’s problems. Moreover,
Goldwater had frightened many Americans by suggesting that he might use

688 Module 14
 nuclear weapons on Cuba and North Vietnam. Johnson’s campaign capital-
ized on this fear. It produced a chilling television commercial in which a
picture of a little girl counting the petals on a daisy dissolved into a mush-
room cloud created by an atomic bomb. Goldwater advocated intervention
in Vietnam. Johnson assured the American people that sending U.S. troops
there “would offer no solution at all to the real problem of Vietnam.”
LBJ won the election by a landslide. He won 61 percent of the popular
Reading Check
Identify Problems vote and 486 electoral votes, while Senator Goldwater won only 52. The
What problems in Democrats also increased their majority in Congress. For the first time since
American society 1938, a Democratic president did not need the votes of conservative South-
did the Economic
Opportunity Act seek ern Democrats in order to get laws passed. Now Johnson could launch his
to address? reform program in earnest.

Building the Great Society

In May 1964 Johnson had summed up his vision for America in a phrase:
the Great Society. In a speech at the University of Michigan, Johnson out-
lined a legislative program that would end poverty and racial injustice. But,
he told an enthusiastic crowd, that was “just the beginning.”
A PLAN FOR CHANGE Like his idol FDR, LBJ wanted to change America.
And like the New Deal, the policies of the Great Society would expand exist-
ing programs and create new government programs designed to improve
social welfare. The New Deal addressed the greatest needs of the Great
Depression—relief for the needy, economic recovery, and financial reform.
The policies and programs of the Great Society also strove to address the
ongoing problem of poverty and the related needs of health care, educa-
tion, and housing for low-income families and the elderly. It also addressed

Document-Based Investigation Historical Source

The Great Society Speech

Speaking at the University of Michigan, President Johnson told an enthusiastic crowd that he envisioned
a legislative program that would create not only a higher standard of living and equal opportunity but
also promote a richer quality of life for all.

“The Great Society is a place where every child can find knowledge to enrich his mind and to enlarge
his talents. It is a place where leisure is a welcome chance to build and reflect, not a feared cause of
boredom and restlessness. It is a place where the city of man serves not only the needs of the body and
the demands of commerce but the desire for beauty and the hunger for community. It is a place where
man can renew contact with nature. It is a place which honors creation for its own sake and for what
it adds to the understanding of the race.”
—Lyndon B. Johnson, from “The Great Society,” May 22, 1964

Analyze Historical Sources

How did President Johnson use language to inspire Americans to share his vision?

An Era of Social Change 689

 These preschoolers in a Head Start classroom are among the millions of Americans whose daily lives have been affected by
Great Society programs.

other social issues of the 1960s, including civil rights, immigration reform,
environmental concerns, and protection for consumers. By the time Johnson
left the White House in 1969, Congress had passed 206 of his measures. The
president personally led the battle to get most of them passed.

NOW & THEN EDUCATION During 1965 and 1966, the LBJ administra-
tion introduced a flurry of bills to Congress. Johnson con-
Medicare on the Line sidered education “the key which can unlock the door to
When President Johnson signed the Great Society.” The Elementary and Secondary Educa-
the Medicare bill in 1965, only half tion Act of 1965 provided more than $1 billion in federal
of the nation’s elderly had health aid. It helped public and parochial schools purchase text-
insurance. Today, thanks largely to books and new library materials. This was the first major
Medicare, nearly all persons 65 years federal aid package for education in the nation’s history.
or older have medical coverage.
HEALTH CARE LBJ and Congress changed Social Secu-
Over the years, federal spending rity by establishing Medicare and Medicaid. Medicare
on Medicare has steadily increased. provided hospital insurance and low-cost medical insur-
Today it accounts for about 12 ance for almost every American age 65 or older. Medicaid
percent of all federal outlays. Experts extended health insurance to welfare recipients.
have debated whether Medicare
can be sustained as people live HOUSING Congress also made several important
longer, health care costs increase, decisions that shifted the nation’s political power
and the baby boomer generation from rural to urban areas. These decisions included
reaches retirement age. Though appropriating money to build some 240,000 units of
most Americans are not in favor of
low-rent public housing and help low- and moderate-
cutbacks to Medicare, efforts have
been made in the last few years to income families pay for better private housing. It
cut the growth in spending.

690 Module 14
 included urban renewal and slum rebuilding for select cities and establishing
the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). It also included
naming Robert Weaver, the first African American cabinet member in Ameri-
can history, as Secretary of HUD.
IMMIGRATION The Great Society also brought profound changes to the
nation’s immigration laws. The Immigration Act of 1924 and the National
Origins Act of 1924 had established immigration quotas. These quotas
discriminated strongly against people from outside Western Europe. The
act set a quota of about 150,000 people annually. It discriminated against
southern and eastern Europeans and barred Asians completely. Ending the
quotas based on nationality, the Immigration Act of 1965 opened the door
for many non-European immigrants to settle in the United States. This led
to a sharp increase in immigration from Asia, Africa, and Latin America. The
new immigrants brought their languages, cultures, and traditions with them,
slowly and permanently changing the demographic makeup of the United
States. The increase in immigration since 1965 has been a constant topic of
political debate in the United States, leading to subsequent reform laws in
the 1980s and 1990s. The greatest amount of political concern during those
decades was focused on illegal immigration, which many felt was encouraged
by lax policies.
THE ENVIRONMENT In 1962, Silent Spring, a book by Rachel Carson, had
exposed a hidden danger: the effects of pesticides on the environment. Car-
son’s book and the public’s outcry resulted in the Water Quality Act of 1965,
which required states to clean up rivers. Johnson also ordered the govern-
ment to search out the worst chemical polluters. “There is no excuse . . . for
chemical companies and oil refineries using our major rivers as pipelines
for toxic wastes.” Such words and actions helped trigger the environmental
movement in the United States.
CONSUMER PROTECTION Consumer advocates also made headway. They
convinced Congress to pass major safety laws, including a truth-in-packaging
law that set standards for labeling consumer goods. Ralph Nader, a young
lawyer, wrote a book, Unsafe at Any Speed. Nader’s book sharply criticized the
Reading Check
Analyze Effects U.S. automobile industry for ignoring safety concerns. His testimony helped
How did the persuade Congress to establish safety standards for automobiles and tires.
Immigration Act of Precautions extended to food, too. Congress passed the Wholesome Meat Act
1965 change the
nation’s immigration of 1967. “Americans can feel a little safer now in their homes, on the road, at
system? the supermarket, and in the department store,” said Johnson.

Reforms of the Warren Court

The wave of liberal reform that characterized the Great Society also swept
through the Supreme Court of the 1960s. Beginning with the 1954 landmark
decision Brown v. Board of Education, which ruled school segregation uncon-
stitutional, the Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren took an activist stance
on the leading issues of the day.

An Era of Social Change 691

 Great Society Programs, 1964–1967
POVERTY

1964 Tax Reduction Act cut corporate and individual 1965 Medicare Act established Medicare and
taxes to stimulate growth. Medicaid programs.
1964 Economic Opportunity Act created Job Corps, 1965 Appalachian Regional Development Act
VISTA, Head Start, and other programs to fight targeted aid for highways, health centers, and
the “war on poverty.” resource development in that economically
depressed area.

CITIES

1965 
Omnibus Housing Act provided money for 1966 
Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Area
low-income housing. Redevelopment Act funded slum rebuilding,
1965 
Department of Housing and Urban mass transit, and other improvements for
Development was formed to administer selected “model cities.”
federal housing programs.

EDUCATION

1965 
Elementary and Secondary Education Act 1965 
National Foundation on the Arts and the
directed money to schools for textbooks, Humanities was created to financially assist
library materials, and special education. painters, musicians, actors, and other artists.
1965 
Higher Education Act funded scholarships and 1967 
Corporation for Public Broadcasting was
low-interest loans for college students. formed to fund educational TV and radio
broadcasting.

DISCRIMINATION

1964 
Civil Rights Act outlawed discrimination in 1965 
Voting Rights Act ended the practice of
public accommodations, housing, and jobs; requiring voters to pass literacy tests and
increased federal power to prosecute civil permitted the federal government to monitor
rights abuses. voter registration.
1964 
Twenty-Fourth Amendment abolished the 1965 
Immigration Act ended national-origins
poll tax in federal elections. quotas established in 1924.

ENVIRONMENT

1965 
Wilderness Preservation Act set aside over 9 1965 
Clean Air Act Amendment directed the federal
million acres for national forest lands. government to establish emission standards
1965 
Water Quality Act required states to clean up for new motor vehicles.
their rivers. 1967 
Air Quality Act set federal air pollution
guidelines and extended federal enforcement
power.

CONSUMER ADVOCACY

1966 
Truth in Packaging Act set standards for 1966 
Highway Safety Act required states to set up
labeling consumer products. highway safety programs.
1966 
National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act 1966 
Department of Transportation was created
set federal safety standards for the auto and to deal with national air, rail, and highway
tire industries. transportation.

Interpret Tables
What did the Great Society programs indicate about the federal government’s changing role?

692 Module 14
 Several major Court decisions in the 1960s affected American society. The
Warren Court banned prayer in public schools and declared state-required
loyalty oaths unconstitutional. It limited the power of communities to censor
books and films. It said that free speech included the wearing of black arm-
bands to school by antiwar students. Furthermore, the Court brought about
change in federal and state reapportionment and the criminal justice system.
CONGRESSIONAL REAPPORTIONMENT In a key series of decisions, the
Warren Court addressed the issue of reapportionment. Reapportionment
is the way in which states redraw election districts based on the changing
number of people in them. By 1960 about 80 percent of Americans lived in
cities and suburbs. However, many states had failed to change their congres-
Chief Justice Earl Warren sional districts to reflect this development. Instead, rural districts might
have fewer than 200,000 people, while some urban districts had more than
600,000. Thus, the voters in rural areas had more representation—and also
more power—than those in urban areas.
Baker v. Carr (1962) was the first of several decisions that established the
principle of “one person, one vote.” The Court asserted that the federal courts
had the right to tell states to reapportion—redivide—their districts for more
equal representation. In later decisions, the Court ruled that congressional
district boundaries should be redrawn so that districts would be equal in
population. In Reynolds v. Sims (1964), the Court extended the principle of
“one person, one vote” to state legislative districts. These decisions led to a
shift of political power throughout the nation from rural to urban areas.
RIGHTS OF THE ACCUSED Other Warren Court decisions greatly expanded
the rights of people accused of crimes. In Mapp v. Ohio (1961), the Court
ruled that evidence seized illegally could not be used in state courts. This
is called the exclusionary rule. In Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), the justices
required criminal courts to provide free legal counsel to those who could
not afford it. In Escobedo v. Illinois (1964), the justices ruled that an accused
person has a right to have a lawyer present during police questioning. In
1966 the Court went one step further in Miranda v. Arizona. It ruled that all
suspects must be read their rights before questioning. (See Historic Decisions
of the Supreme Court: Miranda v. Arizona.) In Katz v. United States (1967),
the Court established the constitutional “right to privacy.” It set parameters
around what constituted a legal search, stating that the Fourth Amendment
guarantees the right to privacy when a person has “reasonable expectation of
privacy.”
These rulings had a significant impact on the legal court system and
greatly divided public opinion. Liberals praised the decisions. They argued
that they placed necessary limits on police power and protected the right
of all citizens to a fair trial. Conservatives, however, bitterly criticized the
Reading Check Court. They claimed that Mapp and Miranda benefited criminal suspects and
Contrast What were severely limited the power of the police to investigate crimes. During the
the differing reactions late 1960s and 1970s, Republican candidates for office seized on the “crime
to the Warren Court
decisions on the rights issue.” They portrayed liberals and Democrats as being soft on crime and cit-
of the accused? ing the decisions of the Warren Court as major obstacles to fighting crime.

An Era of Social Change 693

 POINT COUNTERPOINT

“The Great Society succeeded in prompting “Failures of the Great Society prove that
far-reaching social change.” government-sponsored programs do not
work.”
Defenders of the Great Society contend that
it bettered the lives of millions of Americans. The major attack on the Great Society is
Historian John Morton Blum notes, “The Great that it created “big government”: an oversized
Society initiated policies that by 1985 had bureaucracy, too many regulations, waste and
profound consequences: Blacks now voted at fraud, and rising budget deficits. As journalist
about the same rate as whites, and nearly 6,000 David Alpern writes, this comes from the notion
blacks held public offices; almost every elderly that government could solve all the nation’s
citizen had medical insurance, and the aged were problems: “The Great Society created unwieldy
no poorer than Americans as a whole; a large new mechanisms like the Office of Economic
majority of small children attended preschool Opportunity and began ‘throwing dollars at
programs.” problems. . . .’ Spawned in the process were vast
Attorney Margaret Burnham argues that the new constituencies of government bureaucrats
civil rights gains alone justify the Great Society: and beneficiaries whose political clout made it
“For tens of thousands of human beings . . . giving difficult to kill programs off.”
promise of a better life was significant. . . . What Conservatives say the Great Society’s
the Great Society affirmed was the responsibility social welfare programs created a culture of
of the federal government to take measures dependency. Economist Paul Craig Roberts
necessary to bring into the social and economic argues that “The Great Society . . . reflected
mainstream any segment of the people [who had our lack of confidence in the institutions of
been] historically excluded.” a free society. We came to the view that it
is government spending and not business
innovation that creates jobs and that it is society’s
fault if anyone is poor.”

Critical Thinking
1. Connect to History What was the impact of the 2. Connect to Today Research the most pressing
Great Society programs? Do you think the Great problems in your own neighborhood or precinct.
Society was a success or a failure? Explain. Then propose a social program you think would
address at least one of those problems while
avoiding the pitfalls of the Great Society programs.

Impact of the Great Society

The Great Society and the Warren Court changed the United States.
People disagree on whether these changes left the nation better or worse.
However, most agree that no one president in the post–World War II era
extended the power and reach of the federal government more than Lyn-
don Johnson. The optimism of the Johnson presidency fueled an activist
era in all three branches of government, for at least the first few years.
The “war on poverty” did help. The number of poor people fell from 21
percent of the population in 1962 to 11 percent in 1973. However, many
of Johnson’s proposals, though well intended, were hastily conceived and
proved difficult to accomplish.

694 Module 14
 As this cartoon points out,
President Johnson had much to
deal with at home and abroad.
This autographed copy was
presented to President Johnson
by the cartoonist.

Johnson’s massive tax cut spurred the economy, but there were also
economic compromises. Funding the Great Society contributed to a grow-
ing budget deficit—a problem that continued for decades. The new pro-
grams also greatly expanded the size of the government. Questions about
government finances, as well as debates over the effectiveness of these
programs and the role of the federal government, left a number of people
disillusioned. Some members of Congress expressed concern over the rapid
pace of reform. They argued over whether the federal government should
play such a large role in matters of social welfare. A conservative backlash
began to take shape as a new group of Republican leaders rose to power. In
1966, for example, a conservative Hollywood actor named Ronald Reagan
swept to victory in the race for governor of California over the Democratic
incumbent.
Thousands of miles away, the increase of Communist forces in Vietnam
Reading Check also began to overshadow the goals of the Great Society. The fear of com-
Identify Problems munism was deeply rooted in the minds of Americans from the Cold War
What events and era. Four years after initiating the Great Society, Johnson, a peace candi-
problems may have
affected the success of date in 1964, would be labeled a “hawk”—a supporter of one of the most
the Great Society? divisive wars in recent U.S. history.

Lesson 2 Assessment
1. Organize Information List four or more Great Society 2. Key Terms and People For each term or person in the
programs and Warren Court rulings. lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance.
3. Evaluate Explain how Lyndon Johnson’s personal and
Great Society Warren Court
Programs Rulings political experiences might have influenced his actions
as president.
1. 1.
Think About:
2. 2.
• his family’s background and education
3. 3.
• his relationship with Franklin Roosevelt
4. 4.
• his powers of persuasion
Choose one item and describe its lasting effects. 4. Analyze Primary Sources Look at the political cartoon
illustrating LBJ at sunrise. What do you think the artist
was trying to convey about the Johnson administration?

An Era of Social Change 695

HISTORIC DECISIONS OF THE SUPREME COURT

Miranda v. Arizona (1966)

ORIGINS OF THE CASE

In 1963 Ernesto Miranda was arrested at his home in Phoenix, Arizona, on
charges of kidnapping and rape. After two hours of questioning by police, he
signed a confession and was later convicted, largely based on the confession.
Miranda appealed. He claimed that his confession was invalid because it was
coerced and because the police never advised him of his right to an attorney
or his right to avoid self-incrimination.

THE RULING
The Court overturned Miranda’s conviction, holding that the police must
inform criminal suspects of their legal rights at the time of arrest and may
not interrogate suspects who invoke their rights.

LEGAL REASONING LEGAL SOURCES

Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote the majority opinion in
Miranda v. Arizona. He based his argument on the Fifth U.S. CONSTITUTION
Amendment, which guarantees that an accused person U.S. CONSTITUTION, FIFTH
cannot be forced “to be a witness against himself” or herself. AMENDMENT (1791)
Warren stressed that when suspects are interrogated in police
“No person . . . shall be compelled
custody, the situation is “inherently intimidating.” Such a
in any criminal case to be a
situation, he argued, undermines any evidence it produces
witness against himself, nor
because “no statement obtained from the defendant [while in
be deprived of life, liberty, or
custody] can truly be the product of his free choice.”
property, without due process of
For this reason, the Court majority found that Miranda’s law.”
confession could not be used as evidence. In the opinion,
Chief Justice Warren responded to the argument that police RELATED CASES
officials might find this requirement difficult to meet.
Mapp v. Ohio (1961)
“Not only does the use of the third degree [harassment or
torture used to obtain a confession] involve a flagrant violation The Court ruled that prosecutors
of law by the officers of the law, but it involves also the may not use evidence obtained in
dangers of false confessions, and it tends to make police and illegal searches (exclusionary rule).
prosecutors less zealous in the search for objective evidence.” Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)
The Court said that a defendant
accused of a felony has the
right to an attorney, which the
government must supply if the
defendant cannot afford one.

Ernesto Miranda (at

right) converses with
attorney John J. Flynn
in February 1967.

696 Module 14
 HISTORIC DECISIONS OF THE SUPREME COURT

(right) This card is

carried by police
officers in order
to read suspects
their rights. (far
right) An officer
reads a suspect
his rights.

WHY IT MATTERED As for the defendant, Ernesto Miranda, he was

retried and convicted on the basis of other
Miranda was one of four key criminal justice cases
evidence.
decided by the Warren Court (see Related Cases). In
each case, the decision reflected the Chief Justice’s HISTORICAL IMPACT
strong belief that all persons deserve to be treated The Miranda decision was highly controversial. Critics
with respect by their government. In Miranda, the complained that the opinion would protect the
Court directed police to inform every suspect of his rights of criminals at the expense of public safety.
or her rights at the time of arrest and even gave the
Since Miranda, the Court has continued to try to
police detailed instructions about what to say.
strike a balance between public safety and the
The rights of accused people need to be protected rights of the accused. Several cases in the 1970s
in order to ensure that innocent people are not and 1980s softened the Miranda ruling. They gave
punished. These protections also ensure that law enforcement officers more power to gather
authorities will not harass people for political evidence without informing accused people of
reasons. This often happened to civil rights activists their rights. Even so, conservatives still hoped to
in the South in the 1950s and 1960s, for example. overturn the Miranda decision.
Critics of the Warren Court claimed that Miranda In 2000, however, the Supreme Court affirmed
would lead to more crime because it would Miranda by a 7–2 majority in Dickerson v. United
become more difficult to convict criminals. Police States. Writing for the majority, Chief Justice
departments, however, adapted. They placed the William Rehnquist argued, “There is no such
list of suspects’ rights mentioned in Miranda on justification here for overruling Miranda. Miranda
cards for police officers to read to suspects. The has become embedded in routine police practice
statement of these rights became known as the to the point where warnings have become part of
Miranda warning. our national culture.”

Critical Thinking
1. Connect to History Critics charged that Miranda 2. Connect to Today Do Internet research to locate
incorrectly used the Fifth Amendment. The right to laws and other Court decisions related to Mapp
avoid self-incrimination, they said, should only apply and Miranda. Then, prepare a debate on whether
to trials, not to police questioning. Do you agree or courts should or should not set a guilty person free
disagree? Why? if the government broke the law in establishing that
person’s guilt.

An Era of Social Change 697

 Lesson 3

Culture and Counterculture

One American’s Story

The Big Idea
In 1966 Alex Forman left his conventional life in mainstream America
The ideals and lifestyle of the
and headed to San Francisco. Arriving there with little else but a gui-
counterculture challenged the
tar, he joined thousands of others who were determined to live in a
traditional views of Americans.
more peaceful and carefree environment. He recalled his early days
Why It Matters Now in San Francisco’s Haight-Ashbury district, the hub of hippie life.
The music, art, and politics of the
counterculture have left endur-
ing marks on American society. “It was like paradise there.
Everybody was in love with
Key Terms and People life and in love with their fel-
counterculture low human beings to the point
Haight-Ashbury where they were just sharing
the Beatles in incredible ways with every-
Woodstock body. Taking people in off the
street and letting them stay
in their homes. . . . You could
walk down almost any street
in Haight-Ashbury where I Members of the counterculture relax in
a California park
was living, and someone would
smile at you and just go, ‘Hey,
it’s beautiful, isn’t it?’ . . . It
was a very special time.”
—Alex Forman, quoted in From
Camelot to Kent State

Forman was part of the counterculture—a movement made up

mostly of white, middle-class college youths who had grown disillu-
sioned with the war in Vietnam and injustices in America during the
1960s. Instead of challenging the system, they turned their backs
on traditional America. They tried to establish a whole new society
based on peace and love. Although their heyday was short-lived,
their legacy remains.

698 Module 14
The Counterculture
In the late 1960s historian Theodore Roszak deemed these idealistic
youths the counterculture. It was a culture, he said, so different from the
mainstream “that it scarcely looks to many as a culture at all, but takes on
the alarming appearance of a barbarian intrusion.” The attitude of these
youths was so different from their parents that it led to a generation gap.
The older generation had a difficult time understanding or sympathizing
with the young people’s beliefs, ideas, and attitudes.
“TUNE IN, TURN ON, DROP OUT” Members of the counterculture, known
as hippies, shared some of the beliefs of the New Left movement. Specifi-
cally, they felt that American society—and its materialism, technology,
and war—had grown hollow. Influenced by the art, music, and literature
of the beat movement of the 1950s, hippies embraced the idea of noncon-
formity. They followed the credo of Harvard psychology professor and
counterculture philosopher Timothy Leary: “Tune in, turn on, drop out.”
Throughout the middle and late 1960s, tens of thousands of idealistic
youths left school, work, or home. They left to create what they hoped
would be an idyllic community of peace, love, and harmony.
HIPPIE CULTURE The hippie era was sometimes known as the Age of
Aquarius. It was marked by rock ’n’ roll music, outrageous clothing, sexual
license, and illegal drugs—in particular, marijuana and a new hallucino-
genic drug called LSD, or acid. Timothy Leary, an early experimenter with
the drug, promoted the use of LSD as a “mind­expanding” aid for self­-
awareness. Hippies also turned to Eastern religions such as Zen Buddhism.
This religion professed that one could attain enlightenment through medi-
tation rather than the reading of scriptures.

A prominent symbol of the

counterculture movement
was bright colors.

An Era of Social Change 699

 Hippies donned ragged jeans, tie­-dyed T­-shirts, military garments, love
beads, and Native American ornaments. Thousands grew their hair out,
despite the fact that their more conservative elders saw this as an act of
disrespect. Signs across the country said, “Make America beautiful—give a
hippie a haircut.”
Hippies also rejected conventional home life. Many joined communes,
renouncing private property to live communally. By the mid‑1960s,
Haight-Ashbury in San Francisco was known as the hippie capital, mainly
because California did not outlaw hallucinogenic drugs until 1966.
DECLINE OF THE MOVEMENT After only a few years, the counterculture’s
peace and harmony gave way to violence and disillusionment. The urban
communes eventually turned seedy and dangerous. Alex Forman recalled,
“There were ripoffs, violence . . . people living on the street with no place
to stay.” Having dispensed with society’s conventions and rules, the hip-
pies had to rely on each other. Many discovered that the philosophy of
“do your own thing” did not provide enough guidance for how to live. “We
were together at the level of peace and love,” said one disillusioned hippie.
“We fell apart over who would cook and wash dishes and pay the bills.” By
1970 many had fallen victim to the drugs they used, experiencing drug
addiction and mental breakdowns. Rock singer Janis Joplin and legendary
guitarist Jimi Hendrix both died of drug overdoses in 1970.
As the mystique of the 1960s wore off, thousands of hippies lined up at
government offices to collect welfare and food stamps. They were depen-
dent on the very society they had once rejected. Illegal drug use also rose
Reading Check
Analyze Causes significantly during the 1960s, particularly among college students. In
What events and response to this troubling increase, the government passed a series of
other factors hastened laws, beginning with the Narcotic Addict Rehabilitation Act of 1966. With
the decline of the
counterculture this law, the government tried to shift its focus from criminal penalties to
movement? rehabilitation and treatment for drug addicts.

A Changing Culture
In a declaration of their individuality and desire for more freedom, coun-
terculture youth embraced a variety of new ideas in art and music. These
ideas became the catalyst that helped fuel the counterculture movement.
Andy Warhol shows off And unlike many aspects of the counterculture, they also left a more last-
his pop art style in this
self-portrait. ing imprint on the world.
ART The counterculture’s rebellious style left its mark on the art world.
The 1960s saw the rise of pop art (popular art). Pop artists, led by Andy
Warhol, attempted to bring art into the mainstream. Pop art was char-
acterized by bright, simple, commercial-looking images often depicting
everyday life. For instance, Warhol became famous for his bright silk-
screen portraits of soup cans, Marilyn Monroe, and other icons of mass
culture. These images were repeated to look mass-produced and imper-
sonal. It was a criticism of the times implying that individual freedoms
had been lost to a more conventional, “cookie-cutter” lifestyle.
© 2020 The Andy Warhol Foundation for the
Visual Arts, Inc./Licensed by Artists Rights
Society(ARS), New York

700 Module 14
 ROCK MUSIC During the 1960s the coun-
terculture movement embraced rock ’n’ roll
as its loud and biting anthem of protest. The
music was an offshoot of African American
rhythm and blues music that had captivated
so many teenagers during the 1950s.
The band that, perhaps more than any
other, helped propel rock music into main-
stream America was the Beatles. The British
band, made up of four youths from working-
class Liverpool, England, arrived in America
in 1964. They immediately took the country
by storm. By the time the Beatles broke up in
1970, the four “lads” had inspired a count-
less number of other bands and had won
over millions of Americans to rock ’n’ roll.
One example of rock ’n’ roll’s popular-
ity occurred in August 1969 on a farm in
upstate New York. More than 400,000
showed up for a music festival called “Wood-
The Beatles, shown here in 1967, influenced fashion with their long hair stock Music and Art Fair,” commonly known
and psychedelic clothing. as Woodstock. Despite the huge crowd, the
festival was peaceful and well organized. Woodstock represented, as one
songwriter put it, “the ’60s movement of peace and love and some higher
cultural cause.” Over four days, the most popular bands and musicians
performed, including Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, Joe Cocker, Joan Baez,
the Grateful Dead, and Jefferson Airplane. Woodstock was more than just
a rock concert. It was a celebration of an era and became a defining experi-
ence for a whole generation.
PROTEST SONGS In the midst of the turbulent climate of the sixties,
hippies and other activists also used music as a vehicle for political expres-
sion. In bus terminals, in the streets, and on the White House lawn,
thousands united in song. They expressed their rejection of mainstream
society, their demand for civil rights, and their outrage over the Vietnam
War. Musicians like Bob Dylan stirred up antiwar sentiment in songs like
“The Times They Are A-Changin’,” while Joan Baez and Pete Seeger popu-
larized the great African American spiritual “We Shall Overcome,” which
became the anthem of the civil rights movement.
CHANGING ATTITUDES While the counterculture movement faded, its
casual “do your own thing” philosophy left its mark. American attitudes
toward sexual behavior became more casual and permissive, leading
to what became known as the sexual revolution. During the 1960s and
1970s, mass culture—including TV, books, magazines, music, and mov-
ies—began to address subjects that had once been prohibited, particularly
sexual behavior and explicit violence.

An Era of Social Change 701

 Document-Based Investigation Historical Source

Bob Dylan’s Music

Although Bob Dylan did not claim to be a
“Come senators, congressmen
spokesperson for his generation, millions of Please heed the call
Americans felt his songs perfectly expressed Don’t stand in the doorway
their frustrations, fears, and hopes. In 1999 Don’t block up the hall
Time magazine included Dylan in its “Time For he that gets hurt
100: The Most Important People of the Will be he who has stalled
Century.” There’s a battle outside
And it is ragin’.
It’ll soon shake your windows
And rattle your walls
Analyze Historical Sources For the times they are a-changin’.”
How might listeners of different ages and —Bob Dylan, from “The Times They Are A-Changin’,” 1962
cultures have responded to these lyrics?

While some hailed the increasing permissiveness as liberating, others

attacked it as a sign of moral decay. For millions of Americans, the new
tolerance was merely an uncivilized lack of respect for established social
Reading Check norms. Eventually, the counterculture movement would lead a great many
Make Inferences Americans to more liberal attitudes about dress and appearance, lifestyle,
What did rock ’n’
roll symbolize for and social behavior. In the short run, though, it produced largely the
American youth? opposite effect.

The Conservative Response

In the late 1960s many believed that the country was losing its sense of
right and wrong. Increasingly, conservative voices began to express people’s
anger. At the 1968 Republican convention in Miami, candidate Richard
M. Nixon expressed that anger.

“As we look at America we see cities enveloped in smoke and flame. We

hear sirens in the night. . . . We see Americans hating each other . . . at
home. . . . Did we come all this way for this? . . . die in Normandy and
Korea and in Valley Forge for this?”
—Richard Nixon, from a speech at Republican convention, 1968

CONSERVATIVES ATTACK THE COUNTERCULTURE Nixon was not the only

conservative voice expressing alarm. FBI director J. Edgar Hoover issued a
warning that “revolutionary terrorism” was a threat on campuses and in cities.
Other conservative critics warned that campus rebels posed a danger

702 Module 14
 In contrast to the 1968 Democratic convention in Chicago, the Republican convention was
orderly and united—particularly in the delegates’ opposition to the counterculture.

to traditional values and threatened to plunge American society into anar-

chy. Conservatives also attacked the counterculture for what they saw as
its decadent values. In the view of psychiatrist Bruno Bettelheim, student
rebels and members of the counterculture had been pampered in child-
hood. As young adults, they did not have the ability for delayed gratifica-
tion. According to some conservative commentators, the counterculture
had abandoned rational thought in favor of the senses and uninhibited
self-expression.
Reading Check
The angry response of mainstream Americans caused a profound
Form change in the political landscape of the United States. By the end of the
Generalizations 1960s, conservatives were presenting their own solutions on such issues
Why were
as lawlessness and crime, the size of the federal government, and welfare.
conservatives
angry about the This growing conservative movement would propel Nixon into the White
counterculture? House—and set the nation on a more conservative course.

Lesson 3 Assessment
1. Organize Information Use a tree diagram to list 3. Develop Historical Perspective A stereotype is a
examples that illustrate the beliefs, lifestyle, and impact generalization made about a group. What stereotype do
on society of the 1960s counterculture. you think hippies might have formed about mainstream
Americans? What stereotype do you think mainstream
The Counterculture
Americans might have formed about hippies? Why?
Think About:
Impact on
Beliefs Lifestyle • Alex Forman’s comments in “One American’s Story”
Society
• hippies’ values and lifestyle
Examples Examples Examples
• mainstream Americans’ values and lifestyle
Which example do you think had the biggest impact on 4. Make Inferences In your opinion, why didn’t the
society? Why? hippies succeed?
2. Key Terms and People For each term or person in the 5. Analyze Issues What role did the counterculture and
lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance. antiwar movement play in helping Richard Nixon win
the presidency?

An Era of Social Change 703

 Lesson 4

Environmental Activism

One American’s Story

The Big Idea
In 1972 Lois Gibbs and her family moved to Niagara Falls, New York.
During the 1960s and 1970s,
Underneath this quiet town, however, was a disaster in the making.
Americans strengthened their
In the 1890s the Love Canal had been built to provide hydroelectric
efforts to address the nation’s
environmental problems. power for the Niagara Falls area. Chemical companies were dumping
hazardous waste into the canal. In 1953 bulldozers filled in the canal.
Why It Matters Now Shortly thereafter, a school and rows of homes were built nearby.
The nation today continues to
struggle to balance environ-
In 1977, when Lois Gibbs’s son fell sick, she decided to investigate.
mental concerns with industrial
She eventually uncovered the existence of the toxic waste and mobi-
growth.
lized the community to demand government action.
Key Terms and People
Rachel Carson In 1980 President Carter authorized funds for many Niagara Falls
Earth Day families to move to safety. Years later, Lois Gibbs wrote a book detail-
environmentalist ing her efforts.
Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA)
“I want to tell you our story—
Three Mile Island
my story—because I believe that
ordinary citizens—using the tools
of dignity, self-respect, common
sense, and perseverance—can
influence solutions to important
problems in our society. . . . In
solving any difficult problem, you
have to be prepared to fight long
and hard, sometimes at great
personal cost; but it can be done. Lois Gibbs
It must be done if we are to
survive . . . at all.”
—Lois Gibbs, from Love Canal: My Story

Lois Gibbs’s concerns about environmental hazards were shared by

many Americans in the 1970s. Through the energy crisis, Americans
learned that their natural resources were limited. They could no lon-
ger take the environment for granted. Americans—from grassroots
organizations to the government—began to focus on conservation
of the environment and new forms of energy.

704 Module 14
 The Roots of Environmentalism
The widespread realization that pollution and overconsumption were dam-
aging the environment began in the 1960s. One book in particular had
awakened America’s concerns about the environment and helped lay the
groundwork for the activism of the early seventies.
RACHEL CARSON AND SILENT SPRING In 1962 Rachel Carson, a marine
biologist, published a book entitled Silent Spring. In it, she warned against
the growing use of pesticides—chemicals used to kill insects and rodents.
Pesticides first came into widespread use in the 1940s. In 1939 Paul Muller
developed a pesticide called DDT. This chemical could kill a wide range of
pests and seemed to be relatively harmless to humans and other mam-
mals. With DDT, malaria—a disease spread by mosquitoes—was able to
be brought under control. Farmers were able to increase crop production.
In addition, DDT was easy to apply and cheap to produce. At the time, it
seemed like a miracle substance.
Carson disagreed. In her book, she argued that pesticides poisoned the
very food they were intended to protect and as a result killed many birds
and fish. Carson cautioned that America faced a “silent spring,” in which
birds killed off by pesticides would no longer fill the air with song. She
added that of all the weapons used in “man’s war against nature,” pesti-
cides were some of the most harmful.

“These sprays, dusts, and aerosols . . . have the power to kill every
insect, the ‘good’ and the ‘bad,’ to still the song of birds and the leap-
ing of fish in the streams, to coat the leaves with a deadly film, and
to linger on in soil—all this though the intended target may be only
a few weeds or insects. Can anyone believe it is possible to lay down
such a barrage of poisons on the surface of the earth without making
it unfit for all life?”
—Rachel Carson, from Silent Spring

BIOGRAPHY

Rachel Carson (1907–1964)

Marine biologist Rachel Carson was born far
from the sea, in the small town of Springdale,
Pennsylvania.

Carson was a sickly child who often had to

remain at home, where her mother tutored her.
Throughout her youth and into her college years,
Carson was a studious, but quiet and aloof, person.

Carson entered college intent on becoming a quickly fell in love with the study of nature. By the
writer. During her sophomore year, she took a next year, Carson switched her major from English
biology class to fulfill her science requirement. She to zoology—the study of animals.

An Era of Social Change 705

 Within six months of its publication, Silent Spring sold nearly half a
million copies. Many chemical companies called the book inaccurate and
threatened legal action. However, for a majority of Americans, Carson’s
book was an early warning about the danger that human activity posed to
the environment. Shortly after the book’s publication, President Kennedy
established an advisory committee to investigate the situation.
Reading Check With Rachel Carson’s prodding, the nation slowly began to focus more
Analyze Effects on environmental issues. Carson would not live to see the U.S. government
What effects did outlaw DDT in 1972. However, her work helped many Americans realize
Rachel Carson’s book
have on the nation as that their everyday behavior, as well as the nation’s industrial growth, had
a whole? a damaging effect on the environment.

Environmental Concerns in the 1970s

During the 1970s the administrations of Richard Nixon and Jimmy Carter
confronted such environmental issues as conservation, pollution, and the
growth of nuclear energy.
THE FIRST EARTH DAY The United States ushered in the 1970s with the
first Earth Day celebration. It was a fitting celebration for a decade in
which the nation would actively address its environmental issues. On that
day, April 22, 1970, nearly every community in the nation and more than
10,000 schools and 2,000 colleges hosted some type of environmental-
awareness activity. Activities spotlighted problems such as pollution, the
Vocabulary growth of toxic waste, and the earth’s dwindling resources. The Earth
toxic capable of
causing injury or death,
Day celebration continues today. Each year on April 22, millions of people
especially by chemical around the world gather to heighten public awareness of environmental
means; poisonous problems.
THE GOVERNMENT TAKES ACTION Although President
Nixon was not considered an environmentalist, or
someone who takes an active role in the protection
of the environment, he recognized the nation’s grow-
ing concern about the environment. In an effort to
“make our peace with nature,” President Nixon set out
on a course that led to the passage of several land-
mark measures. In 1970 he consolidated 15 existing
federal pollution programs into one—the Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA). The new agency
was given the power to set and enforce pollution
standards, to conduct environmental research, and
to assist state and local governments in pollution

A flag celebrating the first Earth Day in 1970

706 Module 14
 control. Today, the EPA remains the federal government’s main instru-
ment for dealing with environmental issues.
Some 35 environmental laws took effect during the decade. These laws
addressed every aspect of conservation and cleanup—from protecting
endangered animals to regulating auto emissions. One important and
complex environmental problem was how to control air pollution. In 1970
Nixon signed a new Clean Air Act that added several amendments to the
Clean Air Act of 1963. The new act established new programs that regu-
lated toxic air pollutants and required the best available technology to be
used to help control all new major sources of air pollution. It also required
a 90 percent reduction of emissions from new cars by 1975. The new
act gave the EPA the authority to set air standards. It also increased the
authority of the government to enforce regulations.
Following the 1970 Clean Air Act, Congress passed the Endangered
Species Act. It was signed into law in 1973 to “halt and reverse the trend
toward species extinction, whatever the cost.” The act provides for the
protection and recovery of fish, wildlife, and plants that are endangered
or threatened. The act makes it illegal to possess, sell, or transport those
species. It also protects and conserves the ecosystems that these species
depend on to survive. Congress also passed laws that limited pesticide use
and curbed strip mining. Strip mining is the practice of mining for ore and
coal by digging gaping holes in the land.
The government also pushed to strengthen laws protecting all the
“waters of the United States.” In 1972 the Clean Water Act was passed by
the United States Congress, after being vetoed by President Nixon. It gave
the EPA the power to improve the nation’s water quality through the regu-
lation of cities and industries. It made it illegal to dump chemicals or other
pollutants into U.S. waters. It also provided money to build water treat-
ment plants to help cities control sewage.

Document-Based Investigation Historical Source

Clean Air Poster

President Nixon created the EPA in 1970 by signing
the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). A
major element of the NEPA is the requirement that an
environmental impact statement (EIS) be prepared for all
major federal actions that might significantly affect the
environment.

Analyze Historical Sources

1. What does the poster claim regarding the power of the
federal government?
2. What does the poster imply about the role of governmental
regulations?

An Era of Social Change 707

 The Trans-Alaska
Pipeline, stretching
across hundreds of
miles of tundra, was
completed in 1977.

BALANCING PROGRESS AND CONSERVATION IN ALASKA During the

1970s the federal government took steps to ensure the continued well-
being of Alaska. It is the largest state in the nation and one of its most
ecologically sensitive.
The discovery of oil there in 1968, and the subsequent construction
of a massive pipeline to transport it, created many new jobs and greatly
increased state revenues. However, the influx of new development also
raised concerns about Alaska’s wildlife, as well as the rights of its native
peoples. In 1971 Nixon signed the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act.
This act turned over millions of acres of land to the state’s native tribes for
conservation and tribal use. In 1978 President Carter enhanced this con-
servation effort by setting aside an additional 56 million acres in Alaska as
national monuments. In 1980 Congress added another 104 million acres as
protected areas.

THE DEBATE OVER NUCLEAR ENERGY As the 1970s came to a close,

Americans became acutely aware of the dangers that nuclear power plants
posed to both humans and the environment. During the 1970s America
realized the drawbacks to its heavy dependence on foreign oil for energy.
Nuclear power seemed to many to be an attractive alternative.
Opponents of nuclear energy warned the public against the industry’s
growth. They contended that nuclear plants, and the wastes they pro-
duced, were potentially dangerous to humans and their environment.
Background
In 2010 President THREE MILE ISLAND In the early hours of March 28, 1979, the concerns
Obama established
a commission to of nuclear energy opponents were validated. That morning, one of the
develop a long- nuclear reactors at a plant on Three Mile Island near Harrisburg, Penn-
term plan for the sylvania, malfunctioned. The reactor overheated after its cooling system
management of used
nuclear fuel. This failed. Fear quickly arose that radiation might escape and spread over the
plan, he said, would region. Two days later, low-level radiation actually did escape from the
include not only ideas crippled reactor. Officials evacuated some residents, while others fled on
on disposal but also
ways to reprocess and
their own. One homemaker who lived near the plant recalled her desperate
recycle this waste. attempt to find safety.

708 Module 14
 “On Friday, a very frightening thing occurred in our area. A state
policeman went door-to-door telling residents to stay indoors, close
all windows, and turn all air conditioners off. I was alone, as were
many other homemakers, and my thoughts were focused on how
long I would remain a prisoner in my own home. . . . Suddenly, I was
scared, real scared. I decided to get out of there, while I could. I ran
to the car not knowing if I should breathe the air or not, and I threw
the suitcases in the trunk and was on my way within one hour. If any-
thing dreadful happened, I thought that I’d at least be with my girls.
Although it was very hot in the car, I didn’t trust myself to turn the
air conditioner on. It felt good as my tense muscles relaxed the far-
ther I drove.”
—an anonymous homemaker, quoted in Accident at Three Mile Island: The Human Dimensions

The Accident at Three Mile Island

A series of human and mechanical errors that caused the partial meltdown of the reactor core
brought the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant to the brink of disaster. The accident at Three
Mile Island caused widespread concern about nuclear power throughout the American public.

Electricity
Containment
Structure

Pump

Backup
Cooling
Water Turbine Generator
3
Control
Rods
Hot Water Pumps
2
Heat
Cool Water
Steam
Generator
Condenser
Cooling Tower

Fuel
Water
1 Reactor Elements
Core Pumps 4

REACTOR MELTDOWN
1 The radioactive reactor core generates heat as its atoms split during a controlled chain reaction.
2 An inoperative valve releases thousands of gallons of coolant from the reactor core.
3 Half of the 36,816 exposed fuel rods melt in temperatures above 5,000 degrees.
4 The melted material burns through the lining of the reactor chamber and spills to the floor of the
containment structure.

An Era of Social Change 709

 In the late 1970s and early
1980s, Hollywood made a
number of films reflecting
Americans’ concerns about
the relatively new field of
nuclear energy and alerting
the public to the need
for regulation. In 1979’s
thriller The China Syndrome,
starring Jane Fonda and
Jack Lemmon, a television
reporter exposes cover‑ups
at a nuclear plant.

In all, more than 100,000 residents were evacuated from the surround-
ing area. On April 9 the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the federal
agency that monitors the nuclear power industry, announced that the
immediate danger was over.
The events at Three Mile Island rekindled the debate over nuclear
power. Supporters of nuclear power pointed out that no one had been
killed or seriously injured. Opponents countered by saying that chance
alone had averted a tragedy. They demanded that the government call
a halt to the construction of new power plants and gradually shut down
existing nuclear facilities.
While the government did not do away with nuclear power, federal
officials did recognize nuclear energy’s potential danger to both humans
and the environment. As a result of the accident at Three Mile Island, the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission strengthened its safety standards and
improved its inspection procedures.
LOVE CANAL Another environmental disaster was uncovered at Love
Canal in New York. There, long-buried chemicals left behind by a chemical
company began seeping up through the ground. Exposure to the chemicals
Reading Check was linked to the high rates of birth defects in the community. To solve
Summarize the problem, the state of New York bought the homes of some 200 resi-
What were the dents. The government then began the costly task of cleaning up the mess.
environmental actions
taken during the Experts warned that there were likely many more toxic waste sites like
Nixon administration? Love Canal around the country.

A Continuing Movement
In the years since the first Earth Day, environmental issues have gained
increasing attention and support, but also some opposition. Government,
industry, and environmentalists must work together. They must find a bal-
ance between environmental protection and economic interests.

710 Module 14
 PRIVATE CONSERVATION GROUPS As concerns about pollution and the
depletion of nonrenewable resources grew, so did membership in private,
nonprofit organizations dedicated to the preservation of wilderness and
endangered species. Many of these groups lobbied government for protec-
tive legislation. Some filed lawsuits to block projects such as road or dam
construction or logging that would threaten habitats. The Environmental
Defense Fund (today Environmental Defense) brought lawsuits that led to
the bans on DDT and on leaded gasoline.
Radical groups also emerged. Greenpeace was formed by a group of indi-
viduals who wanted to stop nuclear testing on an island in Alaska that was
home to endangered species of sea otters, eagles, and other wildlife. The
group became known for its antinuclear stance and for its members’ will-
ingness to take direct action to stop activities that threatened the environ-
ment. Members of Greenpeace risked their lives at sea to escort whales and
protect them from commercial hunters. Later in the decade, an even more
radical group called Environmental Life Force began to use explosives in
their fight against the use of pesticides. The group disbanded in 1978 after
its leader, John Hanna, was arrested for attaching bombs to seven crop-
duster planes at an airport in California.
ECONOMIC CONCERNS The environmental movement has also faced a
struggle to balance environmental concerns with jobs and progress. As the
environmental movement gained popular support, opponents also made
their voices heard. In Tennessee, for example, a federal dam project was
halted because it threatened a species of fish. Local developers took out
Reading Check
Contrast ads asking residents to “tell the government that the size of your wallet
How are the goals is more important than some two-inch-long minnow.” When confronted
of supporters and with environmental concerns, one unemployed steelworker spoke for oth-
opponents of the
environmental ers. He remarked, “Why worry about the long run, when you’re out of work
movement different? right now.”

Lesson 4 Assessment
1. Organize Information Draw a web diagram, filling in 2. Key Terms and People For each term or person in the
events that illustrate the main idea “Concern for the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance.
environment grew in the United States.” 3. Analyze Issues How much should the United States
rely on nuclear power as a source of energy? Explain
your view.
Think About:
• the safety of nuclear power
Concern for the environment
grew in the United States. • the alternatives to nuclear power
• U.S. energy demands
4. Analyze Effects In what ways has the environmental
movement influenced the federal government?

An Era of Social Change 711

Module 14 Assessment
Key Terms and People 8. How did the Warren Court decisions expand
For each term or person below, write a sentence the rights of those accused of crimes?
explaining its connection to social change in the 9. What economic compromise was made in
United States during the 1960s and 1970s. order to fund the Great Society programs?
1. John F. Kennedy Culture and Counterculture
2. New Frontier 10. What was the counterculture movement a
3. Warren Court reaction to?
4. Lyndon Baines Johnson 11. Briefly explain the role Timothy Leary
5. Great Society played in the counterculture movement.
6. Economic Opportunity Act 12. How did the rise of the counterculture lead
7. counterculture to a generation gap?
8. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 13. How did drug use in the counterculture
movement lead to new laws and a change
9. Rachel Carson
in government policy?
10. Woodstock
14. What unintended impact did the coun-
Main Ideas terculture have on many mainstream
Americans?
Use your notes and the information in the module
to answer the following questions. Environmental Activism
15. What factors increased Americans’ concerns
Kennedy and the New Frontier about environmental issues during the
1. Explain the factors that led to Kennedy’s 1960s and 1970s?
victory over Nixon in the 1960 presidential 16. What actions did private nonprofit groups
campaign. take to influence the government?
2. What was Kennedy’s New Frontier? Why did 17. What was the impact of the Three Mile
he have trouble getting his New Frontier Island incident?
legislation through Congress?
18. What environmental disaster was discov-
3. What two international aid programs ered at Love Canal?
were launched during the Kennedy
administration? Critical Thinking
4. How did Kennedy’s assassination affect the
1. Categorize Use a Venn diagram to show
public?
the major legislative programs of the New
5. What was the political impact of Kennedy’s Frontier and the Great Society.
assassination?
Johnson and the Great Society NEW FRONTIER GREAT SOCIETY
6. Describe ways that Great Society programs
addressed the problem of poverty. Passed Proposed by JFK, Passed
7. How did the courts increase the political under JFK passed under LBJ under LBJ
power of people in urban areas?

712 Module 14
Module 14 Assessment, continued
2. Form Generalizations John F. Kennedy Engage with History
said, “[M]y fellow Americans, ask not what Write a job description for “U.S. President.”
your country can do for you—ask what you Include sections on “Responsibilities” and
can do for your country.” Do you agree with “Requirements” that list necessary traits and
his view about the relationship between experience.
individuals and the country? Explain your
opinion. Think About:
3. Evaluate Do you think the Great Society • Kennedy’s and Johnson’s (and Nixon’s) back-
met the goal of helping people make their ground and style
lives better for themselves and their chil- • the role of the media
dren? What were the compromises that • challenges each leader faced and how he
resulted? Explain. dealt with them
4. Analyze Effects What were the social and • the American public’s tastes and
political effects of the increase in immigra- preferences
tion following the Immigration Act of 1965? • the influence that groups, individuals, and
5. Analyze Causes How did new music and social movements have on the government
art act as a catalyst for the counterculture
movement? Focus on Writing
6. Analyze Primary Sources Reread the song Imagine that the year is 1964. President Johnson
lyrics of Bob Dylan’s “The Times They Are has introduced a series of programs as a part of
A-Changin’.” How do you think this song his vision for a Great Society. Write a persuasive
captured the main message of the counter- letter to your congressional representative tell-
culture movement? ing him or her to either support or oppose the
7. Synthesize Explain the effect mass media new programs.
had on American politics during the 1960s
and 1970s. Note several examples of Multimedia Activity
how television, music, art, and literature
Use the Internet to research examples of 1960s
influenced the government during these
or 1970s culture, such as songs, paintings, post-
decades.
ers, clothing, cars, and so on. Prepare an elec-
8. Compare How were the counterculture
tronic museum exhibit of several artifacts that
movement and the environmental move-
display a trend or theme discussed in the mod-
ment similar in terms of impact on society?
ule. Write captions for the artifacts explaining
9. Summarize Explain the actions the govern- their historical context and relating them to your
ment took in the 1970s to confront environ- chosen theme.
mental issues.

An Era of Social Change 713

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