Psych 031: Understanding the Self

MODULE 1: THE SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES

MODULE OBJECTIVES
 Discuss the different representations and conceptualizations of the self from various disciplinal
perspectives, namely philosophy, sociology, anthropology, and psychology;
 Examine the different influences, factors, and forces that shape the self;
 Compare and contrast how the self has been represented across the different disciplines and
perspectives; and
 Demonstrate critical and reflexive though in analyzing the development of one’s self and identity by
developing a theory of the self.

TOPIC 1: PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF (3 hours)

 What is Philosophy?
o Philosophy: the term was derived from Greek words – ‘Philein’ and ‘Sophia’ which literally
mean ‘love’ and ‘wisdom’. Taken together, they mean “the love or pursuit of wisdom.”
o Hence, philosophy is “a way of looking at the world and giving it meaning. It can provide
a high quality method of examining our beliefs.”
 What is Philosophy of Self and why it is important?
o A philosophy is the pinnacle of one’s life.
 Without philosophy we are subject to aimless bouts where life seems sometimes void
and meaningless.
o Philosophy adds structure and balance, to implement goals and reach one’s dreams.
 It is the roadmap to our actions and thoughts, the processing tool of reason.
 Famous Philosophers of the world that you will be revisiting today:
o Socrates (469 – 399 B.C.)
 Know Thyself: man must stand and live according to his nature and examine his life
to understand his inner self.
 He asserted that “an unexamined life is not worth living.”
 Man = body (physical) + soul (ideal)
o Highlight: Socrates believed that the soul is perfect but tied to the body
which is imperfect. The worst thing that can happen to anyone is
to live but die inside. Hence, man must live an examined life and a
life of purpose and value.
 He believed that knowledge is the ultimate virtue, best used to help people improve
their lives.
 Two (2) important principles of life according to Socrates:
 His faithful adherence to the principle of never doing wrong or participating in
any wrongdoing, even indirectly.
 His strong belief that a person who knows what is good and right could not act
against it.
o Highlight: Socrates believed that there is no evildoers and all kinds
of evils are circumstantial and that no one does evil volitionally.
Hence, ignorance of the knowledge of the right and good life
enables man to do evil deed.
o Plato (429 – 347 B.C.)
 He agrees with Socrates that a person has soul.
 Three (3) components of the soul:

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 Reason: reason and intellect to govern affairs

 Spirit: emotions should be kept at bay
 Appetite: base desires (food, drink, sleep, sexual needs, etc.)
o Highlight: When these are attained, the human person’s soul becomes
just and virtuous. However, rational decisions or reason should
predominantly be in charge in the whole system.
o Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650)
 Father of Modern Philosophy; he first introduced the idea that all knowledge is the
product of reasoning based on self-evident assumptions.
 He agrees with both Socrates and Plato that human is composed of body and soul
(mind). However, he further elaborated the premise between the connection of the
body and mind by dissecting animals, leading him to believe that spirit (cranial fluid)
flowed through the body (by nerves) and commanded it.
 Dualist View of the Self: Mind-Body interaction
 The mind and body MUST be distinct
 He asserted that the soul (mind) is the essential form of the self and could exist
without the body, because human beings are composed of a material body
and an immaterial mind.
o Highlight: This forms the theory of doubt by Descartes, that he can
doubt the existence of the material world (i.e., body), but cannot doubt
the existence of himself as a thinking thing (i.e., mind), to the
conclusion that his thoughts belong to the non-spatial substance that
is distinct from matter.
 Hence, coined the phrase, ‘Cogito Ergo Sum’ or ‘I think, therefore I am’. We are the
quality of our thoughts, but not our thoughts only because one must continue to doubt
(seek knowledge). Doubt is the very foundation of truth that we doubt what we have
thought of is the proof we stumbled on knowledge.
o John Locke (1632 – 1704)
 He coined the phrase, ‘Tabula rasa’ which literally mean as blank tablet.
 Rejected the philosophy that man has innate ideas because one’s beginning
of knowledge is through Sense of Experience.
o Highlight: People are born as blank slates or having no innate
knowledge and that the way they are treated and educated ultimately
shapes who they will become (identity).
 Theory of Personal Identity:
 Personal identity is the concept you develop about yourself that evolves over
the course of your life through experiences.
 Unlike Socrates, Plato, and Descartes, Locke theorized that our personal
identity or our self is a matter of psychological continuity based on
consciousness (memory) and not on the substance of either the soul or
the body.
o Highlight: This claims that a person’s identity is the SAME over a
period of time, this is known as personal continuity.
o David Hume (1711-1776)
 Unlike Locke, Hume believed that the self which is based on consciousness
(memory) is nothing but a bundle of impressions and ideas.
 Impressions: basic objects of our experience and forms the core of our
thoughts.

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 Ideas: copies of impressions and not as real as impressions, which in simpler

terms, ‘feeling mo lang.’
 Hence, he asserted that there is no self.
 There is no self that persists through time, and countered it as Illusion Theory
of Personal Identity
o Highlight: People change from one moment to the next and turn
constantly into a new person. Hence, to think that something in us
remains the same is an illusion. We are never justified in claiming
we are the same person we were a year ago or a minute ago.
o Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804)
 Unlike all other philosophers you have learned a while ago, Kant believes that
everything starts with perception, sensations of impressions or in general
experiences BUT these experiences DO NOT ALONE DEFINE a person
throughout the course of life.
 Intrinsic Worth: People are rational agents, meaning they are capable of making
their own decisions, directing themselves and their actions, and freely orders means
for the attainment of their aims.
 Highlight: Combined the opposing schools of thought empiricism (knowledge
through experiences like Locke and Hume) and rationalism (knowledge
through use of logic or reason like Socrates, Plato, and Descartes) that both
were vital in obtaining knowledge and understanding in the world.
 Dignity of Human Person:
 Treat every person, including yourself, as an end in himself and not as means
to the advantage of anyone else.
 Always act in such wise as to will your action to become a universal law.
 Act as a rational and free being from the purse sense of duty.

TOPIC 2: SOCIO-ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF ( 3 hours)

 What is Sociology and why it is important?
o Sociology: it is a study of society, patterns of social relationships, social relationships, social
interaction and culture of everyday life.
 Society: is derived from the Latin word ‘Socious’ which means Association or
Companionship or Fellowship. Thus, society means large groups of people who are
associated with each other.
o Sociological Perspective provides a different way of looking at familiar worlds that allows us
to gain a new vision of social life.
 Have you heard of the following phrases: ‘I AM WHAT YOU THINK I AM’ or ‘Tell me
who your friends are, and I’ll tell you who you are.”
 Highlight: From a sociological perspective, human beings CANNOT form a
self or personal identity WITHOUT intense social contact with others.
 Famous Sociologists that you will be revisiting today:
o Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929)
 He theorized, the Looking Glass Self
 Our Self-concept is derived from others perception about us. To put simply,
how we think they view us.
 Our self-concept begins at an early age and continues throughout life.
 Three (3) Steps of Looking Glass Self

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You imagine how you appear to the other person (to your parents, friends,

strangers, significant others, etc.)
 You imagine the judgment of the other person. How others evaluate you
as being intelligent, alive, alert, or enthusiastic!
 Development of some sort of feeling about ourselves as a result of these
impressions. You feel some sense of pride, happiness, guilt, shame, and so
on.
o George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)
 Famous for his theory, the Social Self
 Similar with Cooley, he suggested that the self is a product of social interaction.
 Components of Social Interaction
 Social Self: is the joining point between the individual and the society.
 Communication: is the link that allows the intersection to occur.
o Highlight: In order for the Social Self to be developed, and individual
needs to continuously interact in the society, and this interaction is
made possible through communication (verbal or nonverbal).
 Two (2) Sides of Social Self: ‘I’ and ‘Me’
 ‘I’ which is highly inclined to the self (individual) can be considered as the
person’s individuality.
o Example: Your creativity, uniqueness, adaptability in social
process
 ‘Me’ which is highly inclined to the society (other people) represents the
socialized aspect of the individual.
o Example: Your conformist, social organized behavior of your self

‘I’ is highly Social ‘Me’ is highly

Self Society
inclined on this Self inclined to this
side side

 Three (3) Stages of Self-Development: Mead postulated that the self develops in 3
stages.
 Preparation Stage: In this stage, children merely imitate the people around
them, especially those whom they often interact.
o Example: When she sees her mother ironing the clothes, the little girl
will most likely imitate her mother.
 Play Stage: The most important aspect of the play stage is role-playing.
When they develop their skill in communicating through symbols, children
increasingly become aware of social relationships. They start to pretend to be
other people.
 Game Stage: At this stage, children no longer just play roles but start to
consider several tasks and relationships simultaneously. Children and

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throughout life, we begin to understand that others have expectations and

demands placed on them. Grasping not only their own social positions but
also those of others around them.
 However, not all society are the same because different societies have different cultures, and this
would mean different degree and complexities of the development of their social self. Nonetheless,
culture and society are co-existent; a culture represents the beliefs and practices of a group while
society represents the people who share those beliefs and practices. Hence, people born in a
certain locality tend to also have a distinct practices, belief system, and set of behaviors that may be
different from what other people from another locality have. To it simply, society is the combination of
people with different cultures.
 Anthropological Perspective - the self reflects how adapting to social environment increases the
chances of human survival. This evolutionary process involves how one's identity is established. The
elements of culture are efficient tools for harmonious social interactions and coexistence
a. Not all society are the same because different societies have different cultures
b. Nonetheless, culture and society are coexistent;
a)Culture - represents the beliefs and practices of a group
b)Society - represents the people who share those beliefs and practices.
c. Society is a combination of people with different cultures
 Value contrasts of Individualism and Collectivism
1. Individualism
Example: Western Countries
1. Self: Independent (identity from individual traits)
2. Life Task: Discover and express one’s uniqueness
3. What Matters: Me - personal achievement and fulfillment; rights and liberties; self-
esteem
4. Coping Method: Change reality
5. Morality: Defined by individuals (self-based)
6. Relationships: Many, often temporary or casual; confrontation acceptable
7. Attributing behavior: Behavior reflects one’s personality and attitudes
2. Collectivism
Example: The Philippines
8. Self: Interdependent (identity from belonging)
9. Life Task: Maintain connections, fit in
10. What Matters: Us - group goals and solidarity; social responsibilities and
relationships
11. Coping Method: Accommodate to reality
12. Morality: Defined by social networks (duty-based)
13. Relationships: Few, close, and enduring; harmony valued
14. Attributing behavior: Behavior reflects social norms and roles

TOPIC 3: PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF (3 hours)

 What is Psychology and why it is important to study?
o Psychology: is derived from the Latin word, which means ‘study of the soul’. Its modern
implication today is the science of behavior and mental processes.
 Pioneering figures in the field of psychology, you will be revisiting today:
o Sigmund Freud
 He proposed the structural model to understand human personality which is divided
personality into three (3), namely:
 Id: It is also known as the selfish part of us because the action taken by id
are driven by pleasure principle which is insatiable instincts and base
desires present from birth.
 Ego: The only region of the mind in contact with reality, hence governed by
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the reality principle.

 Superego: This structure represents the societal and/or parental values and
standards, which otherwise known as the moral principle where it is most
concerned with morality, right, and wrong.
o Highlight: Since only Ego is the organized and realistic part of the
psyche, it aims to balance the conflicting demand of the Id (selfish and
impulsive) and Superego (critical and moralizing). A healthy individual
is rational, hence a bigger Ego structure compared to the other two.
 The Freudian Theory: Freud proposed that psychological development of an
individual can take place through the psychosexual energy or libido, is described
as the driving force behind behavior.
 Psychosexual stages of Development: Personality develops through a series of five
(5) stages in which the energies of the id are focused on certain erogenous areas.
 Oral Stage: Birth to 1 year
o Pleasure zone: mouth (gums, tongue, etc.).
o The mouth is vital for eating. The infant derives pleasure from oral
stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking.
o If this need is not met, the child may develop an oral fixation later
in life. Example: thumb-sucking, smoking, fingernail biting, and
overeating.
 Anal Stage: 1 to 3 years
o Pleasure zone: anus.
o Toilet training is a primary issue with children and parents. Primary
focus of the libido is on controlling bladder and bowel movements.
o Too much pressure of toilet training would lead to excessive
need for order or cleanliness later in life, while too little pressure
applied would lead to messy or destructive behavior later in life.
 Phallic: 3 to 6 years
o Pleasure zone: genitals.
o Conflicts arise because of child’s attraction to the opposite sex parent.
o Two Conflicts: Oedipal Complex (boys); Electra Complex (girls)
o To cope with this conflict, children adopt the values and characteristics
of the same-sex parent. Thus, forming the superego.
 Latency: 6 to 11 years
o This is also known as the Quite Period because during this stage, the
superego continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed.
o The energy is redirected to children’s develop of social skills, values,
and relationships with peers and adults outside of the family.
 Genital: 11 to 18 years old (until adulthood)
o Onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again.
During this stage, people develop a strong interest in the opposite.
o If development has been successful to this point, the individual will
continue to develop into a well-balanced person.
• Highlight: To easily recall Freud’s psychosexual stages try
using this mnemonic: Freud is O.A Pha LaGe
 If you remember, a healthy individual has a bigger Ego compared to Id and Superego.
However, as an individual develops through the psychosexual stages, the structure of
personality is also having conflicts. But what would happen if the demands and conflict
of Id and Superego becomes unbearable and out of hand by the Ego?
o If both Id and Supergo becomes unbearable, Ego tries altering and
distorting a person’s awareness of the original impulse and makes it
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more tolerable, this mechanism is also known as Defense Mechanism.

 Defense mechanism: This represent an unconscious mediation by the ego of id
impulses which are in conflict with the wishes and needs of the ego and/or superego.
Here the list of common defense mechanism.
o Rationalization: It is finding reasonable explanations for unreasonable or
unacceptable behavior to make them sound logical and acceptable.
 Example: A student might say, “I cut classes because other students
are doing it.”
o Repression: It is the unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts,
feelings, and impulses. Especially painful thoughts, feelings, memories, or
impulses.
o Denial: It is the refusal to accept the reality or fact, acting as if thought or
feeling did not exist.
 Example: A teenager may deny that he/she is having a problem
interacting with people. Thus, telling his/her parents, “I'm not
interested in people.”
o Projection: It is attributing one’s own undesired thoughts, feelings, or
impulses to another person who does not have those thoughts, feelings, or
impulses.
o Example: A lady who is tempted to have an affair with another man begins to
suspect her partner of being unfaithful.
o Sublimation: It is the channeling of unacceptable impulses, thoughts, and
emotions into more acceptable ones.
 Example: A child who wants to get the attention of parents will have
a drive to do well in school.
o Displacement: It is the channeling of energy away from one person or object
to an alternative, weaker ones.
 Example: A student who has a hard day at school may come home
and yell at the dog; redirecting his anger to the dog.
o Reaction Formation: It refers to a denial and reversal of one’s feelings.
 Example: A student who is very angry with his teacher and would like
to stop attending the class may instead be overly kind to his teacher
and express the desire to continue with class.
 Always remember: while they can be unhealthy, all defense mechanisms can also
be adaptive and allow us to function normally. The greatest problems arise when
defense mechanisms are overused in order to avoid dealing with problems.
1. Erik Erikson
• Unlike Freud, he deemphasize the role of sexual urges in development and emphasize
the family and culture in his eight (8) stages of development
• Highlight: Each stage deals with a psychosocial crisis that is important in a
person’s life, but critical at a specific developmental stage.
• Psychosocial Stages of Development: Basic Conflict
• Infancy (birth to 18 months): Trust vs. Mistrust
• Important event: Feeding
• Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability,
care, and affection while a lack of this will lead to mistrust.
• Early Childhood (2 to 3 years): Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
• Important event: Toilet Training
• Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical
skills and a sense of independence; leads to feelings of autonomy
while failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
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• Preschool (3 to 5 years): Initiative vs. Guilt

• Important event: Exploration
• Children need to begin asserting control and power over the
environment; leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert
too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.
• School Age (6 to 11 years): Industry vs. Inferiority
• Important event: School
• Children need to cope with new social and academic demands.
Success leads to a sense of competence (industry) while failure
results in feelings of inferiority.
• Adolescence (12 to 18 years): Identity vs. Role Confusion
• Important event: Social Relationships
• Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity; which
leads to an ability to stay true to oneself while failure leads to role
confusion and a weak sense of self.
• Young Adulthood (19 to 40 years): Intimacy vs. Isolation
• Important event: Relationships
• Young adults need torm intimate, loving relationships with other
people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in
loneliness and isolation.
• Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years): Generativity vs. Stagnation
• Important event: Work and Productivity
• Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them; having
children or creating positive change that benefits other people leads
to feelings of usefulness/accomplishment while failure results in
shallow involvement in the world.
• Maturity (65 to death): Ego Integrity vs. Despair
• Important event: Reflection on Life
• Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfilment.
Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom while failure results
in regret, bitterness, and despair.
2. William James
• He coined the term, theory of Self which explains human personality into distinctive
elements of self-concept.
• Four (4) Elements of Self
• Material Self: Consist of things that belong to a person or entities that a person
belongs to.
• Example: body, family, clothes, money, house
• Social Self: This is who we are in a given social institution and people act
depending on the social situation they are in (division of social self).
• Spiritual Self: This is who we are at our core; more concrete or permanent
than the other selves. Ou most subjective and intimate self.
• Example: personality, core values, and conscience that do not
typically change throughout the lifetime.
• Pure Ego: It refers somewhat similar to the mind which provides the thread of
continuity between our past, present, and future selves.
3. Carl Rogers
• Unlike James, Rogers postulated that our Self-concept, which is our image or
perception of ourselves is comprise only of two domains.
• Two (2) Domains of Personality
• The Real Self: The real self is who we really are: how we think, feel, look, &

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act.
• Ideal Self: The ideal self who we want to be, that we strive to be, & that we
feel we are expected to be.
• A person’s ideal self is likely formed by the following: it can be what
our parents taught us, what we admire in others, what our society
promotes, or what we think our best interest.
• Sample Scenario:
• You are short tempered (real self) however you desire to be someone
who is in control of situational temper (ideal self). The greater the
discrepancy between your real and ideal self, the greater will be your
frustration and distress thus, lower self-worth.

Real Self The closer, Ideal Self

the more
peace of
“I AM” “I WANT”
mind

• Highlight: The more align a person’s real self and ideal self, the more
peace of mind, while the opposite means more incongruence which may
result to distress or anxiety.
4. Donald Winnicott
• Like Rogers, Winnicott theorized that a person is comprised of two selves: True Self
and False Self
• True Self: This is similar with Carl Rogers’ real self, our authentic self.
• False Self: This develops when an infant’s emotional needs are either unmet
or met unreliably, which will make them become distrustful to others and to
themselves later in life.
• As a form of defense in the untrusted world, a person will wear a social
mask to protect one’s our true selves from the scrutiny of the outside
world.
• Like defense mechanism, social masking is a natural tendency of people to
protect the Self from being rejected or hurt.

END OF MODULE 1

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MODULE 2: UNPACKING THE SELF

MODULE OBJECTIVES
1. Explore the different aspects of self and identity, namely the physical, sexual, spiritual, material,
political, and including the most recent, the digital self;
2. Demonstrate critical, reflective thought in integrating the various aspects of self and identity;
3. Identify the different forces and institutions that impact the development of various aspects of self and
identity; and
4. Examine one’s self against the different aspects of self discussed.

TOPIC 4: THE PHYSICAL AND MATERIAL SELF (2 hours)

> What is Unpacking the Self?
o The phrase means analyzing or examining in detail what makes up the self, or make us
up ourselves and the journey to unpack the self, starts with the identification of the areas that
somehow affect the way you think, feel, and act in certain situations, and first in our list is the
Physical and Material Self that both impacted by the body.
> What is Physical Self?
o This refers to the tangible aspect of the individual, the one with figure, the one that can be
seen and touched, and the one that feels pain and vulnerable to sickness.
o How we look at our physical body or image are oftentimes has something to do with the
following factors: Media, Peers, and Adult Around us.
 Highlight: These factors influence a person’s way of seeing themselves (self-concept)
which can cause self-esteem issues which lead to risk factors such as bullying,
substance use, and psychological disturbances.
o What is Self-Concept?
 It is the combination of all the ideas, thoughts, beliefs, feelings, pictures, and all the
things that happened to us over the course of our lives that come together to form a
composite image of the person that we believe ourselves to be.
 Three (3) Fundamental Ingredients of Self-Concept
• Self-Ideal: this refers to the bundles of pictures, feelings, and thoughts of the
ideal person that we would most like to be.
• Self-Image: this is the self's inner mirror that regulates our external
performance.
1. Positive - Sees themselves as positively. They welcome, failure as a
learning experience for them to improve themselves much
more better. No? And they also have a positive outlook of
themselves.
2. Negative - One sees themselves negatively They're always, very
quick to identify what are their weaknesses,look views
themselves negatively.
3. Bloated - They see themselves as somebody really good, perfect.
develop a bloated self image when one grows up in an environment
in a social environment where achievements are always being
emphasized.
• Self-Esteem: this often refers to as the root of self-concept. This is "how we
feel about ourselves."
 Tips to Boost Self-Esteem: exercise regularly, drink 8 to 10 glasses of water, eat
fruits and vegetables, and affirm or encourage yourself everyday. Taking good care of
your body is a good idea to maintain a healthy physical condition which could also
affect a positive mood.
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> If your body is considered as part of your Physical Self, however, it is also often categorized as a sub-
aspect of your Material Self.
> What is Material Self?
o If you recall William James' four elements of the self (Module 2, Topic 5), Material Self is
defined as, "it consists of one's body, valued possessions, and loved ones." To put it
simply, it is the aspect of yourself that considers your material possessions or something that
belongs to you (body, money, shoes, etc.) or something that you belong to (family, friends, etc.)
o However, unlike Physical Self, your Material Self sees your body not as physical entity
itself, but your psychological ownership of it. Like when we say, 'my' body or this body
is 'mine'.
o Finally, Material self can also be assessed on our emotional investment to things that
makes us who we are and how our behaviors are affected by these and the amount of
attention or effort we put on them.
o Material Self is composed of two things:
1. Bodily Self
- basically refers to our possession.
- provides us influence, power, sympathy, social status, and emotions.
2. Extended Self
- do not get attached to possessions and based your self worth to unstable objects and
meanings
- like your family, your house, as well as, the other, material possessions that you have
> What makes up your Material Self?
o Body is the innermost part of the material self. Most people invest in beautifying themselves
or even spending for cosmetic surgery just to make them feel better.
o Clothes comes next to the body. We choose the clothes we wear; directly or indirectly these
choices create a person's identity, and most likely communicate outwardly how we feel about
ourselves inside. As an example, the kind of clothes we wear affects our attitude and behaviors
and vice-versa.
o Immediate family your father and mother, siblings, spouse and children are part of our self,
and since they make up partly of who we are, we make effort for our family.
o Home. We decorate our homes, use furniture that soothes our needs because these things
are part of the public face we put as an extension of ourselves. How presentable is our home
is also partly of how we often want others to feel about us.

TOPIC 5: THE SEXUAL SELF (3 hours)

5. What is Sexual Self?
o This is part of yourself where you learn and understand your sexual development and how
people's sexual activity, beliefs, and misconceptions and unlimited access to internet on sex
can influence your own sexual behaviors and responses.
o The most noticeable change as you start adolescence is physical, where puberty starts to kick
in which can cause brain activity fluctuations as a result largely from the secretion of various
hormones which affects an adolescent's life. To put it simply, physical changes is often
associated with sexual maturation during this period.
o Primary Sex Characteristics are characteristics that involves directly with reproduction:
 Female reproductive organs: ovaries, fallopian tube, uterus, clitoris, and vagina
 Male reproductive organs: testes, penis, scrotum, seminal vesicles, and prostate
glands
o Secondary Sex Characteristics are characteristics distinguishing males from females but
NOT specifically associated with reproduction:
 Example: the breasts development for females and the broad shoulders of males.

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•Highlight: Changes occur during puberty because of testosterone (produced

by the testes) in males that controls the development of the male secondary
sexual characteristics, while estrogen (produced by the ovaries) in females
that controls the development of female secondary sexual characteristics.
6. Male Reproductive Organ
o Testes
 The two testes (plural for testis) are contained in a bag of skin called the scrotum. They
have two functions: to produce sperm and to make the hormone testosterone.
o Sperm duct and glands
 The sperm passes through the sperm ducts, and mixes with fluids produced by glands.
The fluids provide the sperm cells with nutrients. This mixture is called semen.
• Semen is a mixture of fluid that contains sperm but over 200 separate proteins,
as well as vitamins and minerals.
o Penis and Urethra
 The penis has two functions: to pass urine out of the body from the bladder, and to
pass semen into the vagina of a woman during sexual intercourse.
 The urethra is the tube inside the penis that can carry urine or semen. A ring of muscle
ensures that urine and semen do not get mixed up.
o Spermarche
 This refers as first ejaculation or 'wet dreams' that usually occurs around the age of 13,
which indicates that the boy is producing sperm and could fertilize a female egg
through sexual activity.
7. Female reproductive
o Ovaries and Oviducts
 Two ovaries contain ova (eggs). Each ovary is connected to the uterus by an oviduct
(fallopian tube). The oviduct is lined with ciliated cells. Every month, an ovum (egg)
develops and becomes mature, and is released from an ovary.
o Uterus and Cervix
 The uterus is a muscular bag with a soft lining. It is where a baby develops until its
birth. The cervix is a ring of muscle at the lower end of the uterus. It keeps the baby in
place while the woman is pregnant.
o Vagina and Urethra
 The vagina is a muscular tube that leads from the cervix to the outside of the woman's
body. The opening to the vagina has folds of skin called labia that meet to form a vulva.
The urethra also opens into the vulva, but it is separate from the vagina. It passes urine
out of the body from the bladder.
o Menarche
 Known as a woman's first menstrual period where the uterus starts to build a lining that
will later shed through.
8. Erogenous Zones
o These are parts of the body, which when stimulated, produce erotic or sexual sensations
and reactions because these parts are especially sensitive and can cause increased sexual
arousal when touched in a sexual manner.
o Common Erogenous zones are as follows: mouth, breast, sex organs, anus, neck, thighs,
abdomen, and feet
9. Biology of Sexual Behavior
o Helen Fisher (1998) presented the three primary, distinct, but interrelated emotion systems in
the brain that mediate mating, reproduction, and the rearing of young, namely lust, attraction,
and attachment.
 The Sex Drive Libido or Lust
• Characterized by the craving for sexual gratification and associated primarily
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with the hormones (the estrogens and the androgens).

• It evolves to motivate individuals to seek sexual union with any appropriate
partner.
 Attraction System
• Characterized by increased energy and the focusing of attention on a preferred
mating partner. In humans, attraction is also associated with feelings of
exhilaration, intrusive thinking about the beloved, and the craving for emotional
union. Termed as: "passionate love”, "obsessive love”, or “infatuation”.
 Companionate System Attachment
• Characterized by feelings of calm, security, social comfort, and emotional
union.
10. Phases of Sexual Response Cycle
o Pioneered study of William Masters and Virginia Johnson
o This model describes the physiological responses that take place during sexual activity, the
cycle consists of four phases:
 Excitement
• Genitals fill with blood (male) and lubricate (female) ready for intercourse; rapid
breathing and pulse
 Plateau
• Changes related to excitement reach a peak
 Orgasm
• Contraction all over the body; sexual release
 Resolution
• Enlarged genitals release blood and go through refractory phase (Male);
resolves slower (Female)
11. In men and women, clinicians also recommend refraining from sex when either partner has a newly
diagnosed sexually transmitted infection or disease, such as syphilis, gonorrhea or HIV, until it is
controlled by treatment.
12. What is Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) or Venereal Diseases (VDs)?
o Conditions that involve the transmission of an infectious organism between sex partners.
Transmission of STDs are by means of sexual behavior, including vaginal intercourse, anal
sex, and oral sex. Some STDs can also be contracted by sharing intravenous drug needles
with an infected person.
o Common list of Sexually Transmitted Infections/Diseases:
 Chlamydia
• Caused by a bacteria called Chlamydia trachomatis
• Can infect both men and women
• Can be acquired during oral, vaginal, or anal sex with someone who has the
infection.
 Gonorrhea
• Caused by a bacterium called Neisseria gonorrhoeae
• Can infect both men and women
• Can cause infections in the genitals, rectum, and throat.
• Can be acquired by having vaginal, anal, or oral sex with someone being
infected with the disease
 Trichomoniasis
• Caused by infection with the protozoan parasite called Trichomonas
vaginalis
• Carried in sexual fluids like semen, pre cum, and vaginal fluid
• Most commonly infected part in women is the lower genital tract which includes
the vulva, vagina, cervix, or urethra; in men, the inside of the penis and the
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urethra.
• Symptoms include irritation, itchy, redness or soreness of the genitals, smelly
discharge, and painful or frequent urination.
 Syphillis
• Caused by a bacterium called Treponema pallidum
• It starts as a sore on one’s genital, rectum or mouth
• Spreads to another person through skin or mucous membrane contacts with
the sores. Some who experience it may have no symptoms at all but the
infection may still be there.
 Herpes
• Caused by two different but similar viruses: Herpes Simplex Virus type (HSV-
1) and Herpes Simplex Virus type 2 (HSV-2)
• Common infection that stays in one’s body for life. It causes sores on one’s
genital and/or mouth which can be annoying and painful.
• Can be transmitted when one’s genital and/or mouth touches the
genital/mouth of the other person during oral, anal, and vaginal sex.
• Can even be acquired from kissing someone who has oral herpes.
 Human Papillomavirus (HPV)
• In men, HPV is evident through genital warts on the penis, on the scrotum, in
or around the anus or on the groin.
• Has no symptoms, diagnosing HPV in men is difficult. The diagnosis in men is
made when external genital warts are seen.
• It can be spread through contact with the skin of someone who has an HPV
infection. Some types causes genital warts which are hard, rough lumps that
grow on the skin.
 Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) / Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
(AIDS)
• Destroys or impairs cells of the immune system and progressively destroys the
body's ability to fight infections and certain cancers.
• AIDS is a condition while HIV is a virus that may cause an infection, or
AIDS. Contracting HIV can lead to the development of AIDS.
• HIV can be transmitted through unprotected sexual intercourse, but there are
also another route for contracting HIV. Means by which HIV is Spread:
• Vertical Transmission
• This is a form of transmission, a passage disease-causing
agent (pathogen) from mother to baby during the period of
immediately before and after birth. Transmission might occur
across the placenta, in breast milk, or through direct contact
during or after birth.
• However, this can be prevented through the help of
professional medical doctors and NOT every child born to an
HIV-infected mother will acquire the virus.
• Blood Contamination
• Blood-contaminated body fluids can get into the bloodstream
of the HIV-negative person.
• Highlight: HIV is not spread through saliva or hugging
an HIV-positive person.
• Needles
• If a needlestick or syringe injury occurs in the setting of an
infected patient source, the risk of disease transmission is

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possible. This does not only include HIV but other blood-
contamination infection such as hepatitis C.
• Sexual Contact
• HIV is contained in bodily fluids, such as semen, vaginal fluid,
blood, and anal mucus which can pass into the other person’s
body during oral, anal, and vaginal sex.
• Today, more tools than ever are available to prevent HIV. Here are the
common Ways to Prevent Transmission of STDs:
• Practice safe sex
• Properly use safe-sex supplies (such as male condoms, female
condoms, etc.)
• Avoid having multiple sex partners
• Abstinence is 100% effective, it protects you from HIV, and other
sexually transmitted diseases, and unwanted pregnancy.
13. Methods of Contraception
o Information about the various types of birth control options that can be used by an individual
abound. These options would depend on what is best for an individual. Many of these methods
of contraception also lower your chance of getting STDs. It has to be noted that most types of
contraception can only be obtained with the help of a doctor.
 Natural Method
• In this method, only bodily changes are monitored in order to know when a
female is fertile or infertile by keeping track of her menstrual cycle. It does not
involve medicine or devices to prevent pregnancy. It can be done through
abstinence, fertility awareness, lactational amenorrhea, and withdrawal.
 Artificial Method
• Any product, procedure or practice that uses artificial or unnatural
means to prevent pregnancy such as condoms and diaphragms hormonal
methods such as the pill and IUDs, surgical sterilization (vasectomy), etc. Here
are the most Common Artificial Method:
• Contraceptive Sponge
• It is a Polyurethane foam that is soft and resembles a disc,
laced with the spermicide nonoxynol-9 to kill sperms. The
sponge functions as a covering for the cervix. It is inserted,
loop side down inside the vagina before sexual intercourse.
• Diaphragm
• A soft silicon cap placed inside the vagina so that it prevents
the sperm from getting into the uterus. Spermicide is put into
the bowl of the diaphragm before inserting it into the vagina
so it covers the cervix. Doctor’s prescription needed
• Cervical Cap
• Thimble-shaped latex cup, basically like a diaphragm but
smaller. Also needs to be used with a spermicide. Different
articles highlight that it must remain in the vagina at least 6
hours after intercourse, but it also has to be taken out within
48 hours after.
• Pills.
• One of the most popular forms of female contraception.
Taking this will prevent one from getting pregnant especially

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when doctor’s advice is strictly followed. Intake of the pill

results in changes in the uterus lining and cervical mucus
brought by the combined effect of estrogen and progestin.
• Emergency contraception
• This is also termed as “morning pill”. It must be taken right
away after having unprotected intercourse within 3 days. It
functions by preventing ovulation or blocking the sperm from
uniting with the egg.
• Patch (Transdermal Patch)
• This is a hormone releasing patch. It releases progestin and
estrogen straight into the bloodstream. Can be put on different
parts of the body such as lower abdomen, buttocks, outer arm,
or upper body. It is suggested that the patch must be replaced
once every three weeks.
• Shot/Injection
• The hormone progestin is injected every three months in the
buttocks or arms in order to stop possible fertilization.
Constant usage of this method may bring temporary bone
density loss but it can also be stopped once shots are not
taken.
• Vaginal Ring
• Hormones progestin and estrogen are produced by the thin
and flexible vaginal ring. It is placed inside the vagina after it
has been squeezed between the thumb and index finger and
worn for three weeks.
• Implantable Rods
• Looks like matchsticks that are flexible placed under the upper
arm skin. Blocks fertilization by causing deviations in the
uterus lining and cervical mucus. Effectivity of implantable
rods lasts for about five years.
• Intrauterine Device (IUD)
• There are two types of IUDs: hormonal or copper-based
devices.
• Hormonal IUD: progestin is produced in the uterus,
blocking fertilization and causing uterus lining to
thicken
• Cooper IUD: Copper wire coiled around the device
produces an inflammatory reaction that is toxic to
sperms and eggs. It can be kept inside the vagina for
up to five or ten years respectively.
• Sterilization Implant
• The first non-surgical method of women sterilization. Done by
placing into each fallopian tube a spring-like device that is
small enough to be threaded by a thin tube. In the coiled part,
scar tissues that take three months to form prevents
fertilization by blocking the fallopian tubes.
• Surgical Sterilization
• Involves cutting, tying, or sealing the fallopian tubes in
women, in order to block the egg cells from travelling down to

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the uterus. In men’s vasectomy, no sperm comes out during

ejaculation. After surgery, semen analysis can be done to be
sure if sperms are already gone.
• Male Condom
• Common contraceptives used by men because it can be
purchased from drugstores without prescriptions. The
government made condoms available to reduce the risk of
becoming pregnant or getting infected by STDs.
• Female Condom
• One of the few types of contraception that can be bought over-
the-counter at pharmacies and grocery stores. Known as
internal condom which provides dual protection from
unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections.
TOPIC 6: THE SPIRITUAL/RELIGIOUS SELF (2 hours)
 What is Spiritual Self?
o Your Spiritual Self is you in your most beautiful and powerful form. It is the part of you that is
connect to everything from humans, animals, nature, Higher Power, and that part that is love.
o According to William James, spiritual self as man’s inner or subjective being, his psychic
faculties or dispositions. These psychic dispositions are the most enduring and intimate part of
the self, that which we most verily seem to be.
 What is Religious?
o Concerns with faith in the claims of one faith tradition or involving organizations
o Connected with religious teachings or dogma, ritual prayer, etc.
 What is Spiritual?
o Concerns with the qualities of human-spirit such as love, forgiveness, care, hope, etc.
o An individual & personal experience that leads to discovery of one’s soul, purpose, & meaning.

Major World Religions

Religion Judaism Christianity Islam Hinduism Buddhism
Followers Jews/Jewish Christians Muslims Hindus Buddhists
Holy book Torah Holy Bible Qu’ran & Hadith Vedas Sutras
Founder Abraham Jesus Christ’s Mohammed Unknown Sidharta
followers Gautama aka
“Buddha”
Major 1 God 1 God 1 God Many Gods No God
Beliefs 10 Command- 10 Command- 5 Pillars Karma, deities, 4 Noble Truths,
ments, ments, Pray in mosque reincarnation, 8 Fold Path,
Pray in church, Pray in temples, Karma,
temples shrines reincarnation
Pray in temples,
shrines
Holidays Rosh Hashanah, Easter, Ramadan month Holi, Nirvana Day,
Yom Kippur, Christmas of fasting, Diwali Buddha Day
Passover Eid-al-Fitr
Spiritual Rabbi Pope, Hadjji Monks Monks,
Leader Prophet Dalai Lama
Place of Synagogues Church, Mosque Temples, Temples,
Worship Temples Shrines Shrines
Location Israel Worldwide Palestinian India China, Nepal
Territories

 Finding and Creating Meaning of Life

o Logotherapy, pioneered by Viktor Frankl means “therapy through meaning”. Frankl's
theories were greatly influenced by his personal experiences of suffering and loss in Nazi
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concentration camps.
 It is founded on the belief that human nature is motivated by the search for a life
purpose.
o Central themes of Logotherapy
 Life has meaning, under all circumstances;
 The will to meaning is the central motivation for living;
 All have the freedom to find meaning in all that one thinks; and
 All must integrate the body, mind, and spirit to be fully alive.
o Life’s Meaning Can Be Discovered By:
 Creating a work or accomplishing some task;
 Experiencing something or encountering someone; and
 Adopting toward unavoidable suffering.
TOPIC 7: THE POLITICAL SELF (2 hours)
 What is Political Self?
o In the Philippine context, Political Self is a reflection of your selfhood in relation to his
national identity.
 Highlight: A nation empowers itself depending on the beliefs, goals, ideals, aspirations,
and values of its citizen. Values as a people and as a nation gives the identity that
differentiates one nation from the others. However, these values may improve or hiner
development and progress but nonetheless, with unity of diversity, development and
progress are achievable.
o A Filipino hold strengths that most other nationalities admire but there are also weaknesses
that make a Filipino inferior to other nations. Today, you will discover the varied Filipino identity,
values, and traits and comprise our national and political self.
 Strengths of the Filipino Character:
 Pakikipagkapwa-Tao
o It is manifested in a basic sense of justice, fairness, and concern for
others. It is also demonstrated in the Filipino’s ability to empathize and
help others in times of need (pakikiramay), in the practice of
bayanihan, and in the famous Filipino hospitality.
 Family Orientation
o It is manifested in the honor and respect given to parents and elders,
in the care given to children, the generosity towards kin in need, and
in the great sacrifices one endures for the welfare of the family.
 Joy and Humor
o These are manifested in the Filipino’s love for socials and
celebrations, in our capacity to laugh even in the most trying of times,
and in the appeal of political satire.
 Flexibility, Adaptability, and Capability
o These are manifested in the ability to adapt to life in the any part of
the world and in the ability to make new things out of old scraps. It is
likewise seen in the ability to accept change.
 Hard Work and Industry
o These are manifested most noticeably in willingness to take risks with
jobs abroad and while there, to work at two or three jobs.
 Faith and Religiosity
o These are manifested in the Filipinos’ deep faith in God. Our innate
religiosity enables us to comprehend and genuinely accept reality in
the context of God’s will and plan.
 Ability to Survive
o This is shown in our capacity to persevere despite difficult times and
in our ability to get by on so very little.

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 Weaknesses of the Filipino Character:
 Extreme Personalism
o This is manifested in the tendency to give personal interpretation to
actions, thus, a sincere question may be viewed as a challenge to
one’s competence or positive feedback may be interpreted as a sign
of special affection.
 Extreme Family-Centeredness
o This is manifested through the use of one’s office and power as a
means of promoting the interest of the family, in factionalism,
patronage, political dynasties, and in the protection of erring family
member.
 Lack of Discipline
o This is manifested through causal and relaxed attitude towards time
and space which manifests itself in lack of precision and
compulsiveness, in poor time management, and in procrastination.
 Passivity and Lack of Initiative
o These are described as the tendency to wait to be told what has to
be done and strong reliance on others to do things for us. Filipinos
are also described as submissive to those in authority and are not
likely to raise issues or to question decisions.
 Colonial Mentality
o The inferiority towards Filipino culture and actual preference for
foreign things.
 Kanya-Kanya Syndrome
o This is evident through demonstrating selfish and self-serving
attitudes that generate a feeling of envy and competitiveness
toward others, particularly to one’s peers who seem to have gained
some status or prestige.
 Lack of Self-Analysis and Self-Reflection
o This is described as the tendency to be superficial and even
somewhat flighty. In the face of serious problems, both personal and
social, there is lack of analysis and reflection.

TOPIC 8: THE DIGITAL SELF (2 hours)

 What is Digital Self?
o It is the persona we project in the technological world.
o The act of browsing, checking, writing, etc. in the social networking sites such as Facebook,
Twitter, and Instagram, has become part of the daily activities of most people. The digital world
has brought us convenience in everything we do.
o However, the disadvantages of the extreme use of gadgets, where we can access the
information of the things we want or need, have also been felt by people from all walks of life
and from different generations.

 Famous theorist on explaining the dimensions of the Digital Self:

o Donald Winnicott
 If you can still remember (Module 2, Topic 4), he proposed the theory of True
and False Self
 As a review, the True Self involves our instinctive core of our personality
that needs to be nurtured, while the False Self involves people's
expectation.
 Highlight: Base on this premise, it can be argued that in social media,
people can conceal emptiness or emotions just to show life is

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interesting. As an example, a person will start posting in social media things
that is more closely resembles his or her ideal self while becoming more
untrue to one’s self, hence, more concrete false self.
o Russel Belk
 He coined the term, the Digital Self and defined it as the persona we project in the
technological world. He also asserted that our possessions have great contributions
in our identity and are reflections of our identities.
 Digital possessions like photos, videos, statuses, texts, and emails become very
important in shaping Digital Self which allow people to try various personas that may
differ from real life identities
 Highlight: Like in any social networking sites, it keeps people connected, avenue
where people express, explore, and present selves with less inhibition which forms
part of their digital possessions. The examination of what’s in your social media
accounts (digital possessions) would often give you a better understanding of the
concept of self-presentation. To put it simply, we present ourselves online
sometimes truthfully and other times, pretentiously.
o Erving Goffman
 He postulated that an individual’s self can be changed according to the audience,
known as Self-Presentation Theory
 It is a social theory that focuses on the context of human behavior based on
the viewer's impression of the action or behavior.
 He asserts that as social beings, people consciously perform identities for
self- seeking purposes which can be observed by examining online social
interactions
 Impression management is one of the components of self-presentation theory, is
defined as a conscious or sub-conscious process of attempting to influence the
perception of other people about a person, object, or event. Today, it can be
applied in the content a person post online to create a certain impression.
 Highlight: Awareness of our impression management tactics provides us
with an understanding of how we influence another person’s feelings and
perceptions of us in certain situations, but most importantly, how we align
our impression management towards becoming more authentic and genuine
self.
o Consequently, other people are not comfortable of expressing themselves in the real world
(afraid of being judged or ridiculed) especially the majority of individuals that belong to the
LGBTQ+ community, and rather use the digital world as an avenue for expressing their
sexuality.
 Gender and Sexuality Online
o What is sex?
 It refers to the physical, biological, and chemical makeup of an individual that relates
to the differences between male and female. It refers to the person's identity based
on their physical characteristics (such as having a penis/vagina), genes, and
hormones.
o What is gender?
 It is the socially constructed characteristics of women and men, such as norms, roles,
and relationships of and between groups of women and men. Varies from society to
society and can be changed. It does not exist naturally, but is instead a concept that
is created by cultural and societal norms.
o What is sexuality?
 It is about who you are attracted to sexually; capacity to have an erotic experiences
or responses. It may be experienced and expressed in a variety of ways, such as
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thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviors, practices, roles,
and relationships.
 Sexual Orientation is a sub-category of sexuality, that deals about a
person being homosexual, heterosexual, or bisexual, or gay, straight or bi,
we are talking about the person's sexual orientation
 People explore their sexuality online through engaging in social apps;
chatting, video-call, or to some extent meet ups either for the purpose of
friends, open relationships, dating, and sometimes hook ups. As we
look forward to explore what is next in love and sex, it makes sense
to examine the purity of our hearts first.
 Setting Boundaries to your Online Self
Be kind and use kind words if you post or make a comment on your friend’s posts. May it be
in the virtual world or in reality, unpleasant behavior is unacceptable because this would most
likely hurt other people’s feelings.
o Think before you post and/or share photos, videos, and comments online because they cannot
be taken back once you do it.
o Carefully choose your online friends. If you don’t know them, don’t accept their friend
request. It is safe to only accept friend requests from friends in the real world.

TOPIC 8: THE DIGITAL SELF (SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES)

 The Digital Self
o The digital self is part of what Russel Belk (2013) calls the Extended Self
o Characteristics of the Digital Self
 Dematerialized - unlike the material self that is found in actual physical objects, the
digital self is not tangible but virtual.
 Reembodied - since the digital self is not physical, it is reembodied through avatars or
edited profile photos
 Open-sharing - because of the open-sharing nature of the Internet, the digital self is an
open book, and digital possessions can be shared. There is a loss of control in terms of
which part of the self can be revealed because of the ease with which one’s photos or
comments can be shared.
 Co-constructivist - the constant online interaction with others helps create or construct
and reconstruct the digital self.
 Distributed Memory - because past online transactions are likely to be in a digital clutter
spread across the Internet.
 Private Self versus Digital Self
o Private Self - there are parts of the total self that people consciously decide to hide from the
online world.
Distinction between Private Self and Digital Self
1. The private self is kept relatively secret and away from the prying eyes of the digital
world. Conversely, everyone else in the World Wide Web subjects the digital self to scrutiny.
2. Second, largely the individual constructs the private self whereas the digital self, characterized
as co-constructivist, is influenced by the inputs of one’s digital community.
3. The private self essentially has none to very limited records as compared to the cluttered
records of the digital self, with its distributed memory, in the World Wide Web.
 Impact of Online Interactions on the Self
o Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) - some referred it to as Technology-Mediated
Communication (TMC), which is currently taken to mean a type of communication that is done
through computers.
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1. Proteus Effect - The predominant logic is that people influence how they construct their digital
selves by choosing what to post online and determining with which they share this aspect of
the self. However, the path of influence could be in reverse; online interactions can have an
effect on the self.
2. Labelling Effect - suggests that when people’s digital selves are constantly praised by several
of their online friends as beautiful or smart, they engage in behaviors that confirm such
praises
3. Internet Enhanced Self-Disclosure Hypothesis - The feeling of closeness despite the lack of
actual physical contact. They contend that the resulting closeness is due to heightened self-
disclosure. Other benefits of online interaction include enhanced communication, better social
adjustment, and well-being.
o Online interactions can have adverse effects on the self.
 An extensive study by Christofides, Muise, and Desmarais (2012) has established that
adolescents experience misunderstandings, unwanted contact, online meanness, and
cyberbullying.
 Also, online interactions can pose a risk when it comes to unintended disclosure of
information. Sometimes people post status updates and photos or send emails without much
thought only to regret it later, and they forget about the posts, which are likely to remain
online.
 Certain forms of online interactions may put a person at risk of depression.
 Frequent use of the Internet could displace physical interaction with family and friends.
4. Internet Addiction - People are becoming more and more distracted by constant engagement
with their digital selves. The reason could probably be what researchers have referred to as
Internet addiction.
 Online Self-Presentation and Impression Management
Number of Advantages
1. a person can have anonymity in the digital world.
2. people can manipulate what information about themselves they will share so that they can
positively present themselves online.
3. the advantage of asynchronicity, meaning that people have the opportunity to delay their
responses so that they can edit what they want to say before sending it
 Managing Online Presentation
1. Think before you leave any digital trace
o Always remember that what you post leaves a digital footprint online. You may delete your post,
but it is not actually gone virtually. Some may have captured a copy of it.
o You do not want to have an online photo of you that will haunt you when you are applying for a job
or being considered for promotion in the future.
o Think twice before you hit the send or post button.
2. Limit access to your digital Self
o If you really want to express yourself through your social media accounts, at the very least you
should restrict access to your digital self to a circle of your trusted friends. This way, you have a
higher level of certainty that traces of your digital self are in safe hands.
3. Beware of unreliable sites or suspicious transactions
o You should ensure data security when it comes to handling your digital profile. This practice
prevent your data from being stolen by other people with a malicious intent to create another
digital profile that uses your personal profile.
o Your data can be used to create fake or “poser” accounts, and such false digital selves can be
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used in illegal or unbecoming transactions.
o In order to avoid this, make sure you do not give out data unnecessarily. These data include
birthdates, address, social security system numbers, specific addresses, and parent’s full names.
4. Balance the engagement of your digital self
o Despite the adverse consequences of being online, there are still positive effects of engaging your
digital self. By all means, use it to reduce loneliness and develop closer relationships.
o Greet people online during special occasions, reach out to friends, or have a casual conversation
of going through CMCs.
o This shows that you can use your digital self to strengthen your relationships with other people.
However, realize that it is not a replacement for face-to-face conversations. Mindfully engage in
real-world interactions as much as possible.
5. Be a responsible member of the online social network
o CMCs are primarily used to interact and share information online. However, with the proliferation
of “fake news,” you have to activate a sense of responsibility in your digital self by not continuing
the spread on misinformation.
o A responsible digital self needs to read more hard news with verifiable sources. You should
distinguish reliable sources of hard news and consider sharing a post or an article if you are not
sure about its authenticity.

MODULE 3: Managing and Tacking care of oneself

TOPIC 9: LEARNING TO BECOME A BETTER STUDENT - Course Handout
 Introduction:
o All of us have already learned that what we think and feel, and the way we do what we do are
greatly influenced by heredity. Our genes determine our hereditary characteristics which are
handed down from one generation to the other. This includes our physical characteristics such
as height and eye and skin color. Social and intellectual behaviors are also determined by
heredity.
o Like heredity, environment has been found to play a very important role in determining the
behavior and personality development of an individual. It includes the people in our lives as
well as our culture. The kind of environment we are exposed to includes:
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 Physical environment which affects all areas of our health and safety conditions.
 Social environment includes our family and other people we come into contact with
daily. A positive social environment is evident when there is love and support that can
help create a positive concept of us. However, a negative social environment is
manifested when we experience neglect and/or abuse that would negatively affect our
well-being.
 Cultural Environment includes the language used during family interaction, the food
we eat, the customs and traditions of the place we come from, or the religious group
we belong.
 Highlight: The greatest challenge is how we choose to act our environment
and with our inherited characteristics because our CHOICES and our WILL to
do or commit to something are always in our hands.
 Learning to Be a Better Student
o What is Learning?
 According to Feldman (2013), it is defined as a relatively permanent change in
behavior that is brought about by experience.
 These changes does NOT include behavior changes that are due to
maturation or temporary conditions of the organism, such as fatigue or drug-
induced states.
 Cacioppo and Freberg asserted that more than one type of learning can operate
simultaneously in the same situation, namely associative, non-associative, and
observation.
o Three (3) Types of Learning
 Associative Learning
 This occurs when we make a connection or an association between two events
o Highlight: When someone has learned a certain association or
connection, that person is conditioned. Hence, conditioning simply
mean the learned associations
o There are two (2) forms of associative learning, namely Classical
conditioning and Operant conditioning
o Classical Conditioning
 Pioneered by Ivan Pavlov
 It is forming associations between pairs of stimuli that occur
sequentially in time. This definition of learning requires
behavior to change, so the appearance of conditioned
response tells us that learning has occurred.
 Examples: avoidance of dentist that we associate with pain or
feeling dizzy or nauseated when seeing a BUS which entails
long travel
 Classical conditioning also explains emotional responses like
the fears of cockroaches, mice, spiders and other creatures
that are typically harmless. Another examples, student
associate presentation to the large audience with negative
emotions and anxiety which hinder performance, or smell of
certain perfume brings happy emotions
o Operant conditioning.
 Pioneered by B.F. Skinner
 It is forming associations between behaviors and their
consequences; increasing behaviors that is followed with
rewards.
 Unlike Classical Conditioning that make use of biological or
natural mechanism only to form associations, Operant
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Conditioning make use of rewards or reinforcements.
 Central concept
 Reinforcement is a process by which a stimulus
increases the probability of a preceding behavior to
be repeated while a reinforcer is any stimulus that
increases the probability that a preceding behavior
will occur again.
 Punishment refers to a stimulus that decreases
the probability that a prior behavior will occur again.
 Non-Associative Learning
 Unlike Associative learning that make use of two or more stimulus, Non-
Associative involves changes in the magnitude of responses using a
single stimulus rather than the formation of connections between stimuli. This
type of learning has two types:
o Habituation. Reduces our reactions to repeated experiences that
have already been evaluated and found to be unchanging and
harmless. Example: You don’t hear your air conditioner after it’s been
running awhile, you get used to it.
o Sensitization. Increases our reactions to a wide range of stimuli
following exposure to one strong stimulus. Example: People are
‘jumpy’ following natural disasters, like earthquakes.
 Observational Learning
 Unlike associative and non-associative, observation learning occurs when
a person observes and imitates behavior. Four main processes: attention,
retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement
 Attention. It is needed to reproduce the model’s actions. It simply means to
attend or pay close attention to what the model is saying or doing.
 Retention. It is done by encoding the information and keeping it in memory so
that you can retrieve it, simply being able to remember it.
 Motor reproduction. It is the process of imitating the model’s actions or the
process of executing the behavior.
 Reinforcement. It is observing whether the model’s behavior is followed by a
consequence. If the action is rewarded, one will likely do it again while if
punished, one might hesitate imitating the behavior.
o It is important to note that effective learning does NOT stop after a task or project is done or
completed. Most effective people take time to reflect on their behavior to decide for their next
course of action for them to see the bigger picture. This is done to avoid gaps and address
problems, this process is usually known as metacognition.
 Metacognition and Study Strategies
o What is Metacognition?
 It is commonly defined as “thinking about thinking” or awareness and
understanding of one’s thinking and cognitive processes. It means being aware
of what you know and don’t know.
 Types of Metacognitive Strategies
o These strategies helps students plan, monitor, and modify their mathematical
problem-solving. Not only are these strategies relatively easy for students to
implement, but they also help students to become better independent problem-
solvers.
 Self-instruction
 Talking to one’s self about the task or activity, also known as Self-Talk
o Example: “Did I understanding what I just read? No, I didn’t. I need to
reread the problem again.”
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o A better way to gain perspectives and analytical understanding.
 Self-monitoring
 Checking one’s performance; often involves a checklist.
o Example: Creating a checklist or To-do list and checking those that
are finished; Marking the dates of the calendar to show progress.

TOPIC 9: LEARNING TO BECOME A BETTER STUDENT - SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

 Structure of the Human Brain
o Cerebral Cortex
 the largest part of the human brain is covered with a layer tissue that gave its name; It is
thought to be responsible for most of the thinking and learning. Its key functions are sensing,
integrating, and motor (action).
 Cerebral Cortex is composed of four lobes:
1. Frontal lobe - the largest of the four, is located in the forward part of the brain; contains the
prefrontal cortex responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning. It is involved in
language, motor control, reasoning, and emotion-regulation
2. Parietal lobe - is behind the frontal lobe; contains somatosensory cortex responsible for
processing sensory information, such as touch, temperature, and pain; is involved in
processing information from the body’s senses.
3. Temporal lobe - are found behind the temples of the head. They are responsible for the
sense of hearing and meaningful speech
4. Occipital lobe - located at the base of the cortex toward the back of the brain; processes
visual information from the eyes in the primary visual cortex; called as the visual center of
the brain
 Cerebral Cortex is divided into two hemispheres:
1. Left Hemisphere - involved primarily with language and thinking
2. Right Hemisphere - is associated with spatial relations and emotions
o Sensory cortex
 The first part of the structure of the brain; where the sensing function happens.
 Sensing - is the receiving of information from the outside world through the sense organs
(eyes, skin, ears, nose, and mouth).
 The information received by the sensory organs is transformed into meaningless neural
impulses or electrical energy.
 These small bits of individual signals are added together to interpret what is being sensed; then
they are transformed into patterns that hold meaningful information like languages or images.
o Back Integrative Cortex
 the integration, which creates images and meaning, happens at the back end of the integrative
cortex of the brain
o Front Integrative Cortex
 is responsible for problem solving, decision-making, assembling plan for action, language,
making judgment and evaluation, short-term memory, and directing and organizing actions and
activities of the entire body.
o Motor Cortex
 directly triggers the execution of the plan for action originating from the front integrative cortex
like speaking and writing
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o Limbic System
 These networks now become meaningful units, such as ability to generalize and abstract,
perspective taking, and social interaction, which are linked to the emotional processing of the
brain
 is located in the innermost part of the brain, is responsible for emotions.
 Consists of:
1. Hypothalamus
2. Hippocampus
3. Amygdala
 Interactions between the emotional part of the brain and the cognitive part imply that there is a
connection between the reasoning centers and the emotion centers of the brain, affecting the
learning process
 Feelings can help one remember and forget. They can aid in recalling important events and
experiences, and trigger false memories. Thus, feelings can either aid or hamper reasoning

 Building Blocks of the Human Brain

o The human brain is nothing without the building blocks or the specialized cells forming neuronal
networks that are thought to be indicators of learning
o Neuron
 The specialized cells in the brain are connected to a network of fibers and branches
 specialized nerve cells that accumulate and transmit information in the form of electrical
impulses in the brain and other parts of the nervous system.
 Consists of three basic structures:
1. Dendrite - looks like a tree branch that extends from the cell body, is responsible for
receiving messages from other nerve cells.
2. Cell Body - contains the nucleus that manufactures most of the molecules that neurons
need to survive and function
3. Axons - are responsible for receiving signals from the dendrites and transmitting them to
other neurons in the brain or to cells in other organs.
 When the dendrites are stimulated, they become “electrically charged.” If the charge is
sufficient, the neuron “fires,” resulting in an “electrical impulse” sent to the axon and to its tips,
the terminal buttons. The myelin sheaths, the fatty covering of the axon, protect and accelerate
transmission of electrical impulses.
 Synapses - separates neurons by tiny spaces
 Neurotransmitters - When an “electrical impulse” travels along an axon, it causes the terminal
buttons to release chemicals that cross the synapses and stimulate the dendrites of the
adjacent neuron
 When one is learning new knowledge, dendrites grow out of neurons. Two dendrites form
a synapse where the electrical signals travel. As dendrites grow large, and there are more
connections of brain cells, more information can be stored in and become thicker, thus creating
stronger and faster connections. With the myelin reducing interferences, the signal travels
faster within the axon, speeding up the processing of information by the brain
 Dendrites grow through active learning practices. By doing something active, neuronal
networks grow. Thus, performing a skill repeatedly and engaging in knowledge actively can
help solidify the skill and knowledge in the brain permanently.

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 Making mistakes and getting feedback from teachers are ways to correct and check the
accuracy of the connections in the brain and minimize the learning of wrong skill. Unused
neurons are removed or “pruned,” which then facilitate cognitive development.
 The Cognitive Approach to Learning
o Cognitive approach
 one of the most notable views in understanding the process of learning.
 It views the learners as “sources of plans, intentions, goals, ideas, memories, and emotions
actively used to attend to, select, and construct meaning from stimuli and knowledge from
experience”
 Example:
 Memorizing or learning
 The cognitive approach is typically used to teach students the thinking, remembering, and self-
monitoring skills that enable them to reason and solve problems

 Metacognition and Study strategies

o The ability of students to judge what they know and what they do not know is an important factor in
their performance. To perform tasks effectively, they evaluate whether they have the capability to
handle them effectively and carry out solutions to problems.
o Metacognition
 ability to monitor one’s thinking
 refers to the awareness and knowledge about one’s own thought process and the ability to use
the knowledge in managing one’s own cognitive processes, such as problem solving and
comprehension
 involved in three kinds of knowledge:
1. Declarative knowledge - this is known information that one can declare. Some examples
are the knowledge of a student about his or her self; the factors that influence his or her
learning; and the skills and strategies that he or she needs in performing tasks.
2. Procedural knowledge - this involves knowing how to apply and implement learning
strategies.
3. Self-regulator knowledge - this is knowing why and when to use the mechanism and
strategies for learning
 involves three essentials skills in regulating thinking and learning:
1. Planning - This involves identifying the amount of time of a particular task, the strategies
to go about doing it, what resources to gather, and so on
2. Monitoring - This means keeping track of how one is performing and checking whether
learning is taking place or not. It includes self- questioning, self-testing, and searching
the environment, such as using references and verifying to students and teachers if one
understands the lesson enough
3. Evaluating - This refers to examining and assessing one’s performance. It is the skill of
getting feedback and going over and learning from mistakes on a test
 Researchers evaluated the utility of ten learning strategies based on existing studies in
cognitive and educational psychology. The strategies were rated in terms of effectiveness and
scalability
1. Learning Strategies with High Utility Rate
a) Practice testing is testing oneself that involves retrieval of correct information in
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the form of quizzes, flash cards, and completing problem-solving tests. It has a
high utility rate due to improvement in retention outcome measures across different
ages and abilities.
b) Distributed practice is a learning strategy whereby students schedule the practice
into a number of short sessions to enable them to retain knowledge and skills for a
longer period of time.
2. Learning Strategies with Moderate Utility Rate
a) Interleaved practice refers to switching or interleaving of different kinds of practice
tasks or problems during a single practice session
b) Elaborative interrogation is a learning strategy where students are encouraged to
generate “how” and “why” questions after examining the material, and then they try
to give possible answers. This strategy can enhance students’ memory and make
them engage in active learning as well
c) Self-explanation is a technique whereby students explain not only the concepts or
solutions to problems, but also how they relate them to known and existing
3. Strategies with Low Utility Rate
a) Rereading is reading the material the second or third time after the initial reading.
Though it is one of the most common strategies used by students, studies have
shown that it needs to be in conjunction with other strategies to make the learning
more beneficial and effective.
b) Highlighting and underlining are considered universal learning strategies
whereby students mark important parts of the reading material. However, studies
show that they are less effective since students may spend less time examining the
concepts. They have to incorporate it into a more effective strategy to achieve
better learning.
c) Summarization requires paraphrasing and condensing of the important ideas and
discarding the less important ones
d) Keyword mnemonic involves using images or acoustic cues in the form of
keywords or acronyms to connect the new learning to previous information
e) Imagery for text means creating mental images or visual representation of the
content. This strategy may enhance mental organization, but studies have found
that it has minimal benefits as it is only limited to imagery- friendly materials.

 Managing One’s Own Learning: Self-Regulated Learning

o Self-regulation
 This involves the process whereby students engage in activating and sustaining their thoughts,
behaviors, and emotions to achieve their goals
 It involves setting goals and mobilizing the resources and efforts to do so
 These following elements of self-regulation can help students to be more self- regulated
learner
1. Self- monitoring refers to the awareness and knowing what one is doing. It involves
perceiving things accurately and not simply doing the behavior out of habit. It provides the
student with the information needed to set realistic performance standards and assess the
ongoing behavioral changes.
2. Self-evaluation is the decision made by the student whether his or her give performance
should be considered favorably or not based on internal and external standards. It gives the
student the kind of information to use to react this or her own behavior.

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3. Self-reaction is the acknowledgement of one’s competencies and capabilities, the ability to
feel satisfied with oneself, thus increasing one’s interest to continue the behavior.
 Goal setting and maintaining strong commitment to goals contribute positively to the
elements of self-regulation
 Personal self-efficacy - is a significant factor in motivating an individual to strive in achieving
aspirations
 Motivational effects are produced when there is knowledge of what one can gain out of
diligence and of the standard certain goals require or has set.
 Commitment comes with set goals. In the process of maintaining strong commitment to the
goals, students realize that they must work hard, not procrastinate, believe in themselves, be
responsible for the outcome of their efforts, and not be discouraged easily when they
experience failure. With a stronger commitment to goals, they are more likely to attain them

TOPIC 10: SETTING GOALS FOR SUCCESS (2 hours)

 Why Set Goals?
o The first step of successful goal achievement is goal setting. This marks your first
point toward success. It is when you switch from a passive state to being involved in
life, because majority of those people who do not set goals, wait for opportunities
rather than actively aiming for it.
o To begin with, what kind of people who usually set goals, given that there are other who
do not?
 Mindset Theory
o Pioneered by Carol Dweck
o This theory explains that people can have different mindsets towards different aspects
of their lives, like intelligence and learning. Two types of mindset:
 Fixed Mindset
 Those who attribute their successes on innate ability hold a “fixed" theory of
intelligence (that is, a fixed mindset).
Majority of people who are fixed mindset do not set another goal after a setback
because they are easily discouraged. They also see feedback as criticisms
rather than an opportunity for self-growth, and they easily give up.
 Growth Mindset
 Those who attribute their accomplishments on learning, effort, training, and
practice, hold a “growth" theory of intelligence (that is, a growth mindset).
 Majority of individuals who possess a growth mindset strive harder despite of
challenges, and see feedback constructively to better improve next time. They
are not easily discouraged and often has a positive outlook in life.
 Goal Setting Theory
o Pioneered by Edwin Locke
o It states that goal setting is essentially linked to task performance. Specific and
challenging goals along with appropriate feedback contribute to higher and better
task performance.
 Highlight: In relation to Mindset theory, growth mindset individuals often set more
goals.
o Five (5) Principles of Effective Goal Setting
 Clarity
 A clear, measurable goal is more achievable than one that is poorly defined.
When the goal is clear, you will know what you are trying to achieve.
 Challenge
 The more challenging the goals are, the more people become motivated.

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However, it is important to consider a careful balance to ensure the right degree
of challenge.
 Commitment
 This means putting deliberate effort into attaining the goal you set.
 Feedback
 Other than setting a goal, it is also good to listen to feedback on how you are
progressing towards the attainment of your goal.
 Task complexity
 The more you set challenging goals, the more complex the process will become.
If the goal becomes complex, it is helpful to break down larger tasks into smaller,
more attainable steps, so as not to become overwhelmed as you go along the
way.
 S.M.A.R.T Goal Setting Tips
o Sample Scenario (SMART versus a Plain Goal)
 Plain Goal: I want to be a better student. (weak)
 S.M.A.R.T. Goal: I will increase my grade both in Chemistry and Physics course to
increase my overall average to qualify for an academic scholarship. (strong)
o Specific
 I have to increase my scores during examination to increase my overall average to
qualify for an academic scholarship.
o Measurable
 My scores during minor and major examinations have to reach 95% of the total score
per exam.
o Achievable
 I will ask my classmates who do well in Chemistry and Physics to teach me on the
topics that I don’t clearly understand.
o Relevant
 I will reduce the financial requirements every semester. Better grades will also open
more opportunities for me.
o Time-bound
 I have four days to prepare for the quiz in Chemistry and five days to prepare for
Physics; four weeks to prepare for the midterm so I have plenty of time to do personal
study, and meet my classmates and teachers to help me with my weak points in these
courses.
 Goal Setting Tips
o Write Down Your Goal
 In this way, it will be easier to keep track how far or near are you in reaching it. In
writing your goals, use “I will” and frame your goal statement positively.
o Stick With You Goal
 Whatever challenges you may face on the process of achieving your goal, you need to
be convinced that with hard work and commitment, everything will be possible

TOPIC 10: SETTING GOALS FOR SUCCESS - SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

 Goals
o Derived from purpose, which is derived from an individual’s needs
o Such a purpose is called “the purpose of becoming”
o is achieved through the acceptance of one’s being.
o Thus, an individual’s purpose is expressed in achieving their goals.

o Important points that students need to remember when it comes to goal setting
1. Goal setting can help people use their abilities and talents in the future. It can help them
discover their hidden abilities that are unknown to themselves. The abilities may include
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concentration of efforts, which is important if one is to reach a certain goal.
2. Goal setting helps people develop eagerness and show enthusiasm for the outcome. The
moment they establish a goal, they directly perceive the self in a desired way.
3. Goal setting helps increase self-confidence.
4. Goal setting helps people overcome difficulties, obstacles, and barriers more easily without
any difficulties.
5. Goal setting helps people identify opportunities. Developing a certain kind of awareness
helps them grasp the goal that they want.
6. Goal setting shapes desire, which is very important as far as shaping goals is concerned.
As people think about a certain goal, they build a burning desire to attain it.

o Impact of goal setting on success depends critically on the student’s commitment

or investment in their goals
1. When they make a commitment or investment, it is likely that they will achieve things
constantly with that commitment in mind (Cialdini, 2006).
2. When they have a commitment to reach their goals, they want to search and receive
feedback (Locke & Latham, 1990).
3. They are relatively successful at defeating other people’s goals when they are chasing
the same goals.

 The Concept of Self-Efficancy in Goal Setting

o Self-efficacy beliefs determine how people feel, think, encourage themselves, and
perform, which produces varied effects in major processes like cognitive, affective,
motivational, and selection processes (Bandura, 1994).
 In Cognitive processes: individual goal setting is inclined to self-appraisal of competences.
Thus, the stronger the perceived self-efficacy of how complex the goal is, so is their commitment
towards their goals.
 In the Affective process: an individual’s belief in own coping competences becomes affected
by the level of depression and stress that one encounters in difficult and hostile situations. The
same case happens in terms of the motivational level.
 Motivation is measured by the expectation that a certain sequence of behavior will
produce definite outcomes. The value of those outcomes is according to the expectancy-
value theory. This is where individuals act based on what they believe that they can do, as
well as on their views about the expected outcomes.
 In the Selection Process: Bandura explains, people are partially the product of their
environment. Their belief of self-efficacy can form their career paths as influenced by their types
of actions and environment that people choose.

o A resilient sense of efficacy leads to ideal actions or steps towards success and
personal well-being.
o Effective efficacy builders further convey positive evaluations. Individuals construct
positive and successful situations; thus, they avoid placing themselves in situations
impulsively where they are often likely to fail.
 Goal Setting
o One of the theories that would explain how one acknowledges the sense of competence
and having a goal choice in a classroom-learning community is the meta-motivational
self-determination theory (SDT).
o As suggested by Schunk (1990) in one of his studies, goal setting is suitable only if the
task difficulty remains constant; direct teaching on goal setting may only be necessary
only until students can already set ideal and realistic goals themselves.
o Goals improve students’ self-regulation by aiding them in the organization, prioritization,
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and management of their motives.
o To achieve effective goals, they can employ a specific, measurable, attainable, result-
oriented, and time-bound (SMART) approach.
o Locke’s theory of goal setting and task performance shows that goals are motivated by
four aspects:
1. Having a direct attention,
2. Regulating effort
3. Increasing persistence
4. encouraging the development of strategies and action plans that result in task
performance (1981).
o It will be effective to adjust to their competency by directing the students’ zone of proximal
development (Vygotsky, 1978). Zone of proximal development allows a person to learn
effectively depending on the kind of teaching that the person wants.
 How to Set Good Goals
o Setting clear goals is important. Studies have shown that individuals with distinct, written goals
are basically more likely to succeed than those students who do not have clearly defined
goals.
o The different levels of goals may range from task-specific outcomes to cross- situational
practical goals
o Students may plan procedural goals to achieve something to do with learning a problem-
solving strategy. On the other hand, outcome goals require specific actions,
o A mind-set can either be fixed or growing.
o Fixed Mindset - where students believe their intelligence, talents, and abilities are just fixed
characters.
o Growth mind-set - students recognize that their abilities and talents can be established or
developed through good teaching, proper guidance, effort, and persistence.

 Proximal
o Another distinctive feature of a good goal is its progressive distance from when the goal is actually
set.
o Some researchers have argued that goals can be achieved in short-term and long-term time
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periods, where short-term goals are more inspiring than long-term ones
o A short-term goal can be what they want to achieve on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis
o A long-term goal for students can be what they want to achieve for the entire school year or what
career they are building or pursuing.
o Proximity of the goals in every semester can change one’s achievement and motivation.
o A combination of short-term and long-term goals is the best strategy in sustaining the students’
motivation and determination. The role of the instructor is to set and encourage students to set
weekly learning objectives and learning goals.

TOPIC 11: TAKING CHARGE OF ONE’S HEALTH (3 hours)

 We are almost at the end of this course! It is also important to note not just the factors that will increase
our productivity and success, but also factors that can help us maintain our success in life!
 Several factors that may affect our health: environment, genetics, and our relationships with people. Our
type of personality may also have a significant impact on our health. But among others, stress is a major
factor that challenges our productivity and health (Rathus, 2013).
 What is Stress?
o It is any demand made by an organism to adapt, cope, or adjust. It is classified
into two sub-type, namely the Eustress helps us become alert and occupied while
Distress is experienced if stress is intense or prolonged.
 Highlight: Between the two, only distress can become a burden, thus, will affect our
moods and ability to adjust, impair our ability to experience pleasure, and harm the
body.
 General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
o Pioneered work of Hans Selye, the founder of stress research, started his
investigation on the body’s response to stressors, especially the wear and tear due to
the demands placed on the body. He asserted that the common effects on the body
when demands are placed on it, is called the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS).
o GAS consists of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion which is helpful in
understanding the link between stress and health.
 Alarm Stage
 This is the body’s first reaction to a stressor. It is the temporary state of shock
during which resistance to illness and stress falls below normal limits.
 Resistance Stage
 Glands throughout the body manufacture different hormones that protect the
individual. The body’s immune system can fight off infection with remarkable
efficiency.

 Exhaustion Stage
 At this point, wear and tear takes its toll- the person might collapse in
exhaustion, and vulnerability to disease increases. Seriously, possibly
irreversible damage to the body, such as heart attack or even death, may occur.
 Factors That Causes Stress
o Daily hassles. This refers to regularly occurring conditions and experiences that can
threaten or harm our well-being. Types of hassles are as follows:
 Household hassles: preparing meals, shopping, and home maintenance.
 Health hassles: physical illness, concenr about medical treatment, and side effects of
medication
 Time-pressure hassles: having too many things to do and too many responsibilities,
and not having enough time
 Environmental hassles: crime, neighborhood deterioration, and traffic noise
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 Inner concern hassles: being socially isolated, lonely
 Financial responsibility hassles: concern about owing money such as mortgage
payments and loan installments.
 Work Hassles: job dissatisfaction, not liking one’s duties at work, and problems with co
workers
 Security hassles: concerns about job security, terrorism, taxes, property investments,
stock market swings, and retirement
o Uplifts. This refer to the opposite of daily hassles. Some examples of uplifts are
pleasant family outings, good grades, enjoyable TV shows, and tasty meals.
o Life changes
 Getting a scholarship, graduating from college, marrying the right person, finding a
good job, and moving to a better neighborhood require us to adjust. Although variety
adds spice to life, too much of it might lead to physical illness.
o Conflict. It is defined as the feeling of being pulled in two or more directions by
opposing motives. Here are the four (4) kinds of conflict:
 Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
 Is more stressful because we are motivated to avoid each of the two negative
goals, yet avoiding one of them requires approaching the other.
 Example: You need to decide between doing unwanted homework (avoidance)
or doing unwanted household chores (avoidance).
 Approach-Avoidance Conflict
 Is experienced when the same goal produces both approach and avoidance
motives.
 Example: Marriage is a momentous decision that both positive and negative
aspects.
 Approach-Approach Conflict
 Considered the least stressful type.
 Each of the two goals is desirable and both are within reach.
 Example: You need to decide which graduate school to go.
 Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict
 It is the most complex form of conflict because each of several alternative
courses of action has pluses and minuses.
 Each alternative has both positive and negative aspects.
 Example: Choosing between 2 different cars, each with diff. pros and cons.
First car has great gas mileage but expensive or second car is cheap but
doesn't last long term.
 Who Can Be Stressed?
o The Type A Behavior Pattern
 They are like race horses. They are highly driven, competent, impatient, and aggressive
- so much that they are prone to getting into vehicle accidents (Ben-Zur, 2002; Yamada
et al., 2008).
o Type B
 They are relax more readily and focus more on the quality of life. They are less
ambitious and less impatient, and they pace themselves.
o Type C
 They have difficulty expressing emotion and ten to suppress emotions. They tend to
display poor health.
o Type D
 They are generally distressed, frequently experience negative emotions, and socially
inhibited. (Beutel et.al., 2012; Cosci, 2012; Molloy et. al., 2012)
 Even after adjustment for depression, they face a threefold increased risk of adverse

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cardiovascular outcomes. (Denollet & Conraads, 2011)
 Psychological Moderators Of Stress
o Self-Efficacy
 It is the ability to believe in our capacity to make things happen. This kind of ability
helps us withstand stress.
o Sense of Humor
 Can moderate the effects of stress. Laughter stimulates the output of endorphins, which
might enhance the functioning of the immune system. (Marziali et al., 2008).
o Psychological Hardiness
 One’s commitment to something or someone that is important to him/her gives his/her
life a purpose. Studies show that the degree of control one has over any stressor will
influence how difficult the stressor will be for one to cope with. Those who are
susceptible to stress tend to perceive difficulties as threats; stress-hardy people
perceive such difficulties as a challenge.
o Predictability and Control.
 These two abilities will enable us to moderate the impact of stress. Predictability allows
us to prepare ourselves for the inevitable while control allows us to feel that we are not at
the mercy of the fates (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000b; Yartz et al., 2008).
o Social Support.
 Has been considered as a buffer against the effects of stress. It can be given to and
received by people through the following aspects: Appraisal is done by giving feedback
about how one is doing. This kind of support helps people interpret what happened to
them. Socializing can be in a form of initiating simple conversation or going shopping
with another person.
o Emotional Support.
 This aspect can be demonstrated through listening to people’s concerns and
expressing feelings of sympathy, caring, understanding, and reassurance.
 Stress Management Strategies
o Physical Management
 Structure each day to include a minimum of 20 minutes of aerobic exercise. Eat a
balanced meal, avoid caffeine, get enough hours of sleep, take a warm bath or shower, or
go for walks.
o Behavioral Management
 This type of management can be done through involvement in diversionary activities or
direct action taking like positive addiction to cross stitching, gardening, drawing, writing
poems, composing songs, etc.
o Cognitive Restructuring
 Everything that happens to us, whether it stresses us out or not, depends on how we
think about that experience.
 The decision to cope with stress effectively is essential for physical and mental health.
 It starts with acknowledging the idea that there are people or things that cause us to be
stressed out, followed by identifying the sources of our stresses, and culminates by
making a conscious effort to cope with stress.

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