WHAT'S IN A HISTORICAL ANTECEDENT? playing a crucial role in agricultural irrigation.

•Antecedents – is defined as a precursor to the unfolding • The shadoof introduced the concept of lifting objects
or existence of something using counterweights, showcasing early engineering
3 Historical stages of S&T inventive.
•Ancient Age • Its invention significantly enhanced the efficiency of
•Middle Ages irrigation and farming practices among the ancient
•Modern Ages Egyptians.
ANCIENT AGE • The shadoof is considered an ancient precursor to more
 Ancient Age characterized by reliance on advanced irrigation tools that developed over time.
protoscience, a period when the scientific Antikythera mechanism
method was in its early stages • The Antikythera mechanism, discovered in 1902 in
 Proper science and the scientific method Greece, is considered the ancient world’s analogue
developed during the Middle Ages computer.
 Knowledge passed down through generations • Resembling a mantel clock, wooden fragments suggest
via oral tradition it was housed in a case with a circular face and rotating
 Focus on survival create difficulties to the hands.
development of science during this period • It featured a knob allowing it to be wound forward or
 Ancient civilizations emerged, including backward, like winding a clock.
Mesopotamia, Indus, Ancient Egypt, Ancient • The mechanism was designed to display celestial time,
Greece, Ancient China, and Ancient Rome and it is believed to have been used for predicting
 Foundations of proper science laid in these astronomical positions and eclipses.
civilizations • Forms of writing played a crucial • Originating between 250-87 B.C., the Antikythera
role in documenting and transmitting knowledge mechanism is among the oldest known precursors to
 Advanced modes of transportation began to take modern clockwork.
shape in ancient civilizations • It represents an impressive technological achievement
 Transition from hunting to agriculture led to a in ancient Greek science and served calendrical and
surplus of food astrological purposes
 Civilized conditions allowed for the pursuit of Aeolipile
knowledge beyond survival activities ▪ The aeolipile, or Hero's engine, is an ancient steam-
Outstanding Ancient Age Inventions powered turbine considered a precursor to the steam
Ancient Wheel engine.
• The ancient wheel evolved from the potter's wheel; a ▪ Invented by Hero of Alexandria in the first century
horizontal disk of hardened clay spun on an axis. A.D., it rotated when its central water container was
• Sumerians are credited with inventing the potter's heated.
wheel around 3500 B.C. ▪ The device, with tangentially pointed nozzles,
• The transition from the potter's wheel to the showcased early steam power but its practical
transportation wheel is unclear. applications remain unclear.
• The wheel was likely shifted to a 90-degree angle for ▪ Hero's aeolipile is a significant milestone in the
transportation purposes. historical evolution of steam-based technology.
• The invention of the wheel for transportation is THE MIDDLE AGES
generally attributed to the Sumerians.  15th century A.D. spanning from the collapse of
• It took 1000 to 1500 years for the wheel to be used on the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century
carts. A.D. to the late 15th century A.D., witnessed
Paper significant scientific and technological progress.
• Around 3000 B.C., ancient Egyptians started using  Contrary to the terms "Medieval Period" and
papyrus, a material similar to thick paper, for writing. "Dark Ages," this era was marked by
• Papyrus was made from the papyrus plant near the Nile advancements, new inventions, innovations in
River, offering a lightweight, strong, durable, and traditional production, and the emergence of
portable writing surface. scientific thinking and methods.
• Before papyrus, writing was primarily done on stone  To understand the development of science in the
and reserved for significant occasions due to the Middle Ages, it can be divided into three
difficulty. subperiods:
• The advent of papyrus revolutionized documentation Early Middle Ages (476-1000 A.D.), High Middle Ages
and record-keeping, making it more efficient and (1000-1250 A.D.), and Late Middle Ages (1250-1500
widespread. A.D.).
• Papyrus facilitated faster information dissemination, The Early Middle Ages (476- 1000 A.D.)
making records more durable and efficient • The Early Middle Ages (476-1000 A.D.) followed the
Shadoof collapse of the Roman Empire, marked by societal focus
• Shadoof, an early tool invented by ancient Egyptians, on peacekeeping and empire building rather than centers
was used to irrigate land, which was particularly vital for of learning.
those living near the Nile River. • Often labeled as the "true Dark Ages," it saw conflicts,
• It was a hand-operated device designed for lifting population shifts, and a decline in urban life.
water,
• Despite challenges, evidence suggests medieval • Despite social upheavals, this period witnessed
thinkers sought answers about the universe; illuminated significant scientific progress. William of Ockham
manuscripts in Ireland reflected progress in the scientific proposed Ockham's Razor, influencing modern science
method. with the principle of preferring simpler theories.
• Examples include Saint Bede's records, craftmanship • Jean Buridan challenged Aristotelian physics,
by Vikings and Saxons, and Norse sailors using stars for developing the theory of impetus, a precursor to
navigation. The Early Middle Ages (476-1000 A.D.) Newtonian physics.
• In China, Bi Sheng invented movable type printing • Thomas Bradwardine and colleagues differentiated
towards the end of this period, replacing woodblock kinematics from dynamics and proposed the mean speed
printing. theorem, precursor to Galileo's work on falling objects.
• The Early Middle Ages, with a rural and dispossessed Late Middle Ages (1250-1500)
population, had limited scientific and technological • Nicolas d'Oresme discussed a heliocentric universe
advancements. theory, suggesting Earth's rotation two centuries before
• Monastic study, particularly in the West, preserved Copernicus.
some scientific processes; monks in Western Europe • Scholars during this period became more open to
studied medicine and astronomy for practical purposes. natural explanations, seeking simpler causes for
• In 725 A.D., Buddhist monk Yi Xing in Asia invented phenomena without relying on divine intervention.
the world's first mechanical clock using water to • Despite these advances, the Late Middle Ages'
measure time. contributions were overshadowed by the Renaissance
• Small contributions to astronomy sustained the and the Age of Enlightenment, and the Black Death
relevance of mathematics and geometry, echoing the disrupted scientific and technological progress.
Roman and Greek influences • The Renaissance (1400-1600) would later bring about a
The High Middle Ages (1000-1250 A.D.) resurgence of knowledge that had taken a backseat
• Marked a period of European recovery from constant during the Middle Ages
warfare and population growth, triggering settlement and Outstanding Middle Age Inventions
unity. Heavy plough
• Prolonged conflicts between Christians and Muslims • According to University of Southern Denmark
and territorial disputes in Spain and the East professor Thomas Bernebeck Andersen, the impact of
characterized the era. the heavy plough was transformative, turning European
• Trade flourished, with merchants and mercenaries agriculture and economy on its head.
sharing practices and experiences across regions like • The heavy plough revolutionized agriculture in
Spain, the Holy Land, and Byzantium. Northern Europe, particularly in territories with heavy,
• Translation efforts, initiated by Muslims translating fatty, and moist clay soils.
Greek to Arabic, thrived in Spain, facilitating the transfer • This innovation resulted in rapid economic prosperity
of knowledge into European consciousness. in the northern territories, marked by higher and
• Medieval universities, such as the University of healthier agricultural yields and more efficient farming
Bologna, Oxford, Cambridge, and Paris, played a vital practices.
role in hosting scholars and fostering knowledge ▪ The invention of the heavy plough during the Middle
exchange. Ages was a significant technological innovation.
The High Middle Ages (1000-1250 A.D.) ▪ Clay soil, though fertile, was difficult to cultivate due
• Scholars like Gerard of Cremona from the Italian to its heaviness until the heavy plough was introduced.
School of Translators contributed to blending ancient ▪ The heavy plough made it possible to harness clay soil,
Greek knowledge with Muslim discoveries. leading to increased agricultural
• Christian scholasticism, focused on theology, initiated Gunpowder
the connection between scientific empiricism and • Gunpowder, invented around 850 A.D. by Chinese
religion. alchemists, was likely an accidental by-product of
• Thinkers like Thomas Aquinas, Robert Grosseteste, and attempts to create the elixir of life.
Roger Bacon worked on establishing the scientific • Known as huoyao or "fire potion" in Chinese,
method during the 12th century. gunpowder revolutionized warfare.
• Technological advancements were present, such as Su • Prior to its invention, battles and wars mainly involved
Song's "cosmic empire" clock in China (1092) and the use of swords and spears.
navigational compasses used in Chinese ships by 1000 • By the end of the 13th century, gunpowder had spread
A.D. to Europe and Asia, transforming warfare.
• The efficient compass technology spread to Europe • Gunpowder enabled the development of various
through Arab traders who learned about it in China, weapons, from fiery arrows to cannons and grenades.
contributing to replication and improvement. • Its invention marked an unprecedented advancement in
Late Middle Ages (1250-1500) warfare and combat throughout the Middle Ages.
• The Late Middle Ages (1250-1500) marked the • Gunpowder became the foundation for nearly every
transition from medieval to modern society, but it was new weapon used in war since its discovery, shaping the
marred by crises, including the Great Famine, the Black course of military technology and strategy.
Death, the Hundred Years War, the Peasants' Revolt, Paper money
burning of Joan of Arc, and the fall of Constantinople.
• Paper money, the precursor to modern banknotes, history in terms of politics, economics, culture, and
originated in China in the 7th century A.D. as an technology. The Early Modern Period
outgrowth of block printing. • The Early Modern Period laid the foundations for the
• Before the introduction of paper money, precious Great Divergence, during which the West surpassed pre-
metals like gold and silver were used as currency. modern growth and achieved unprecedented wealth and
• The concept of assigning value to marked paper took power in the 19th century.
time to gain popularity; initially, Mongols in the 13th • It commenced with Johannes Gutenberg's invention of
century attempted to introduce paper money in the the movable type printing press, enhancing knowledge
Middle East, but it failed. production efficiency and leading to increased literacy
• Eventually, traders and merchants recognized the rates and educational reforms.
significant advantage of using paper money due to its • The period saw the 14th-16th century Renaissance and
ease of transport compared to traditional forms of the 16thcentury Protestant Reformation, driven by
currency. improved access to knowledge.
• Although banknotes in Europe began in the 17th centu The Early Modern Period
ry, the Chinese were pioneers in developing and • The Early Modern Period witnessed a shift from older
implementing the early versions of paper money. scientific methods to empiricism and modern science
Mechanical clocks during the 16th and 17th-century scientific revolutions.
• Mechanical clocks, able to accurately keep track of • Middle Age thinkers like Roger Bacon, who laid the
time down to the minute and second, emerged during the foundation for the scientific method, influenced
Middle Ages. experimentation and hypothesis testing in this period.
• While ancient timekeeping devices like the Antikythera • The accessibility of knowledge led to improvements in
mechanism existed, it was in the Middle Ages that transportation, the secularization of politics, and the
clockwork technology advanced to enable precise growth of capitalism, contributing to the rise of powerful
timekeeping. nations.
• The sophistication of clockwork technology during this The Late Modern Period
period marked a significant development, transforming • The Late Modern Period, spanning from around 1750
how people structured their days and established work to 1815, witnessed significant political, social, and
patterns, especially in more advanced Middle Age cities. economic changes influenced by the First Industrial
• Mechanical clocks played a crucial role in shaping the Revolution, the American Revolution (1776), and the
modern understanding and measurement of time, French Revolution (1789).
contributing to increased efficiency and organization in • The First Industrial Revolution, starting in 1750,
daily life. The spinning wheel transformed the production of goods, altering the
• The spinning wheel, a crucial invention of the Middle economic, societal, and cultural frameworks. The
Ages, revolutionized the process of transforming fiber inventions of the internal combustion engine, steam
into thread or yarn for weaving cloth. powered ships, and railways dramatically increased
• While the exact origins are debated, it is theorized that production capacity and shifted economic focus from
the Indians invented the spinning wheel between the 6th agriculture to manufacturing.
and 11th centuries A.D. • Mass production in factories became a model for
• Before the spinning wheel, weaving primarily relied on various fields, including education, where schools were
the slower and more tedious hand-spinning process. designed like factories, treating students as raw materials
• The invention of the spinning wheel, according to to be transformed into competent products for modern
White (1974), significantly increased the speed of fiber life.
spinning, overcoming a bottleneck in cloth production. The Late Modern Period
• This breakthrough in linen production occurred when • Increased production and economic growth led to a
the spinning wheel was introduced to Europe in the 13th shift in consumer behavior, with people relying on mass-
century A.D., transforming the textile industry by produced goods rather than producing their own food,
increasing efficiency and productivity. clothing, and supplies.
MODERN AGE • The French and American Revolutions in the late 18th
• The Modern Age spans from the 1500s to the present, century replaced monarchy with national sovereignty
representing the postmedieval era. and representative democracy, fostering greater
• It is characterized by global population growth, secularism and the emergence of democracy based on
technological advancements, urbanization, scientific individual rights and progress.
discoveries, and increased globalization. • The Late Modern Period laid the groundwork for the
• Similar to the Middle Ages, the Modern Age is often Contemporary Period, marked by urbanization,
divided into subperiods: the early modern period and the education, increased political participation, consumption
late modern period. of mass media, and the embrace of citizenship in
• Periodization in other parts of the world may differ, industrialized nations.
with modernity emerging earlier or later, but there is • Urbanization and mass media contributed to a shared
consensus that the defining characteristics primarily mass culture, connecting people across regional, social,
unfolded in Europe. and cultural boundaries and fostering a sense of shared
• The Modern Age has witnessed profound changes in identity as citizens in an industrialized society.
various aspects of society, shaping the course of human Outstanding Modern Age Inventions
Compound microscope
• The compound microscope was invented in 1590 by • John Logie Baird, a Scottish engineer, is largely
Zacharias Janssen, a Dutch spectacle maker, in credited with the invention of the modern television.
collaboration with his father. • Baird successfully televised objects in outline in 1924,
• Through experiments with lenses, they discovered that recognizable human faces in 1925, and moving objects
placing multiple lenses on a tube could magnify objects in 1926 at the Royal Institution in London.
much more than a simple magnifying lens. • He demonstrated colored images in 1928, and the
• The Janssen compound microscope represented a British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) used Baird's
significant advancement from the single lens television technology for its earliest programming in
microscope, offering magnification up to three times 1929.
when fully closed and up to 10 times when extended to • While Baird's television technology was the first, it
the maximum. later faced criticism for its fuzzy and flickering images,
• Today, the compound microscope plays a crucial role primarily because it was mechanical compared to the
in various scientific studies, including medicine, forensic emerging electronic versions at the time.
studies, tissue analysis, atomic studies, and genetics. Historical Antecedents of Science and Technology
Telescope • Studying the historical antecedents of science and
• Galileo Galilei built the practical telescope, a pivotal technology is crucial for understanding their evolution,
technological invention in the study of astronomy. origins, and contexts. It facilitates replicating and
• This telescope could magnify objects 20 times larger improving existing technologies, demystifying science
than the Dutch perspective glasses, marking a significant by showcasing the human aspect of scientific endeavors
improvement. and encourages broader participation. Recognizing the
• Galileo was the first to use the telescope for relevance of science and technology to everyday life
astronomical observations, leading to groundbreaking fosters a greater interest in these fields, making them
discoveries such as craters and mountains on the moon. more accessible to a wider audience.
• Galileo's use of the telescope revolutionized SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS AND SOCIETY
astronomical science, revealing that the universe was Scientific revolution
much larger than previously imagined and emphasizing •Is the term used to refer to a period in history when
the relatively small size of Earth within the vast cosmos drastic changes in scientific thought, scientific
Jacquard Loom communities, and scientific method took place.
• The Jacquard loom, invented by French weaver Joseph Scientific revolutions as paradigm shifts
Marie Jacquard, was crucial in driving the Industrial ▪ Before these revolutions, the work of pre-Socratic
Revolution. Greek philosophers dominated widely held beliefs about
• Before its invention, textile manufacturing relied on the nature of the universe, much of which focused on
draw looms, requiring both a weaver and a "draw boy" human society, ethics, and religion.
for figured designs on textiles. Scientific revolutions as paradigm shifts
• Introduced in 1801, the Jacquard loom simplified the ▪Paved the way for the view of Nature as a machine
process using a series of cards with punched holes to rather than a divine providence.
automatically create complex textile designs. ▪These revolutions were more often met with huge
• This innovation reduced the need for manual labor and resistance and controversy.
made mass production of intricate designs more Jean Sylvain Bailley’s Two-Stage Process
efficient. • The Jacquard loom also served as an early Stage 1: ‘sweeping away the old’
precursor to modern computer technology by using Stage 2: ‘establishing the new’
punched cards to instruct machines for complex tasks, Foci of this unit
such as creating different textile patterns. Engine- Copernican Revolution
Powered Airplane •The Copernican Revolution refers to the 16th century
• Orville and Wilbur Wright are credited with designing paradigm shift named after Polish mathematician and
and successfully operating the first engine-powered astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus.
aircraft on December 17, 1903, at Kitty Hawk, North •Copernicus formulated the heliocentric model of the
Carolina. universe.
• The Wright brothers approached the design of powered •At the time, the geocentric model of Ptolemy was the
aircraft scientifically, challenging the belief that widely held belief about the universe (i.e., Ptolemaic
airfoilshaped wings were necessary for flight. model).
• Their original "Flying Machine" patent (US patent •Commentariolus
#821393) emphasised slightly tilted wings, referred to as •De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (the revolution of
aeroplanes, as the key features of a powered aircraft. celestial spheres) in 1543
• The success of their pioneering flight marked the ▪The idea that it is the Sun and not the Earth that is at the
beginning of the age of powered flights, demonstrating center of the universe proved to be unsettling in the
that aircraft could fly without traditional airfoil-shaped beginning.
wings. ▪In fact, the heliocentric model was met with huge
• Despite lacking modern knowledge of aerodynamics, resistance.
the Wright brothers' scientific approach paved the way ▪At the time, the idea that it is not the Earth, and, by
for modern aircraft science and technology development. extension, not man too, that is at the center of all
Television creation proved to be uncomfortable.
•The contribution of the Copernican Revolution is, until
today.
•It catalyzed to sway scientific thinking away from age-
long views about the position of the Earth relative to an
enlightened understanding of the universe.
•This marked the beginning of the birth of modern
astronomy.
Darwinian Revolution
•English naturalist, geologist, and biologist Charles
Darwin is credited for stirring another important
scientific revolution in the mid-19th century.
•His treatise on the science of evolution, On The Origin
of Species, was published in 1859 and began a
revolution that brought humanity to a new era of
intellectual discovery. Benefitted from earlier scientific
revolutions in the 16th and 17th century in that it was
guided by confidence in human reason’s ability to
explain phenomena in the universe. For his part, Darwin
gathered evidence pointing to what is now known as
natural selection, an evolutionary process by which
organisms, including humans, inherit, develop, and adapt
traits that favored survival and reproduction.
•Darwin’s theory of evolution was, of course, met with
resistance.
•Critics accused the theory of being either short in
accounting for the broad and complex evolutionary
process. Freudian Revolution
•Sigmund Freud is credited for stirring a 20th century
scientific revolution named after him, the Freudian
Revolution.
•Psychoanalysis is at the center of this revolution.
•Freud developed Psychoanalysis. Freudian Revolution
He also proposed:
•id •Superego •Ego
•Scientists working on a biological approach to human
behavior criticized Psychoanalysis for lacking vitality
and bordering unscientific as a theory.
•Particularly, the notion that all humans are destined to
exhibit Oedipus and Electra complexes, Freudian
Revolution Freudian Revolution
▪Amidst the controversy, Freud’s Psychoanalysis is
widely given credit for dominating psychotherapeutic
practice from the early 20th century.
▪Psychodynamic therapies that treat a myriad of
psychological disorders remain still largely informed by
Freud’s work on Psychoanalysis.
Science Revolution and Science Society
What’s the connection?
•Scientific revolutions provide societies with new
knowledge and technologies, improving quality of life,
economic development, and global connectivity. This
knowledge informs social progress, influences
education, and raises ethical considerations, shaping a
more enlightened and interconnected world. The legacy
of scientific breakthroughs inspires the ongoing pursuit
of knowledge and progress.