II. Essential Nutrients and their Contribution to the Diet: Classification of Nutrients.

Introduction:

What are Nutrients?

Nutrients are substances required by the body to perform its basic functions. Most nutrients must be
obtained from our diet, since the human body does not synthesize or produce them. Nutrients have one or more
of three basic functions: they provide energy, contribute to body structure, and/or regulate chemical processes in
the body. These basic functions allow us to detect and respond to environmental surroundings, move, excrete
wastes, respire (breathe), grow, and reproduce.

There are six classes of nutrients required for the body to function and maintain overall health. These are:
carbohydrates, lipids/fats, proteins, water, vitamins, and minerals. Nutritious foods provide nutrients for the body.
Foods may also contain a variety of non-nutrients. Some non-nutrients such as antioxidants (found in many plant
foods) are beneficial to the body, whereas others such as natural toxins (common in some plant foods) or additives
(like certain dyes and preservatives found in processed foods) are potentially harmful. Thus, all nutrient are
needed by all living organisms regardless of body form, needs, age, gender, races, etc.

Note: Consuming alcohol also contributes energy (calories) to the diet at 7 kilocalories/gram, so it must be counted
in daily energy consumption. However, alcohol is not considered a "nutrient" because it does not contribute to
essential body functions and actually contain substances that must broken-down and excreted from the body to
prevent toxic effects.

Classification of Nutrients:
A. Macronutrients:
1.Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are big group of organic compounds prominent in the plant kingdom which contain the elements,
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. It is synthesized through the process of photosynthesis. Carbohydrates foods are starches
and sugar which furnish the major source of energy and form the bulk of diet.
CLASSIFICATION:
A. According to sugar unit:
1. Monosaccharide – simplest form of carbohydrate or one sugar unit.
a. Glucose – most important glucose in human metabolism, as physiologic sugar
▪ Also known as “dextrose”, or grape sugar, found free in nature, in fruits, honey, corn syrup, sweet
corn, and certain roots.
b. Fructose – sweetest of all sugars
▪ Known as fruit sugar or “levulose”
▪ Found in ripe fruits, and honey.
▪ Digestive end product of sucrose.
c. Galactose – digestive end product of milk sugar or lactose
▪ Not found free in nature
2. Disaccharide – made up of 2 simple sugar.
a. Sucrose – known as table sugar, cane sugar or beet sugar
▪ Yield glucose and fructose upon hydrolysis
▪ Sources from sugar cane, sugar beets, molasses, fruits and table sugar.
b. Maltose – “malt” or grain sugars
▪ Contains two glucose upon hydrolysis.
▪ Food sources as malted products, sprouted cereal
▪ Not found free in nature
c. Lactose – known as milk sugar
▪ Found in milk sugar and milk products
▪ Composed of glucose and galactose upon hydrolysis
▪ Least sweet of all sugars and slowly digested.
3. Polysaccharide – made up of many units of monosaccharide
 a. Starch – storage form of carbohydrates in plant such as grains, seeds, tubers, roots, unripe fruits,
vegetables and legumes.
b. Dextrin – intermediate product of starch hydrolysis like toasting of bread or browning of cake crust.
c. Glycogen – storage form of carbohydrates in animals
▪ Known as animal starch which is stored in the liver and muscle.
▪ Found in liver, oyster and muscle meat.
d. Cellulose and Hemicellulose – indigestible polysaccharide.
▪ Adds bulk in the diet
▪ Stimulates peristalsis and aids in the elimination of waste material.
▪ Found in fruits, covering of nuts and legumes, stem, mature leaves.
e. Hemicellulose – same function with cellulose
▪ Found in seaweeds or agar and slightly in unripe fruits and vegetable in form of pectin.
▪ Found in agar, pectin, woody fibers, leaves and stems
▪ Can be hydrolyzed by dilute acids.

B. According to Digestibility
a. Digestible Carbohydrates - sugars, starches, dextrin, and glycogen
b. Partially digestible carbohydrates – galactogens, mannosans, inulin and pentosans.
c. Indigestible carbohydrates – dietary fibers, cellulose, and hemicellulose.
FUNCTIONS:
A. Chief Source of Energy
▪ Body cells require a steady and constant supply of energy mainly as glucose and its intermediate
products. One-gram carbohydrate yields 4 kilocalories
B. Cheap and main Energy Form
▪ Carbohydrate foods mainly as cereal grains, sugars, most fruits, and starchy vegetable contribute at
least half or 50% of total energy needs of people.
C. Protein Sparer
▪ Energy foods of the body are given first priority over body-building needs. To “save” or “spare”
protein for this unique function of the body-building, carbohydrates must be adequate in the diet.
D. Sole Energy source for the Brain and Nerve Tissues
▪ The brain and nerve tissues utilize only glucose for energy. Lack of glucose or exygen to release
energy will result in an irreversible damage to the brain.
CLINICAL MANIFESTATION:
1. Inadequate Intake of Carbohydrates
A. PEM – Protein Energy Malnutrition
PCM – Protein-Calorie Malnutrition
Signs:
1. Loss of weight
2. Retarded growth
3. Low blood sugar level (<80-100mg/100ml)
2. Excess Intake of Carbohydrates
A. Fermentation causing gas formation
B. Dental carries
C. Obesity
D. Overweight
E. High Blood glucose level
SOURCES:
a. Sugar or empty calorie foods – brown sugar, refined sugar, candies, honey, carbonated beverages.
b. Fruits – dried, fresh, sweetened, or canned.
c. Root crops and other vegetables
d. Milk
RENI – 55-70% of the total kcals.
2. Proteins
- Comes from the Greek word “Protos” meaning “to take the first place”.
- These are organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and little sulfur. It describes the
nitrogenous substances which is essential to the development, maintenance and life of every cell of the body.
- Composed of amino acids as the building units linked together in peptide bond.

These Amino acids are nitrogen-containing compound which form building blocks of protein.
CLASSIFICATION
 1. According to amino acid content of proteins:
a. Complete protein – are proteins contains all essential amino acids in amounts sufficient for growth and
maintenance of life.
▪ Animal proteins are complete proteins and have high biological value.
▪ E.g. eggs, milk, meat, fish, poultry, and milk products as casein in milk, and albumin in egg whites
b. Partially complete protein – maintains life but cannot support growth
▪ E.g. gliadin in wheat, legumin in legumes
c. Incomplete – neither maintains life nor support growth; lacks one or more essential nutrients.
▪ E.g. zein in corn, gelatin and most plant protein
2. According to classification of amino acids:
1. Essential or Indispensable Amino Acid – cannot be synthesized by the body; thus must be provided in the
diet.
9 essential Amino Acids (EAA):
1. Isoleucine 5. Tryptophan 9. Valine
2. Histidine (Infants) 6. Lysine
3. Threonine 7. Phenylalanine
4. Methionine 8. Leucine
2. Semi-essential or Semi-Indispensable Amino Acids – those that can lower the requirement of an essential
amino acids but cannot replace them entirely.
1. Cysteine 4. Glycine
2. Tyrosine 5. Serine
3. Arginine 6. Histidine
3. Non-essential or Dispensable Amino Acid - those that can lower the requirement of an essential amino acid
but cannot replace them entirely.
1. Glutamic acid 5. Proline 9. Hydroxyglycine
2. Hydroxyglumatic acid 6. Hydroxyproline
3. Aspartic acid 7. Norleucine
4. Alanine 8. Citrulline
FUNCTIONS:
1. Growth and Repair all Body Tissues.
2. Source of heat and energy
a. Body Building or Structural Role
▪ Twenty percent (%) or one-fifth (1/5) of an adult body weight is protein, ½ in muscle, 1/5 in bones
and cartilages, 1/10 in skin.
b. Essential for Growth
▪ All living cell in the body used protein plus the nine (9) available essential amino acids and nitrogen
to synthesize new protein.
c. Source of energy
▪ Protein supply 4 kcal per gram, although, it is more expensive source of energy. The role nutrient
supply amino acids for body building and repairing, protein should be spared or saved for its more
important function of building and repairing by adequate fat and carbohydrates intake.
SOURCES:

1) Animal Sources – egg, milk, fish, poultry, lean meat, cheese, dairy products, and shellfish
2) Plant source – nuts, cereals and cereal products, vegetable and textured vegetable protein.

CLINICAL MANIFESTATION
1. General deficiency signs
a) Weight loss
b) General weakness
c) Reduced resistance to infection
d) Dry and scaly skin
e) Nutritional edema
f) Hypoproteinema
g) Pallor
2. PEM
a) Kwashiorkor – occurs after weaning when the diet is high in calories but low in ptotein.
b) Marasmus – carried by inadequate intake of both calories and protein.
TER = 100 – 200 KCAL/KDBW
Protein Reqt. = 4 – 6g P/KDBW
3.Fats
Lipids
▪ Is a broader term which includes fats, oils, and fat-like substance which are soluble “fat solvents”
like, chloroform, benzyl, etc.
Fats
▪ Is the most concentrated source of energy in foods which constitute the body’s chief reserve of
energy. Refers to the physical state of fats that is solid at room temperature.
Oil
▪ Refers to the physical state of fat that is liquid at room temperature.
Triglyceride
▪ The chemical name of fats and oils
Fatty Acids
▪ Major constituent of lipids which consist of chain series of carbon atoms.
CLASSIFICATION OF FATTY ACIDS
1. Saturated Fatty Acid – abundantly found in animal fat, liver oil, and in vegetable fat such as coconut oil, peanut
oil, coconut milk, palm oil and palm kernel. E.g. animal fat – palmitic and stearic fatty acid
2. Unsaturated Fatty Acid – 2 types:
a) Mono-unsaturated fatty acids (MUFA)
e.g. oleic fatty acid – widely distributed in plants and animal such as olive oil, peanut oil and grape seed oil, lard, beef,
and lamb.
b) Poly –unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)
e.g. 1. Linoleic acid – avocado, nuts, corn oil, safflower, cotton seed oil.
2. linolenic acid – soybean, linseed oil
3. arachidonic acid – peanut oil
The three types of PUFA are nutritionally important and considered as essential fatty acids (EFA)
FUNCTIONS:
1. Fuel or energy – highest energy giving foods, each gram of fat supplies 9 calories.
2. Body insulator – as an effective insulator that reduces losses of body heat and maintain body temperature at a
constant level.
3. Source of essential fatty acids
4. Carrier of fat-soluble vitamins
5. Satiety value
6. Palatability
7. Protector of nerve endings and delicate organs
RENI: 20 – 30 % of the TER/day
FOOD SOURCES
1) Animal Fats – refers to that found in foods like meat, fish, poultry, cheese, & whole milk
2) Vegetable Fats – includes margarine, seed and vegetable oils, nuts, and fruits.
3) Visible Fats – butter, salad dressing, cooking oil, lard, margarine, pork fat, tallow (fat of lamb or beef) and suet
(clear white, solid fat obtained from beef)
4) Invisible Fats – egg yolk, milk, olives, avocado, well-marbled lean meats.

CLINICAL MANIFESTATION
1) Excess Intake – (obesity and overweight)
2) Deficiency – caused retarded growth
- cause underweight
- reduced caloric supply in the body

B. Micronutrients:
4.Vitamins
- Are potent organic compounds of related chemical composition which occur in minute quantities in foods and
are needed in small amounts.
Functions:
1. For specific regulatory functions.
2. For the maintenance of life and normal growth.
Vitamin Related Substances:
▪ Pro-vitamin or vitamin precursor – a substance chemically related to the biologically active form of
vitamin but no vitamin activity until the body will convert it into an active form.
e.g. carotene, intestinal wall, vitamin A
 ▪ Anti-vitamin or vitamin antagonist, pseudo-vitamins – substances that interfere with the normal
functioning of the vitamin either by competitive inhibition, by inactivation or by chemical
destruction.
e.g. Avidin (egg white) – Biotin

General Properties of Fat Soluble Vitamins

1) Soluble in fat
2) Intake in excess stored in the liver
3) Deficiencies slow to develop
4) Not needed everyday
5) Have precursor

FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

I. Vitamin A (Retinol)
Unit of Measurement: ug R.E.
Functions:
1) Maintenance of visual purple for vision in dim light.
2) For motion and maintenance for normal epithelial tissues which the body’s primary barrier to
infections.
3) Essential for normal growth, healthy skin and eyes.
Deficiency
1) Hyctalopia or “night blindness” – reduce vision in the dark especially after coming from the bright
light.
2) Hemeralopia or “glare blindness, day blindness” – defective vision in bright light.
3) Follicular Hyper-keratosis – skin becomes dry and scaly.
4) Lowered resistance to infections
5) Bitot’s spot – small triangular silvery spot on the conjunctiva.
6) Xeropthalmia – dry and lusteriess condition of the eyeball.
7) Keratomalacia – softening and necrosis of the cornea of the eye.
8) Faulty bone and tooth formation.
Toxicity – only happen when there is a large dose of vitamin A supplement e.g. Hyper-avitaminosis
RENI : Infants - 375 – 400ug Adults - 500 – 550ug
Children - 400ug Pregnant - 800ug
Adolescent -400 – 600ug Lactation - 900ug
Food sources
1) Dark green and leafy yellow vegetables, yellow fruits carrots, tomatoes, yellow camote , corn, and
ripe papaya
2) Fish liver oil, liver, egg yolk, milk, butter, and cheese.

II. Vitamin D: Ergocalciferol

Unit of Measurement : ug
Functions:
1. For strong bones and teeth
2. Helps body utilize calcium and phosphorus

Deficiency:
For infants and children – Rickets – a disease characterized by failure of bone to mineralize, causing long
bones to bow with bearing activities. Deformities occur in spine, thoracic and pelvic areas.
For Adults – leads to impaired Ca and P absorption, leading to bone pain and osteomalacia.
Toxicity:
Over toxic reaction in humans, when RQA is chronically exceeded.
Skin Cancer – over exposure to sunlight.
RENI: 200 – 400 I.U.
Sources:
Fortified margarine, butter. Milk and cheese, liver and other glandular organs.

III. Vitamin E: Tocopherol

Unit of Measurement: ug
Functions:
1. Acts as anti-oxidant
 2. Helps the formation and function of red blood cells, muscles and other tissues.
Deficiency:
Hemolysis – Destruction of Red Blood Cell
Toxicity:
No reported cases
RENI: 5 – 15 ug
Sources:
Vegetable oils, rice, nuts, and legumes like mongo
IV. Vitamin K - Phyloquinone (K1) green leaves
- Farnoquinone (K2) fish meal
- Menadione (K3) synthetic form
Obsolete names: anti-hemorrhagic factor
Unit of Measurement: microgram (ug)
Functions:
1) Prevents hemorrhage
2) Necessary for normal blood clotting
Deficiency:
1. Can cause a number of factors
2. Faulty intestine synthesis
3. Hepatic injury
4. Anti-coagulant therapy
Toxicity
Symptoms – vomiting, albuminuria and hemolytic anemia
RENI: 6 – 59 ug
Sources: Liver, dark green vegetables, wheat, vegetable oils.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS:

1) Soluble in water
2) Minimal storage of dietary excess
3) Needed or must be supplied every day in the diet
4) Deficiency symptoms often develop rapidly
5) Excreted by the way of urine.

I. ASCORBIC ACID : Vitamin C

Unit of Measurement: Milligram (mg)

Functions:

• Help keep bones, teeth, and blood vessels healthy.

• Important in the formation of collagen, a protein that provides structure to muscles, bones, etc. (collagen is like
a body cement representing 30% of all the protein in the body).

Deficiency:
1) Scurvy: swollen spongy and bleeding gums
2) Poor wound healing
3) Reduced resistance to infection
RENI: 30 -105 mg
Sources:

• Fresh fruits like atis, guava, datiles, kasuy, strawberry, melon, kamatsili, papaya, and green mangoes.
• Citrus fruits like kalamansi and suha
• Green leafy vegetables like lettuce and pechay.

I. THIAMINE: Vitamin B1
Unit of Measurement: Milligram (mg)
Functions:
1) Helps get energy from food by promoting proper metabolism of fatty acids and carbohydrates rich foods
like rice and sugar.
2) For correct functioning of the heart and nervous system.
Deficiency:
 ▪ Result in beri-beri, affecting nervous and cardiovascular systems.
▪ Symptoms are: anorexia and numbness of legs
▪ 3 form of beri-beri:
1. Dry – inflammation of many nerves
2. Wet – heart disease
3. Infantile – seen in infant’s breastfeed by mothers suffering from beri-beri.
RENI: 7- 1.4 mg
Sources:
▪ Lean pork, liver and other glandular organs, egg yolk, rice, nuts and legumes like mongo.
▪

II. RIBOFLAVIN: Vitamin B2

Unit of Measurement: Milligram (mg)
Functions:
1) Promotes growth necessary for healthy skin.
2) Functions in the body’s use of carbohydrates.
3) Helps release energy to cells.
Deficiency:
1) Photophobia – abnormal sensitivity to light.
2) Angular Stomatitis – cracks in the angle of the mouth.
3) Cheilosis – redness, swelling and ulceration of the lips usually the center of the lower lip.
4) Glossitis – swollen tongue or magenta tongue with purple-red in color.
5) Seborrheic dermatitis – skin is scaly, greasy eruptions especially on the skin
RENI: 0.3 -1.7 mg
Sources:
▪ Whole grain, legumes, leafy green vegetables, and seaweeds
▪ Cheese, milk, eggs, liver, other glandular organs and lean meats.

III. NIACIN: Nicotinic Acid

Unit of Measurement: milligram NE
Functions:
1) Involved in energy producing reactions in cells
2) Aids the nervous system
Deficiency:
▪ Severe deficiency leads to pellagra characterized by 4D’s:
1) Dermatitis – the skin develops cracked, pigmented, scaly dermatitis, sensitive to solar radiation.
2) Diarrhea – frequent passage of loose, watery, and unformed stools.
3) Dementia or Delirium –lesion appears in many parts of the CNS, resulting in mental changes, confusion,
and disorientation.
4) Death – if not remedied.
Toxicity:
▪ It increases gastro-intestinal motility and secretion of acid, causing epigastric pain and reaction of
peptic ulcer.
RENI: 1.5 – 18.0 mg NE
Sources:
▪ Liver and glandular organs, meats, egg yolk, milk, panutsa, rice, legumes, and nuts.

IV. PYRIDOXINE: Vitamin B6

Unit of Measurement: Milligram (mg)
Functions:
1) Essential for proper utilization of proteins
2) Aids in the formation of red blood cells and correct functioning of the nervous system.
RENI: 0.1 – 2.0 mg
Sources:
▪ Vegetable oils, unpolished or red rice, lard, and nuts.

V. PANTHOTENIC ACID
▪ Name from Greek word “Pantos” meaning everywhere. Due to its widespread occurrence in food.
Unit of Measurement: Milligram (mg)
Function:
 1) Required for metabolism of proteins, fats and carbohydrates and for the formation of certain hormones.
2) Functions in the regeneration of tissue.
Deficiency:
▪ Absorbed, with natural diet, since this vitamin is widely distributed in foods.
Toxicity: None
RENI: 4.0 – 7.0 mg
Sources:
▪ Liver and glandular organs, meats, eggs, milk, cheese, legumes.

VI. COBALAMIN: Vitamin B12

Unit of Measurement: microgram (ug)
Functions:
1) Helps prevent certain forms of anemia
2) Assist in the information of red blood cells.
Deficiency:
▪ Pernicious anemia.
▪ Deficiencies occasionally seen in strict vegetarian.
Toxicity: None

RENI: 0.3 – 2.8 ug

Sources:
▪ lean meats, liver, kidney, marine water fishes, and shellfish
▪ Animal protein contains Vit. B12 while plant sources are practically nil.
Note: Nil – not in the list

VII. PTYROGLUTAMIC ACID (PGA): FOLIC ACID/FOLACIN/FOLATE

Unit of Measurement: microgram (ug)
Functions:
1. Aids in the information of cells, especially red blood cells
2. Helps maintain functions of the intestinal tract.
3. Prevents certain forms of anemia
Deficiency:
✓ In man; not produce by inadequate diet, but occur secondary to disease.
✓ Symptoms includes: glossitis, gastro intestinal disturbance.
Toxicity:
Toxic in large doses, it may damage the kidney. In animals, they die of uremia.
RENI: 65.0 – 500 ug
Sources:
Green leafy vegetables, liver and other glandular organs, legumes, and cereals like rice.

VIII. BIOTIN
Obsolete Name: Anti-egg white injury factor
Unit of Measurements: microgram (mcg)
Functions:
1. Involved in the formation of fatty acids and production of energy.
2. Essential to many chemical system in the body like maintenance of the thyroid and adrenal glands, the
nervous system and reproductive system.
Deficiency:
✓ Due to large intake of egg white in the diet
✓ Symptoms:
1. Dry scaly, dermatitis
2. Nausea feeling that leads to vomiting
3. Depression
4. Muscular or nervous disorder
Toxicity: None
RENI: 100.0 – 200.0 mg
Sources:
1) Plants – cereals, legumes, nuts, most fruits and vegetables
2) Animals – liver, egg yolk, fish and milk

5.Minerals
➢ Inorganic elements that remain as ash when food is burned. Make up about 4% of body weight.
ESSENTIAL MINERALS:
1. Macro-minerals – major – minerals
✓ Those present in the body in large amounts.
1) Calcium - Ca
2) Phosphorus - P
3) Potassium -K
4) Sodium - Na
5) Magnesium - Mg
6) Sulfur -S
7) Chlorine - Cl
2. Micro – minerals – trace elements
✓ Those present in the body in small intestine
1) Iron - Fe
2) Iodine - I
3) Cobalt - Co
4) Copper - Cu
5) Zinc - Zn
6) Manganese - Mn
7) Molybdenum - Mo
8) Selenium - Se
9) Chromium - Cr
10) Fluorine -F

1. CALCIUM
✓ Comprises 1.5% to 2% of body weight.
✓ 99% of Ca found in bone, teeth, and hard tissues.
✓ 1% in blood, extracellular fluid and cells of soft tissues
Unit of Measurement: gram/mg
Functions:
1. Build and maintain bones and teeth which involved 2 process carried on by 2 cells:
A. Osteoblast – continually form a new bone matrix, in which Ca phosphate is deposited and
bone crystal develop.
B. Osteoclast – balance the act by absorbing bone tissues.

2. Aids in the coagulation of the blood – in the blood clotting process, the ionized calcium stimulates
the release the thromboplastin from blood platelets.
▪ One enzyme that accelerates the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin protein in blood
plasma needed for blood clotting.

3. Regulates muscle contraction and relaxation, thus is essential also for normal heart rhythm.
4. Required the normal transmission of nerve impulses.
5. Activates enzymes – important activators of certain enzymes such as ATPase (adenosine
triphosphate).
6. Promotes iron and vitamin B12 absorption.
Deficiency
1) Stunted growth and retardation, calcification of bones and teeth.
2) Rickets – characterized by enlarge joints, bowed legs, knocked-knees, beaded ribs.
3) Osteomalacia – reduction in the mineral content of the bone.
4) Osteoporosis – an absolute amount of bone in the skeleton has been diminished but in which the
remaining bone mass is of normal composition.
5) Tetany – reduction of circulating ionized Ca resulting in increased excitability/irritability of nerve
center.
Toxicity:
1. Hypercalcemia – elevated Ca in the blood
2. Renal Calculi – majority of kidney stones are composed of Ca
RENI:
1. Adult - 750 mg.
2. Pregnant/Nursing Mother - 750 – 800 mg.
3. Infant - 200 – 400 mg.
4. Children – 500 - 700 mg
5. Adolescent – 1000 mg.
Sources:
 1) Plant – green leafy vegetables like mustasa, malunggay, petchay, saluyot, gabi leaves
2) Animal – milk and milk products
Fish eaten with bones like dilis
Sardines and dried fishes
Shell fishes.

2. PHOSPORUS
▪ Comprises .8 to 1% of the total body weight
Unit of Measurement: milligram (mg)
Functions:
1) Mineralization of bones and teeth – about 80% of phosphorous in the form on insoluble
calcium phosphate crystals, which is constantly deposited and reabsorbed in the dynamic
process of bone formation. Phosphorous has been called the “metabolic twin” of calcium
2) For growth and maintenance.
3) Maintains water and acid base balance – It is the principal anion within the cells.
Deficiency: Same as Calcium
Toxicity: hyperphosphatemia – excess accumulation of serum phosphate
RENI:
Infant - 90 – 275 mg
Children - 460 – 500 mg
Adolescent - 1,250 mg
Adult - 700 mg
Pregnant/ Lactating mothers - 700 mg
Sources: All sources rich in calcium and protein are good sources of phosphorous

3. POTASSIUM
▪ About 250 grams in adult body, concentrated inside the cells.
Unit of Measurement: milligram (mg)
Functions:
1) Regulates water and acid-base balance – the major cat ion of the fluid inside the cells.
2) Maintains muscle contractility and nerve irritability – it works with Na and Ca to regulate
neuromuscular stimulation, transmission of electrochemical impulse and contraction of muscle
fibers.
Deficiency:
1) Hypokalemia – (low serum potassium) loss of potassium due to vomiting.
2) Muscle irritability, weakness and paralysis.
Toxicity:
• hyperkalemia – (elevated serum potassium) This result in weakening of heart action,
mental confusion, poor respiration, and numbness of extremities.
RENI:
• Infants – 90 – 275 mg
• Children - 460 – 500 mg
• Adolescent – 1,250 mg
• Adults - 700mg
• Pregnant/ Lactating mothers – 700mg
Sources:
▪ Richest sources are fruits and fruit juice, vegetables, legumes, nuts, cereals and meats.

4. SODIUM
• Comprises 1.8 mg/kg total body weight
50% of Na - found in extra cellular fluid.
40% - skeleton
10% - inside the cell
Unit of Measurement: Milligram, gram
Functions:
1) Regulates osmotic pressure and water balance – ionized Na is the major cat ion of the fluid outside
the cell.
2) Regulates acid – base balance – It is a major component of the base partner of the body’s main
buffer. (regulates acid-base balance in the body)
Deficiency:
• Muscle cramps and distributed acid-base balance resulting from diarrhea, vomiting and profuse
sweating.
 • Hyponatremia – low level of Na in the blood, due to very restriction of Na diets.
Toxicity:
▪ Not harmful since the body can excrete excess Na in the urine but a prolonged high salt diet may
aggravate a tendency toward high blood pressure, kidney disorder and edema.
RENI: 2.8 – grams Na
Sources:
▪ Present in a wide variety of food particularly animals foods such as meat, fish, poultry, milk, and
eggs.

5. MAGNESIUM
▪ 21 to 28 grams Magnesium in the body
60 – 70% - combined with Ca and P
30 – 40% - distributed in the soft tissue and body fluids
Unit of Measurement: Milligram (mg)
Functions:
1) Builds and maintains bone and teeth together with Ca and P
2) As part of the chlorophyll molecule which is important in photosynthetic reactions.
3) Needed for the production of ATP
Deficiency:
▪ Hypomagnesemic tetany – seen in infants suffering from kwashiorkor, alcoholics, postoperative
cases, and prolonged diarrhea.
Toxicity:
▪ Hypermagnesemia – (elevated serum magnesium) results to hypotension
RENI:
Infants - 26 – 54mg
Children - 65 – 100mg
Adolescent - 155 – 260mg
Adults - 205 – 235mg
Pregnant/ Lactating mothers – 205 – 250mg
Sources:
▪ Richest source are nuts, cocoa, soybean and whole grain cereal

6. SULFUR
▪ Comprise about .25% of body weight.
▪ Present in every cell in the body.
▪ Highest concentration is found in the hair, skin, and nails.
Unit of Measurement: Milligram (mg)
Functions:
▪ For structural function – principally as constituent of the following:
1) Amino acids, methionine, cysteine (reduced form) and cysteine (oxidized form).
2) Keratin – the protein of hair, nails, and skin.
3) Insulin – hormone which regulates carbohydrate metabolism.
4) Thiamine, pantothenic acid and both.
Deficiency/Toxicity:
▪ Hereditary defect in the re-absorption of amino acids cysteine causing excessive secretion of these
in the urine that lead production of cysteine kidney stones.
RENI: A diet adequate in protein will contain enough sulfur
Sources: All foods rich in protein provide sulfur.

7. CHLORINE
▪ About .15% of adult body weight.
Unit of Measurement: milligram (mg)
Functions:
1) Together with ionized Na, ionized CI’s major anion in the extra cellular fluid helps maintain water
balance and regulates osmotic pressure.
2) As component of HCL, it contributes to the necessary acidity needed in the stomach for the
breakdown of protein.
Deficiency:
▪ Alkalosis – results only when there is an excessive loss of chloride ions from the gastric secretion
during vomiting or diarrhea.
Toxicity: None
RENI: when Na intake is adequate, chloride will be adequately supplied
Sources:
▪ Table salt, meat, sea foods, milk and eggs.

MICRO – MINERALS
I. IRON
• Occurrence: about 0.004% or total of 3-5 grams of total body weight.
Distributed in the body in the following forms:
a) Transport – about .05 – 18 mg/ 100 ml is found in the plants.
b) Hemoglobin – about 60 – 75%.
c) Myoglobin – 5% as part of the muscle hemoglobin.
d) Storage Iron – 26% is stored in various organs (liver spleen, and bone marrow) as ferritin.
e) Cellular Tissue Iron – 5% is distributed throughout the cell.
Functions:
1) Needed for hemoglobin formation.
▪ Hemoglobin in the RBC is the oxygen transport unit of the blood that conveys oxygen to the cells
for respiration and metabolism.
Deficiency:
▪ Is resulted to inadequate production of RBC causing anemia – a condition characterized by
reduction in size or number of RBC or the quantity of hemoglobin or both, resulting in decreased
capacity of the blood to carry oxygen.
According to cause anemia is classified as follows:
1. Nutritional Anemia
▪ Due to an inadequate supply of iron in the diet throughout the life cycle due to poor quality
of food sources.
2. Hemorrhagic Anemia
▪ Due to excessive blood loss such as surgery, wounds, injury.
Pregnancy, parasitism, and blood donation.
3. Pernicious Anemia
▪ Inadequate formation of RBC because of Vit. B12 deficiency caused by lack of intrinsic
factor.
4. Malabsorption Anemia
▪ Substance hinder iron absorption
5. Milk Anemia
▪ Feeding older infants solely milk which lacks iron.
Toxicity:
1. Hemochromatosis
▪ Abnormal deposits of hemosiderin in the liver and other tissues due to abnormal absorption
and storage of iron.
2. Hemosiderosis
▪ Accumulation of hemosiderin in the liver and other tissues.
RENI:
Infants - .38 – 10mg
Children - 8 – 11mg.
Adolescent - 13 -27mg.
Adults - 12 – 27mg
Pregnant/ Lactating women – 27 – 38mg.
Sources:
1) Plant – green leafy vegetables
2) Animal – liver and other meat organs

II. IODINE – mg./ug

✓ The body normally contains 20-30 mgs. Iodine concentrated in the thyroid gland stored in the form of
thyroglobulin
Functions:
1. Needed in the synthesis of throxine, the principle hormone of the thyroid gland. It regulates the rate of
oxygen consumption in the cells and involve in the growth of tissues.
▪ Goitrogenic Substances – interfere with iodine utilization
 ▪ Goitrogens – are found in peanuts (especially in red skin), cabbage, cauliflower, radish,
peas, and cassava.
Deficiency:
1) Goiter – enlargement of the thyroid gland
2) Myedema – hypothyroidism in adult
3) Cretinism – seen in infants born to a mother who had inadequate intake of iodine during pregnancy.
RENI:
Infants - 90mg
Children - 90 – 120mg
Adolescent – 120 – 150mg
Adult - 150mg
Pregnant/Lactating women – 200mg
Sources:
✓ Sea foods such as clams, sardines and other sea fishes are the richest sources.

III. COBALT – mg
▪ Comprise 4% of vitamin B12
Functions:
1) As component of Vitamin B12 essential for maturation of RBC
Deficiency:
▪ Is associated with B12 deficiency.
Toxicity:
▪ Polycythemia – over production of RBC
RENI: not known
Source:
▪ Widely distributed in nature

IV. COPPER - mg
▪ Adult body contained 75 – 150 mgs of copper.
Functions:
▪ Essential for the utilization of iron in the synthesis of hemoglobin.
Deficiency:
Hypocupremia – noted in children with iron deficiency anemia.
Toxicity:
▪ Resulted to Wilson’s disease, characterized by degenerative changes in brain tissue together with
cirrhosis of the liver.
RENI: .08 mg/KBW
Sources:
1. Plant – green leafy vegetables
2. Animal – liver (highest)

V. ZINC – mg
▪ Adult has about 2 gms of zinc.
Functions:
1. Essential for growth and gonad development in man.
Deficiency:
1. Impairs growth
2. hypogonadism
Toxicity:
▪ In poisoning, results in increased losses of iron and copper
RENI:
Infants - 1.4 4.2 mg
Children – 4.5 – 5.4mg
Adolescent – 6.0 – 5.4mg
Adult - 4.5 -6.4 mg
Pregnant/Lactating Women – 5.1 – 11mg
Sources:
▪ Widely distributed

VI. MANGANESE
▪ About 10-20 mg. is present in the adult body concentrated in the liver, bones, kidneys, muscles and
skin.
Function:
1. Plays a role in urea formation – part of the molecular structure of arginase, an enzyme (arginine-an
amino acid) essential for urea formation.
Deficiency: None
Toxicity:
▪ Can cause a reduction in Hb regeneration and results in decreased iron absorption in liver, kidney,
and spleen. Toxicity is found in miners as a result of prolonged exposure to diet.
RENI:
Infant - .003 - .6mg
Children - 1.2 – 1.7mg
Adolescent - 1.6 -2.3mg
Adult - 1.8 – 2.3mg
Pregnant/Lactating women – 2.0 0 2.6 mg
Sources:
▪ Animal are poor sources
▪ Plant – nuts, legumes, whole grain cereals, tea, and dried fruits.

VII. MOLYBDENUM – mg
▪ Present in minute amount in the body
Functions:
1) An integral part of Xanthine Oxidase (involved in the formation of uric acid and Aldehyde Oxidase (
as catalyst in the oxidation of aldehydes to corresponding carboxylic acid).
Deficiency:
▪ Not observed in man

Toxicity:
▪ High Mo intake can induce copper deficiency
RENI: Not known
Sources:
▪ Widely distributed.

VIII. FLOURINE – mg
▪ Greatest concentration in bones and teeth
Functions:
▪ Prevents dental carries
Toxicity:
▪ Resulted in dental fluorosis or mottled enamel (with brownish and white patches with or without of
the enamel)
RENI:
Infant - .01 – 5mg
Children - 1.2 – 1.7 mg
Adolescent - 1.7 – 2.9mg
Adult - 2.5 – 3.0mg
Pregnant/Lactating women – 2.5mg
Sources:
▪ Found naturally in water supplies. In addition to water content, a normal diet may contribute 1.5
mg. fluorine/ day for solid foods.

IX. CHROMIUM - mg
▪ About 20 pb in blood and higher in glandular organs.
Functions:
1) Catalyzes reactions involving energy release, particularly in the first steps of glucose metabolism by
facilitating transfer of glucose from plasma to cell.
Deficiency:
▪ Elevated blood glucose with excretion in urine
Toxicity:
▪ Toxic only when injected intravenously
RENI: Not known
Sources:
▪ FATS – highest concentration (corn oil)

X. SELENIUM – mg/ug
 ▪ Found in minute amount in the body, concentrated in the liver and other glandular organs, blood,
and muscles.
Functions:
▪ Antioxidant role related to Vitamin E

Deficiency:
▪ Not observed in man
Toxicity:
▪ Gastric and hepatic disorder results
RENI:
Infants - 6 -10mg
Children - 7 – 12mg
Adolescent - 21 – 36mg
Adult - 31mg
Pregnant/Lactating women - 35 – 40mg
Sources:
▪ Variable, depending on level in soil where plants are grown. (cereal and onion)

6.Water and Electrolytes.

Many authors classify water both as a food and a nutrient. It constitutes about 60 – 70% of the body
weight, a body that is deprived by at least 10% of water causes body illness. A loss of 20% water in the body
causes death.
A body of a normal adult contains 45 liters of water. Two thirds (2/3) of which (30 liters) is found inside
or within the cells (intracellular fluids). One third (1/3) is found outside of the cells (extra cellular fluids). Three
liters of which is in the blood or intra vascular fluid and 12 liters in the interstitial or intercellular fluid. Water is
present in every tissue but its amount varies considerably. The highest concentration is found in the metabolically
active cells of the muscles and viscera and lowest in the calcified tissue.

FUNCTIONS:
a. Water is nearly a universal solvent. In the blood, it carries simple sugars, amino acid, lipoproteins, vitamins, and
minerals for transportation to the different tissues for functioning and nourishment.
b. Water is used to excrete waste products from the lungs, skin, and kidneys.
c. Water is needed in all the chemical reactions; it serves a catalyst in many biological reactions especially involving
digestion and aids in absorption and circulation.
d. Water is a vital component of tissues, muscles, glycogen and etc. and is vital for growth.
e. Water acts as lubricant for the joints and the viscera in the abdominal cavity thus can protect a sensitive tissue.
f. Water is also a regulator of body temperature through its ability to control heat.
Hard water can also be a source of trace minerals such as fluorine, calcium, magnesium, and copper. It can also be a
source of toxic elements such as lead, cadmium and other industrial wastes including bacteria.

WATER BALANCE:
The amount of water taken must be equal to the amount of water output for a person to be in metabolic
equilibrium. Fluid intake is controlled by thirst and appetite and output by the endocrine glands and temperature of the
environment.

The body uses more water in the blood, saliva, intestinal, gastric, bile, and pancreatic juices than the daily
intake. However, enough water is available through more efficient conservation of water from kidneys and intestines.
The fluid intake is approximately equal to the urine output. This knowledge is used in the fluid intake and output chart
being used by the nursing staff in wards, which they fluid useful as a practical procedure in the care of the patients
with febrile or kidney disorder.
WATER INTAKE:
The amount of water needed by the body may be a direct intake of water coming from water ingested such as
water found in food and metabolic water, which is a result of the oxidation of foodstuffs in the body. Water produced
as an end- product of metabolism amounts to approximately 10 – 14 gram per 100 kcal.

For example:
100 g of fat, CHO, protein when oxidized will yield 107 ml, 55 ml and 41 ml of water respectively.
Varying amount of water present in foods:

• Meat and fish – 37 – 85%

 • Fruits and vegetables – 60 – 69%
• Fatty foods – low or zero moisture content
• Brain foods – 2 – 12%
Water is immediately absorbed from the digestive tract into the blood and lymph.
WATER OUTPUT:
Water input is controlled by the hormone Vasopressin (anti – diuretic hormone or ADH) which is secreted by
the pituitary gland. Release of this hormone decreases water excretion by the kidney by increasing the rate of water re-
absorption from the tubules.

Water leaves the body through several channels:

• Skin – as sweat and insensible perspiration
• Lungs – as water vapor in the exhaled air
• Gastro – intestinal tract – as feces
• Kidneys – as urine
The urine is an important medium for the elimination of excess water. Water may also be lost together with
electrolytes through tears, stomach suction, breathing, vomiting, diarrhea, bleeding, perspiration, drainage from burns,
discharges from ulcer, skin diseases, and injured or burned areas.
Recommended Energy and Nutrient Intake (RENI):
Recommended for:
Adults – 1 ml / calorie
Infants – 1.5 ml / calorie
Approximately 1.5 – 2.5 liters or 6 – 10 glasses of water a day. Water intake is derived mostly from
beverages and prepared foods. During hot weather, fever, hemorrhage, excessive sweating, vomiting, diarrhea, and
high protein intake, the allowance for water is increased.
Increased fluid intake is recommended for:
1. Athletes
2. Pregnant mother
3. Lactating mothers

ABNORMALITIES OF WATER BALANCE:

a. Over dehydration or Water Intoxication
When large amount of water is lost in the body, it is usually caused by high environmental temperatures, sodium is
also lost. This phenomenon causes the brain to signal a need for water increase. If the water intake is increase without
the corresponding increase of sodium intake, then water intoxication will occur.

Causes of Water Intoxication:

• Workers exposed to high environmental temperatures
• Travelers to tropical countries not accustomed to weather condition results to:
1. Muscle cramps
2. Weakness
3. Drop in blood pressure
This condition may be relieved by providing sodium in very small amount with the intake of fluids.
• Too much fluid is taken intravenously. If the intake of water exceeds the maximum rate of urine flow,
the cells and tissues become water-logged and diluted.
Conditions Result to:
1. Anorexia
2. Vomiting
3. If occurs in the brain, may lead to convulsion, coma and even death.

b. Dehydration. A serious condition of water loss about 10% of the total body water and fatal if the loss is from 20-
22%. Critical especially among the babies. Electrolytes are also lost with the water. In this condition, the skin
becomes loose and inelastic and the individual experiences severe thirst and nausea. Work performance of the
individual may seriously be affected.

ELECTROLYTE BALANCE:
When chemical compounds dissociate in solution these break up with separate particles called ions. They are
also known as electrolytes, because these changed particles can conduct electric current.
Examples of electrolytes: (do ionized)
 1. Salts
2. Acids
3. Bases
Examples of non – electrolytes: (do not ionized)
1. Glucose
2. Alcohol
3. Urea
4. Protein
5. Other substance involved in metabolism
Each ion may either be positive (+) or negative ( - ).
Positive ions are cation which includes:
1. Sodium (Na+)
2. Potassium (K+)
3. Calcium (Ca++)
4. Magnesium (Mg++)
Negative ions are anions which include:
1. Chloride (CI -)
2. Bicarbonate (HCO3-)
3. Biphosphate (HPO4--)
4. Sulfate (SO4--)4
Ions of organic acids such as lactate, pyruvate, acetoacetate and many protein derivatives.

Important aspects of electrolytes in water balance:

1. Measurement of electrolytes in the body fluids
2. Electrolyte composition of body fluids
3. Electrolyte balance within fluid compartment.

Terms:
• Electrolytes concentration are measured in terms of milliequivalent (mEq.)
• Concentration refers to the number of particles per unit volume
• Extracellular fluid (ECF) is the fluid in the plasma, lymph, spinal fluid and secretions.
• Intracellular fluid (ICF) is the fluid contained within cell.
Electrolyte composition of the body fluids:
A. Major electrolyte found in the plasma and interstitial fluid:
1. Sodium (Na)
2. Chloride (CI)
B. Major electrolyte in the intracellular fluid:
1. Potassium (K)
2. Phosphate (P)
Sodium and potassium can control the amount of water that can be retained in any given compartment.
An alteration in the maintenance of osmotic equilibrium may result in dehydration or even edema.
Electrolytes play an important role in regulating fluid and ph balance.
For therapeutic purposes, foods that will produce acid-ash, basic-ash, or neutral-ash are necessary to produce
acid or basic urine as needed by the body.
When mineral elements are released from foods after metabolism, these elements function to maintain acid-
base balance, and the organic acids are oxidized to form C02 and water.
TOXICITY
• Acidosis/ Alkalosis – a disturbance in the acid-base balance in the body
• Acidosis – the excessive accumulations of H ions.
• Alkalosis – great loss of hydrochloric acid (HCL).