Review

Rice Fields and Aquatic Insect Biodiversity in Italy: State of

Knowledge and Perspectives in the Context of Global Change
Tiziano Bo 1,2 , Anna Marino 1,2, * , Simone Guareschi 1,2 , Alex Laini 1,2 and Stefano Fenoglio 1,2

1 Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Turin, 10123 Turin, Italy;
tiziano.bo@unito.it (T.B.); simone.guareschi@unito.it (S.G.); alex.laini@unito.it (A.L.);
stefano.fenoglio@unito.it (S.F.)
2 ALPSTREAM—Alpine Stream Research Center, Parco del Monviso, 12030 Ostana, Italy
* Correspondence: anna.marino@unito.it

Abstract: Rice fields are one of the most important and extensive agro-ecosystems in the
world. Italy is a major non-Asian rice producer, with a significant proportion of its yield
originating from a vast area within the Po Valley, a region nourished by the waters of
the Alps. While the biodiversity of these rice fields has been extensively documented for
certain faunal groups, such as birds, there remains a paucity of research on the biodiversity
of aquatic insects. A further challenge is the limited dissemination of findings, which
have been primarily published in “gray” literature (local journals, newsletters and similar).
Moreover, rice fields are of particular significance in the field of invasion biology, given
their role in the arrival and spread of alien species. While the efficacy of rice fields as a
substitute for the now-disappeared lowland natural environments is well documented, it
is equally evident that traditional rice-growing techniques can require an unsustainable
use of water resources, which threatens the biodiversity of the surrounding lotic systems.
Here, we summarize and review multiple sources of entomological information from
Italian rice fields, analyzing both publications in ISI journals and papers published in
local journals (gray literature). In the near future, strategies that reduce the demand for
irrigation, promote the cultivation of drought-tolerant crops, and utilize precision farming
techniques will be implemented. The challenge will be balancing the need to reduce water
Academic Editors: Guilin Han, withdrawal from rivers with the maintenance of wetlands where possible to support this
Jian Hu and Qian Zhang
pivotal component of regional biodiversity.
Received: 11 February 2025
Revised: 7 March 2025 Keywords: rice paddies; freshwater insects; animal biodiversity; global warming; agro-
Accepted: 13 March 2025
ecosystems
Published: 15 March 2025

Citation: Bo, T.; Marino, A.;

Guareschi, S.; Laini, A.; Fenoglio, S.
Rice Fields and Aquatic Insect
1. Rice Fields as Ecosystem and Their Biodiversity
Biodiversity in Italy: State of
Knowledge and Perspectives in the Rice is the second most widely grown cereal crop and it is the staple food for over half
Context of Global Change. Water 2025, the world’s human population. Consequently, rice paddies are one of the most important
17, 845. https://doi.org/10.3390/ and extensive agro-ecosystems in several regions of the world [1,2]. Traditionally, the
w17060845
largest rice production areas are located in Asia, where ten countries are responsible for
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors. 85% of global rice production [3]. In particular, China and India are the top rice producers,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. followed by Bangladesh, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, Burma, Philippines, Japan, and
This article is an open access article
Pakistan. This means that, since ancient times, huge portions of these territories have been
distributed under the terms and
turned into rice fields, with enormous social, environmental, and ecological consequences.
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license
Outside Asia, rice production is prevalently concentrated in some parts of South America
(https://creativecommons.org/ and Africa. In Europe, Italy is the main producer of rice, and 93% of Italian production
licenses/by/4.0/). comes from what is called the ‘golden triangle of rice,’ in the northwestern part of the

Water 2025, 17, 845 https://doi.org/10.3390/w17060845

 Water 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13

Water 2025, 17, 845 2 of 13

South America and Africa. In Europe, Italy is the main producer of rice, and 93% of Italian
production comes from what is called the ‘golden triangle of rice,’ in the northwestern
country, an area
part of the of around
country, 250,000
an area hectares
of around between
250,000 the provinces
hectares of Vercelli,
between the provinces Novara and
of Vercelli,
Pavia (Figure 1).
Novara and Pavia (Figure 1).

Figure1.1.Distribution
Figure Distribution(blue
(bluecolor)
color)ofofthe
themain
mainrice-producing
rice-producingareas
areasininItaly.
Italy.

In
InItaly,
Italy,rice
ricecultivation
cultivationhas hasexpanded
expanded since
sincethethesecond
second half of the
half 19th
of the 19thcentury,
century,duedueto
the availability
to the availabilityof water
of waterfrom the the
from AlpsAlpsandandthe the
construction
construction of aofvast network
a vast network of artificial
of artifi-
canals. These
cial canals. canals
These distribute
canals water
distribute waterin the lowland
in the lowland areas
areasandandare primarily
are primarilyfed fedbybythe
the
Cavour
CavourCanal,Canal,aasignificant
significanthydraulic
hydraulicwork workrealized
realizedin in1866
1866andandfedfedby bythethePoPoandandother
other
Alpine
Alpineloticloticsystems.
systems.Such Suchaaconcentration
concentrationof ofagricultural
agriculturalactivityactivityhas hasledledtotoaaprofound
profound
transformation
transformationof ofthe
thelandscape
landscapeand andterritory
territoryof ofnorthwestern
northwesternItaly, Italy,with
witheffects
effectson onlocal
local
biodiversity
biodiversitythat that are not yet yetwell
wellknown,
known,becausebecausethese these often
often depend
depend on onthe the
typetypeandandevo-
evolution of cultivation
lution of cultivation techniques.
techniques. Additionally,
Additionally, though though rice are
rice fields fields are a man-made
a man-made environ-
environment, their biodiversity
ment, their biodiversity representsrepresents an interesting
an interesting subject of subject
study.ofInstudy. In fact,
fact, rice fieldsrice
are
fields are generally
generally recognized recognized
as importantas important
substitute substitute
habitatshabitats
for many for aquatic
many aquatic species species
in many in
many agro-ecosystems
agro-ecosystems throughout
throughout the world
the world [4]. Rice[4].fields,
Rice fields, alongtheir
along with withconnected
their connected
aquatic
aquatic (e.g., rivers)
(e.g., canals, canals,andrivers) and terrestrial
terrestrial (e.g., adjacent (e.g.,crop
adjacent
and grasscropcultivations)
and grass cultivations)
habitats, con-
habitats,
stitute a constitute
mosaic of arapidly
mosaicchanging
of rapidly changing environmental
environmental situations,rich
situations, extremely extremely rich
in ecotones,
inthat
ecotones, that can potentially
can potentially harbor a rich harbor a rich and
and unique uniquediversity.
biological biological diversity.
Moreover,
Moreover,these theseagro-ecosystems
agro-ecosystemsrepresent representan anintriguing
intriguingarea areaofofstudy
studyininthe thecontext
context
ofofentomological
entomological biodiversity,
biodiversity, given their their potential
potentialfor forthe
theinadvertent
inadvertentintroduction
introduction of of
al-
alien species.In
ien species. Infact,
fact,despite
despite the the dominance
dominance of aquatic insects insects inin most
most inland
inlandwaters,
waters,their
their
unparalleled
unparalleledtaxonomic
taxonomicdiversity,
diversity, and
and their
theiroccupation
occupation of of
nearly
nearlyall all
trophic
trophic niches,
niches,there
thereis
aisnotable
a notable absence
absenceof invasive
of invasive insects in freshwater,
insects in freshwater, withwith the exception
the exception of a few
of a examples,
few exam-
some of which
ples, some are specifically
of which are specificallyobserved
observed in rice fields
in rice fields[5].[5].
TheTheimportance
importance ofofrice
ricefields
fields
inininsect
insectbiodiversity
biodiversitystudies
studiesisisevidenced
evidencedby bythethenumber
numberofofrelated relatedpublications,
publications,with withaa
specific
specificbibliographic
bibliographicreview reviewusingusingthe termsrice
theterms ricefields
fields++insects
insects++biodiversity
biodiversityininScopusScopus
(II/04/2025) yielding aa total
(II/04/2025) yielding total ofof 121
121 scientific
scientific papers
papers (Figure
(Figure2). 2). In
In particular,
particular,studies
studieson onthe
the
biodiversity
biodiversity of paddy fields have been carried out in different parts of the world, suchas
of paddy fields have been carried out in different parts of the world, such as
Sri
SriLanka
Lanka[6],[6],California
California[7], [7],Sumatra
Sumatra[8], [8],Egypt
Egypt[9],[9],Kenya
Kenya[10], [10],Brazil
Brazil[11],
[11],and
andFrance
France[12];[12];
Water 2025, 17, 845 Water 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 13 3

however, a similar contribution

however, is contribution
a similar very scarce for the Italian
is very scarce rice fields,
for the thatrice
Italian constitute, as constitu
fields, that
mentioned before, the largest rice cultivation area in Europe.
mentioned before, the largest rice cultivation area in Europe.

Figure 2. World distribution of papers

Figure 2. World relatedof
distribution rice fields
topapers + insects
related + biodiversity.
to rice fields + insects + biodiversity.

The objective ofThethisobjective

review isoftothis
collate
reviewtheispublished
to collateinformation
the publishedoninformation
the entomologi-
on the entom
cal biodiversityical
of Italian rice fields, which is available in both grey and scientific literature.
biodiversity of Italian rice fields, which is available in both grey and scientific
This paper represents the paper
ture. This inaugural attemptthe
represents to collate andattempt
inaugural disseminate this information
to collate to
and disseminate this
an internationalmation
scientific audience. Furthermore, we aim to examine potential evolutionary
to an international scientific audience. Furthermore, we aim to examine pot
scenarios in light of climate scenarios
evolutionary change, which
in lightis of
rapidly altering
climate change,the environmental
which condi- the env
is rapidly altering
tions of this area and will consequently have profound repercussions on both agricultural
mental conditions of this area and will consequently have profound repercussions on
practices and biodiversity.
agricultural practices and biodiversity.

2. Insect Biodiversity of Italian Rice

2. Insect Biodiversity Fields Rice Fields
of Italian
The biodiversityTheof Italian rice paddies
biodiversity hasrice
of Italian beenpaddies
widely has
explored with regard
been widely to certain
explored with regard t
systematic groups, such as birds, e.g., [13,14], while information regarding aquatic insects
tain systematic groups, such as birds, e.g., [13,14], while information regarding is aq
scarcer and, above all, very scattered. These artificial environments host a peculiar aquatic
insects is scarcer and, above all, very scattered. These artificial environments host a
invertebrate fauna
liar that is potentially
aquatic invertebraterichfauna
and diverse. In Table 1 we
that is potentially report
rich a list of the
and diverse. most 1 we re
In Table
common freshwater insects that inhabit rice fields.
list of the most common freshwater insects that inhabit rice fields.
Table 1. Most common freshwater family insects that inhabit rice fields.
Table 1. Most common freshwater family insects that inhabit rice fields.
Order Families
Order Families
Ephemeroptera Ephemeroptera Baetidae, Caenidae, Ephemerellidae
Baetidae, Caenidae, Ephemerellidae
Odonata-Zygoptera
Odonata-Zygoptera Calopterygidae, Lestidae, Platycnemididae,
Calopterygidae, Coenagrionidae Coenagrionidae
Lestidae, Platycnemididae,
Odonata-Anisoptera
Odonata-Anisoptera Gomphidae,Gomphidae, Aeshnidae, Cordulegasteridae,
Aeshnidae, Cordulegasteridae, Libellulidae, Corduliidae
Libellulidae, Corduliidae
Heteroptera Gerridae,
Gerridae, Nepidae, Nepidae,
Corixidae, Corixidae,
Notonectidae, Notonectidae,
Naucoridae, Naucoridae,
Pleidae, Veliidae, Pleidae, Veliidae,
Hydrometridae, Hydrometrid
Ochteridae
Heteroptera
Trichoptera
Ochteridae
Leptoceridae, Hydropsychidae, Phryganeidae, Lepidostomatidae, Limnephilidae
Trichoptera Leptoceridae, Hydropsychidae, Phryganeidae, Lepidostomatidae, Limnephilidae
Lepidoptera Crambidae, Noctuidae
Lepidoptera Crambidae, Noctuidae
Chironomidae, Ceratopogonidae, Culicidae, Chaoboridae, Psychodidae, Stratiomyidae, Limoniidae,
Diptera Chironomidae, Ceratopogonidae, Culicidae, Chaoboridae, Psychodidae, Stratiomyidae, L
Tipulidae, Tabanidae, Ephydridae, Syrphidae, Sciomyzidae, Empididae, Muscidae, Cordyluridae
Diptera niidae, Tipulidae, Tabanidae, Ephydridae, Syrphidae, Sciomyzidae, Empididae, Muscid
Coleoptera Gyrinidae, Dytiscidae, Haliplidae, Elmidae, Dryopidae, Helophoridae, Hydrophilidae, Limnebiidae
Cordyluridae
Gyrinidae, Dytiscidae, Haliplidae, Elmidae, Dryopidae, Helophoridae, Hydrophilidae
Coleoptera
Among the earliest studies that analyzed theLimnebiidae
entomofauna of Italian rice fields, we
can report the publications of [15,16] which focused on aquatic Diptera and Trichoptera.
A significant portion Among theearly
of these earliest
worksstudies thaton
focused analyzed
species the
andentomofauna of Italian rice field
groups of agricultural
interest, settingcan reportthat
a course the publications
continued inofthe[15,16] whichdecades
following focused[17–19].
on aquatic Dipterathe
Evidently, and Tricho
Water 2025, 17, 845 4 of 13

stimulus for these studies derived from a clear interest in pest control, with the larval stages
of certain Trichoptera species (primarily those of the family Phryganeidae) and Diptera
(mainly Chironomidae and Tipulidae) being the focus of particular investigation. Apart
from these groups, Stratyiomidae [20] and Ephydridae [21] were also reported because
they are harmful to rice cultivation.
However, it is only in recent times that the interest of entomologists has shifted
towards groups of no agricultural interest. This shift is largely due to the rapid changes
in the agricultural landscape of the Po Valley since the Second World War, including
habitat simplification, the mechanization of cultivation practices, and, most notably, the
progressive disappearance of natural wetlands. In this scenario, rice fields have assumed
an increasingly important role as surrogate environments, essentially the only habitat in
which lowland aquatic insect populations can survive. For instance, the Odonata, a very
ancient order of Palaeoptera, are mostly associated with lentic or semi-lentic environments
and thus are among the most studied and best-known groups in rice fields, partly due to
their aesthetic appeal, apical trophic role, and ease of observation. Noteworthy studies in
this field include [22–24].
The other Paleopteran group, Ephemeroptera, is known from only very few species
in Italian rice fields. These species have a high environmental tolerance, eurythermic and
euryoxybiont habits, and rapid life cycles, such as Baetis rhodani, Caenis horaria, and Serratella
ignita [25,26]. The other representatives of this ancient insect’s order prefer lotic habitats
characterized by running water and high oxygen levels. Among Hemimetabolous orders,
in Italian rice fields, both Orthoptera and Hemiptera are reported. The first order is not
strictly aquatic, inhabits rice field banks and is riparian [27], thus it is of minor importance
in this paper. Aquatic and semiaquatic bugs (Heteroptera) are well represented in these
anthropogenic habitats, mainly with the families Corixidae, Notonectidae, Gerridae, Plei-
dae, Nepidae [28]. Many of these families are predators, while others have a phytophagous
diet consisting of plant remains and straw resulting from rice cutting. Homoptera are also
reported for Italian rice fields, such as Sipha gliceriae and Rhopalosiphum padi [29].
Among holometabolous groups, Diptera is one of the most studied, partially because
an important line of entomological research in rice fields has focused on the role that these
environments play as a habitat for numerous species of hematophagous flies and their
possible predators, as reported by [30], especially those belonging to the Culicidae family.
The importance of these studies is heightened by the fact that rising temperatures and
the globalization of transport have increased the risk of spreading new diseases such as
Chikungunya, Dengue and other infections [31–37]. Among the most common Diptera
found in rice fields, we report the following families: Chironomidae, Ceratopogonidae,
Culicidae, Psychodidae, Stratiomyidae, Limoniidae, Tipulidae, Ephydridae, Syrphidae,
Sciomyzidae, Empididae, and Muscidae.
Water beetles (order: Coleoptera) are a characteristic group inhabiting lentic and semi-
lentic environments (ponds, oxbow lakes, marshes, abandoned meanders) and have found
in rice fields a perfect surrogate for what had been their natural habitats in the Po flood-
plains. Among these, the Dytiscidae family stands out for its richness and diversity. These
beetles colonize rice fields in both their larval and adult stages and serve as apex predators
in these often-fishless environments, e.g., [30,38–40]. Among Dytiscidae, Hydrogliphagus
geminus has been documented as an early colonizer of rice fields, and has been shown
to be an effective controller of mosquito larvae [30]. Interestingly, a faunistic note on the
distribution of Noteridae in southern Piedmont reports that rice fields are among the few
habitats where these organisms are common and abundant [41]. Species from the family
Hydrophilidae are also listed in these habitats, with the recurrent presence of Hydrous
piceus, the largest beetle in Europe [17,42]. Apart from these predaceous groups, other
Water 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13

Water 2025, 17, 845 5 of 13

from the family Hydrophilidae are also listed in these habitats, with the recurrent pres-
ence of Hydrous piceus, the largest beetle in Europe [17,42]. Apart from these predaceous
strictly
groups,aquatic families
other strictly can befamilies
aquatic found incanpaddy fields:inElmidae,
be found Dryopidae,
paddy fields: Helophoridae,
Elmidae, Dryopidae,
Limnebiidae. Furthermore, Chrysomelidae Donacinae are occasionally
Helophoridae, Limnebiidae. Furthermore, Chrysomelidae Donacinae are occasionally found in northern
Italian
found inrice fields [43–45].
northern From
Italian rice another
fields perspective,
[43–45]. From another Curculionidae
perspective,and Erirhinidae and
Curculionidae are
groups of growing importance in Italian rice fields, because of the arrival
Erirhinidae are groups of growing importance in Italian rice fields, because of the arrival of the invasive
Sitophilus oryzae and
of the invasive Lissorhoptrus
Sitophilus oryzae andoryzophilus [46,47],oryzophilus
Lissorhoptrus which represents[46,47],a which
seriousrepresents
agriculturala
problem and requires dedicated and continuous management.
serious agricultural problem and requires dedicated and continuous management.
A few
few Lepidoptera
Lepidopteraare arereported
reportedasas potential
potential pests
pests in rice cultivation.
in rice In particular
cultivation. Os-
In particular
trinia nubilalis, Paraponyx spp. (Crambidae) and Mythimna unipuncta (Noctuidae)
Ostrinia nubilalis, Paraponyx spp. (Crambidae) and Mythimna unipuncta (Noctuidae) repre- represent
asent
threat because
a threat of their
because stem stem
of their boring habitshabits
boring [48,49].
[48,49].
Apart from
frommore
morefaunistic
faunistic oriented studies
oriented studies (Figure(Figure 3), there
3), there are several
are also also several studies
studies with
with a broader
a broader focus,
focus, ranging
ranging fromfrom older
older research
research (e.g.,
(e.g., [50])
[50]) totothose
thosethat
thatare
aremore
more recently
published
published (e.g.,
(e.g., [51–53]).
[51–53]).

Figure 3. Some common aquatic insects in Italian rice fields. Examples, from left to right: Hydroporus
Figure
sp. (Dytiscidae), Nepa cinerea (Nepidae), Laccobius sp.
sp. (Hydrophilidae).

However,
However, despite
despite the
the large
large territorial
territorial extension,
extension, studies
studies on on the
the rice
rice field’s
field’s freshwater
freshwater
invertebrates in Italy are few, are often dated and are mostly spread
invertebrates in Italy are few, are often dated and are mostly spread out, with out, with an important
an im-
diffusion in grey literature.
portant diffusion in grey literature.
In
In Table
Table 22 we
we show
show thethe results
results ofof aa Scopus
Scopus query
query on
on selected
selected keywords
keywords related
related to
to
aspects of applied entomology, targeting scientific publications produced
aspects of applied entomology, targeting scientific publications produced globally or globally or fo-
fo-
cused
cused onon the
the Italian
Italiansituation.
situation.In Inthis
thiscontext,
context,thethescarcity
scarcityofofstudies
studiesononthe
theItalian
Italiancontext
contextis
presumably attributable to two factors. Firstly, there appears to be an effective
is presumably attributable to two factors. Firstly, there appears to be an effective absence absence of
research
of researchin this area.
in this Secondly,
area. Secondly,andand perhaps moremore
perhaps pertinently, thesethese
pertinently, studies are predomi-
studies are pre-
nantly disseminated through non-international journals and
dominantly disseminated through non-international journals and grey literature grey literature (as evident in
(as evi-
our
dentReferences section). section).
in our References About 80% of the
About 80%studies
of therelated to paddy-rice
studies entomofauna
related to paddy-rice in
ento-
Italy are published in non-ISI journals.
mofauna in Italy are published in non-ISI journals.

Table 2. Number of scientific papers (Scopus) related to the main applied entomology keywords in
Table 2. Number of scientific papers (Scopus) related to the main applied entomology keywords in
rice fields (February 2025).
rice fields (Feb. 2025).
Keywords ◦
N Publications
Publications Worldwide ◦
Keywords N° Worldwide N°NPublications
PublicationsRelated
Related to
to Italy
Italy
Rice
Rice+ +aquatic
aquaticInsects
Insects 197
197 22
Ricefields
Rice fields + aquatic
+ aquatic Insects
Insects 152
152 33
Ricefields
Rice fields+ +freshwater
freshwater invertebrates
invertebrates 1717 11
Ricefields
Rice fields + Diptera
+ Diptera Culicidae
Culicidae 202
202 33
Rice fields + Coleoptera Curculionidae 94 2
Rice fields + Coleoptera Curculionidae 94 2
Rice fields + Bacillus thuringensis 258 4
Rice fields + Bacillus thuringensis 258 4
Rice fields + insecticides 1260 12
Rice fields + insecticides 1260 12
Rice fields + Diflubenzoron 11 1
Rice fields + Diflubenzoron 11 1
Water 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 13

Water 2025, 17, 845 6 of 13

3. Rice Fields and Insect Biodiversity in the Current Global Change

3. Rice Fields
Scenario: andProblems
Issues, Insect Biodiversity in the Current
and New Agricultural Global Change
Approaches
Scenario: Issues, Problems and New Agricultural Approaches
As previously mentioned, Italian rice fields represent an important biodiversity
As for
hotspot previously
some groups mentioned, Italian
of insects, rice fields
e.g., [26,40]. represent they
In particular, an important
represent the biodiversity
only and
hotspot for some groups of insects, e.g., [26,40]. In particular,
last lentic or semi-lentic systems of the lowland areas of the Po Valley, once characterizedthey represent the only
andabandoned
by last lentic meanders,
or semi-lentic systems
wetlands andofoxbows,
the lowland areas of the
and gradually Po Valley, over
transformed oncethecharac-
cen-
terized by abandoned meanders, wetlands and oxbows, and gradually
turies into one of the most important and productive agricultural landscapes in the world transformed over
the centuries
[54]. However, into
theone of the mostof
management important
rice fields andis aproductive
contentious agricultural landscapes
issue, particularly in the
with re-
world [54]. However, the management of rice fields is a contentious
gard to water supply. While the presence of water in the rice fields ensures the mainte- issue, particularly with
regardof
nance to the
water supply. Whilebiodiversity,
aforementioned the presence in of the
water in theofrice
context thefields ensures
current the change,
climate mainte-
there is an increasing need to decrease water consumption in agriculture, especiallythere
nance of the aforementioned biodiversity, in the context of the current climate change, be-
is an increasing
cause the rivers need
in thisto area
decrease
can bewater
underconsumption in agriculture,
multiple stressors especially
(both natural andbecause
anthropo- the
rivers in this area can be under multiple stressors (both natural
genic) for long periods of the year. For example, the decline in snowfall in the Alps and and anthropogenic) for
long periods of the year. For example, the decline in snowfall
the marked increase in both air and water temperatures have indeed precipitated a dis- in the Alps and the marked
increasein
ruption inthe
both air and water
hydrological temperatures
regime have indeed
of most northern Italian precipitated
rivers, which a disruption
now exhibit in the
di-
hydrological regime of most northern Italian rivers, which now
minished flow rates and frequently experience a lack of surface water for several months exhibit diminished flow
rates year.
each and frequently experiencecharacterized
This phenomenon, a lack of surface by thewater for several
adoption of anmonths each year.
intermittent flow This
pat-
tern, signifies a true “Mediterraneanisation” that has prompted numerous rivers toatran-
phenomenon, characterized by the adoption of an intermittent flow pattern, signifies true
“Mediterraneanisation”
sition from a perennial to thatanhas prompted
abnormal numerousregime,
intermittent rivers toe.g.,
transition from
[55]. This a perennial
phenomenon
carries profound implications for the biodiversity of lotic environments [56] and theimplica-
to an abnormal intermittent regime, e.g., [55]. This phenomenon carries profound chem-
tions for the biodiversity of lotic environments [56] and the chemical,
ical, microbiological, and ecological quality of the affected water bodies [57]. Considering microbiological, and
ecological quality of the affected water bodies [57]. Considering
these challenges, there is an urgent need to explore novel sustainable agricultural tech- these challenges, there is
an urgent
niques needcultivation.
in rice to explore novel sustainable agricultural techniques in rice cultivation.
For instance,
For instance, it it should
should be be noticed
noticed that,
that, inin the
the rice-growing
rice-growing area area of
of the
the Po
Po valley,
valley, itit has
has
recently become
recently become aa “good
“good practice”
practice” toto carry
carry outout winter
winter flooding
flooding of of the
the paddy fields after
paddy fields after
rice cutting (Figure
rice cutting (Figure 4). 4).

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4.4. Different

Differentphases
phasesofofthe
theagricultural
agricultural cycle in in
cycle ricerice
fields, depicting
fields, (a) winter
depicting flooding,
(a) winter (b)
flooding,
spring low-level
(b) spring maintenance
low-level maintenanceandand
(c) late summer
(c) late summerpre-cutting
pre-cuttingdrought.
drought.

In this way, the water demand in spring is is greatly

greatly reduced
reduced and
and greenhouse
greenhouse gasgas emis-
emis-
sions fall significantly
significantly[52,58,59].
[52,58,59].The
Thereduced
reducedneed
needfor
forwater
waterwithdrawal
withdrawal from
fromsurrounding
surround-
loticlotic
ing systems
systemslikelike
rivers andand
rivers streams is another
streams positive
is another aspect
positive of crucial
aspect importance
of crucial for
importance
regional
for regionalfreshwater
freshwaterbiodiversity. Considering
biodiversity. Consideringdatadata
fromfromrecent decades
recent on temperatures
decades on tempera-
and patterns of snow and rain, this agricultural practice seems to be
tures and patterns of snow and rain, this agricultural practice seems to be a promisinga promising way to
follow
way to in the coming
follow years. Consequently,
in the coming even during
years. Consequently, eventhe winter
during themonths, rice paddies
winter months, rice
have the capacity to provide habitats for a variety of invertebrates, thereby
paddies have the capacity to provide habitats for a variety of invertebrates, thereby en- enhancing the
“metabolic
hancing thepower” of these
“metabolic human-made
power” of these lentic ecosystems.
human-made Moreover,
lentic ecosystems.at these latitudes,
Moreover, at
e.g., [60], the flooding in the cold months rather than in the summer months
these latitudes, e.g., [60], the flooding in the cold months rather than in the summer mimics a more
natural condition
months mimics a morethat can be beneficial
natural conditionto that
the indigenous fauna and
can be beneficial to thedetrimental
indigenoustofauna
alien
species (see details below).
and detrimental to alien species (see details below).
Water 2025, 17, 845 7 of 13

4. Rice Fields and Their Role in the Biological Invasion Context

Rice fields also represent an important context of study regarding invasion biology. In
fact, artificial and highly modified water bodies frequently experience the arrival of multiple
introduced species, via intentional and unintentional releases, due to their landscape
position (e.g., in an anthropogenic matrix) and level of connectivity [61].
In any geographical context, rice fields act as intermittent, human-regulated systems
characterized by alternating dry and wet phases. This highly dynamic condition can be
particularly stressful for exclusively aquatic invaders, yet in specific contexts, it may allow
for multiple colonizations through different phases of the hydroperiod [62].
Aquatic insects represent a dominant component of the invertebrate fauna; however,
they are rarely invasive in freshwater ecosystems [5], with few notable exceptions, such as
the Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopicutus). Flooded rice fields are not an exception to this,
with fish, crustaceans and mollusks identified as the main aquatic invasive taxa so far (see
references below).
Rice fields in Mediterranean areas undergo summer inundation, a phenomenon rarely
observed in natural temporary water bodies in the region, which may specifically facilitate
invasion by warm and (sub-) tropical species. For instance, several non-native crustaceans
(e.g., ostracods) have been passively dispersed through rice cultivation from Asia to Euro-
pean regions such as Spain and Italy, e.g., [63,64]. Similarly, seasonally flooded rice fields
in the Ebro Delta (N Spain) have been invaded by the South American apple snail Pomacea
maculate, which is quite resistant to high temperatures and dry conditions [65], as well as
by numerous invasive fish and the red swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkii [66]. The latter
example being particularly challenging due to the crayfish’s digging behavior and the
structural damage they can cause to draining structures [67], as well as their consumption
of rice seed and plants [68].
In temperate northern Italy, spring inundations were the most common practice, creat-
ing temporal lowland ecosystems in an intensive agricultural landscape, often rich in plant
and animal invaders. Semi-aquatic species, like those of the family Erirhinidae (Coleoptera),
have been particularly highlighted in rice fields. The abovementioned Rice Water Weevil,
Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus (Kuschel), native of North America, has been detected in most
of the Italian paddy fields area due to both the active dispersal of adults and accidental
movements caused by human transportation [69,70]. In this context, the use of chemical
products like pyrethroid insecticides (e.g., alfacipermetrine) seems to control the species’
population in the short term, despite affecting other aquatic life forms (e.g., insects and
other invertebrates [12]). The occurrences of the aquatic fern Azolla filiculoides in Italy, which
is native to the warm, temperate and subtropical Americas, suggest the necessity of further
research specifically on the potentially co-occurring introduction of the species Stenopelmus
rufinasus (Curculionidae), a semi-aquatic specialist herbivore known to feed on its leaves
and which is already recorded in other Mediterranean countries [71]. This is of special
concern considering the use of Azolla as a biofertilizer in rice fields outside its native range
(e.g., Italy [72]). Recently, the presence of adults of Halyomorpha halys (Stål) (Hemiptera,
Pentatomidae), native to East Asia, feeding on panicles has been highlighted in northern
Italy and this marks the first evidence of an association between this species and rice, a
crop not previously recorded as a host plant [73]. Overall, these ecosystems, both in Italy
and other geographic contexts, can easily serve as gateway for the arrival and spread of
species, facilitating the secondary dispersions of non-native species in other ecosystems
(e.g., nearby wetlands [74]), highlighting the need for more interdisciplinary research on
this topic.
Water 2025, 17, 845 8 of 13

5. Future Perspectives in Rice Field Entomological Research

Monitoring insects in rice fields with traditional methods is challenging because of
sampling- and identification-related issues. Collecting insects from large areas requires
a huge sampling effort, especially considering that sampling must be repeated over time
to cope with species-specific life cycles [75]. This problem can lead to rare species, taxa
with a localized distribution or pests at the initial stages of outbreak not being effectively
detected. Moreover, most aquatic insects are present in water at the larval/nymphal
stage (e.g., dipterans, mayflies, dragonflies) for which the identification at species level
is limited by the lack of diagnostic characters and suitable identification keys. In recent
years, DNA barcoding has emerged as a valuable and promising tool to overcome the
above-mentioned obstacles, e.g., [76]. DNA metabarcoding is a technique for the genetic
identification of organisms from a composite sample of organisms (bulk metabarcoding)
or an environmental matrix (environmental DNA [77]). Metabarcoding usually archives a
higher taxonomic resolution than morphological identification and differentiates cryptic
species lacking morphological diagnostic characters [78,79]. Moreover, it can be used for
studying intraspecific diversity for inferring biogeographical patterns [80,81] or fine-scale
community assembly processes [76].
Although genetic identification of insects through DNA metabarcoding is appealing,
only a limited number of studies have used this technique in rice fields. In rice fields, envi-
ronmental DNA has been successfully used for targeting vertebrates, including snakes [82],
anura [83] and birds [84]. It has also been used for the detection of insects such as the
charismatic giant water bug Kirkaldyia deyrolli (Heteroptera: Belostomatidae [85]) and para-
sitoid wasps [86], though few works have targeted the entire insect community or groups
of orders [87]. Interestingly, occurrences of insects in rice fields can also be obtained by
targeting the stomach contents of fish (in case of presence) when performing diet analysis,
e.g., [88]. DNA metabarcoding is a cost-effective technique that can be used in monitoring
the biodiversity of rice fields. However, it suffers from some limitations that must be
addressed when designing an eDNA monitoring campaign. Small or rare taxa can still be
missed, especially when using bulk metabarcoding, where the biomass of abundant taxa
can exceed those of small and rare taxa by orders of magnitude. Problems with reference
datasets used for the taxonomic assignment of sequences can potentially affect the number
of species found with DNA metabarcoding [89,90]. For example, sequences assigned to
the wrong species and the lack of sequences for some species are major problems that will
probably be mitigated in the near future due to the ongoing barcoding and metabarcod-
ing initiatives [91]. Currently, DNA metabarcoding can be used as a complement to the
traditional monitoring of rice fields, with the aim to create more comprehensive species
inventories or as an early detection method of both agriculture pests and non-native species
in general.

6. Conclusions
There is a great amount of evidence that climate change is profoundly altering the
characteristics and dynamics of natural systems on a global scale [92]. Freshwater envi-
ronments have been identified as being particularly vulnerable to climate change, due to
the increase in water temperatures and the disruption of hydrologic cycles, with implica-
tions for their biodiversity [93–95]. This phenomenon can be potentially evident also in
man-made aquatic agro-ecosystems, such as rice fields, where fluctuations in precipita-
tion, temperature, and evaporation have been shown to exert a pivotal role, both directly
(e.g., by altering environmental conditions) and indirectly (e.g., by leading to variations in
agricultural practices). The aforementioned problem is of particular significance within the
study area of this research. Indeed, Italy’s rice-growing area, which is one of the largest in
Water 2025, 17, 845 9 of 13

the world outside of Asia, coincides with one of the most anthropized regions on the planet
and is fed by water from the Alps, one of the areas in which climate change is occurring at
a significantly faster rate [96].
In the near future, strategies that reduce the demand for irrigation, promote the culti-
vation of drought-tolerant crops and utilize precision farming techniques will probably be
implemented. Consequently, it is likely that the Italian rice-growing areas will experience a
significant reduction in wetland areas and aquatic habitats. The main challenge, for multi-
ple stakeholders with diverse interests, will inevitably be to, where possible, balance the
need to reduce water diversion from rivers with the maintenance of permanent wetlands,
in order to support this essential role of aquatic insects in regional biodiversity and in
freshwater metabolic processes.
This review, in addition to underlining the importance of rice paddies from a strictly
biological and conservation point of view, seeks to represent a small starting point to
provide management guidance and tools for cultivating more sustainably agricultural envi-
ronments essential for human livelihood. The implementation of monitoring, verification
and control plans in sample rice growing areas can be a first step towards understanding,
protecting and combining the conservation of species with more environmentally friendly
agricultural practices, without affecting the final yield of the crop. Finally, greater knowl-
edge and presence in the field can promptly signal the arrival of alien insect species that
are potentially harmful and invasive.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, investigation, writing, review and editing, all authors;
funding acquisition, T.B. and S.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.

Funding: This research was supported by the Agritech National Research Centre related to Spoke
4 “Multifunctional and resilient agriculture and forestry systems for the mitigation of climate change risks”
funded by the European Union Next-generation EU (PNRR)—Mission 4 Component 2, investment
1.4—D.D. 1032 17/06/2022, CN00000022.

Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study.

Acknowledgments: The authors thank E. Guafa and A. Millán (University of Murcia) for their useful
suggestions, M. Marcucci for his kind support, and A. Morisi for the photos of invertebrates and the
valuable and continuous teachings.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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