SEMESTER IV

APPLIED ZOOLOGY
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE AND MORPHOLOGY OF CULTURABLE FISHES

Catla catla (Catla)

Body short and deep, somewhat laterally compressed, its depth more than head length; head
very large, its depth exceeding half the head length; body with conspicuously large cycloid
scales, head devoid of scales; snout bluntly rounded; eyes large and visible from underside
of the head; mouth wide and upturned with prominent protruding lower jaw; upper lip absent,
lower lip very thick; no barbels; lower jaw with a movable articulation at symphysis, without
a prominent process; gill rakers long and fine; pharyngeal teeth in three row, 5.3.2/2.3.5
pattern; dorsal fin inserted slightly in advance of pelvic fins, with 14 to 16 branched rays, the
simple rays non-osseous; anal fin short; pectoral fins long extending to pelvic fins; caudal fin
forked; lateral line with 40 to 43 scales. Greyish on back and flanks, silvery-white below;
fins dusky.

Being a surface feeder, Catla forms an integral component in carp polyculture systems in all
countries, where it is reared including India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Laos and Myanmar. It is the
fastest growing species among the three Indian major carps.

Economic importance

It is one of the most valuable food fish. Mostly cultivated in isolated fresh water ponds &
lakes in the absence of carnivorous fish.The fish is largly employed for stocking tanks. The
fish is fleshy & noted for its delicacy & valued very high in the market. It is best for
consumption when not more than 61cm in length. Catla is also game fish. It is used as sport
fish.

Catla is a cultured and highly growing species, if it get proper food it may be weighted at 4
kg at only one year. Very delicious food and supply a huge amount of protein for people. So,
its demand is extensive. According to Basu (1993), its flesh contains 19.2% crude protein, 2-
5% fat and 70% water. Per gram of its liver-oil contain 583 IV vitamin-A (Rahman, 2005).
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Labeo rohita (Rohu)

Body is laterally compressed & fusiform, attaining maximum length of one meter. Colour
bluish grey on the back & silvery white below. Body is covered with overlapping cycloid
scales. Head is prominent with blunt snout. Eyes large without eyelids. Mouth is subterminal,
directed downwards & surrounded by thick lips. Upper lip with a pair of short barbells &
lower lip fringed. Jaws without teeth. Dorsal fin large, present at about the middle of the
body. Pectoral fins without spinous rays. Tail small & homoceral. Air bladder is
physostonous type & divided into an anterior & a posterior chamber. Weberian apparatus
joins the air bladder with the ear. Lateral line canal passes through the scales.

Economic importance

It is the most popular food fish. Its flesh is delicious. It is relished very much in food. Rich
in protein content. Carps are cultivated in specially constructed water ponds, having adjacent
breeding areas. Mostly cultivated with catla in fresh water ponds & lakes in the absence of
carnivorous fish.It is also used as a game fish where it is specially introduced into water
reservoirs for the purpose of sport fishing.

A number of interspecific and intergeneric hybrids have been produced. The most promising
intergeneric hybrid, male Catla&female Rohu combines the quick growth of Catla and small
head of Rohu (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991).

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Cyprinus carpio (Common carp)

Body elongated and somewhat compressed. Lips thick. Two pairs of barbels at angle of
mouth, shorter ones on the upper lip. Dorsal fin base long with 17-22 branched rays and a
strong, toothed spine in front; dorsal fin outline concave anteriorly. Anal fin with 6-7 soft
rays; posterior edge of 3rd dorsal and anal fin spines with sharp spinules. Lateral line with
32 to 38 scales. Pharyngeal teeth 5:5, teeth with flattened crowns. Colour variable, wild carp
are brownish-green on the back and upper sides, shading to golden yellow ventrally. The fins
are dusky, ventrally with a reddish tinge. They have a "heavy" body with a dark, olive-colored
back and lighter sides. A carp's belly is yellowish.

Economic importance

Carp are an important food fish throughout most of the world The world catch rate of carp
per year exceeds 200,000 tons.

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Ctenopharyngodon idella (Grass carp)

Grass carp have elongated, chubby, torpedo-shaped body forms. Body color is dark olive,
shading to brownish-yellow on the sides, with a white belly and large, slightly outlined
scales. Attains 73 to 86 cms, when 3 years of age. The terminal mouth is slightly oblique
with non-fleshy, firm lips, and no barbels. The complete lateral line contains 40 to 42 scales.
Broad, ridged, pharyngeal teeth are arranged in a 2, 4-4, 2 formula. The dorsal fin has eight
to 10 soft rays, and the anal fin is set closer to the tail than most cyprinids.

Economic importance

Grass carp is a culturable highly growing species. If it gets proper food, it may weigh 4.5 kg
at only one year. Very delicious food and protein supply a huge number of people.

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 Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Silver carp)

Small pointed head, small eyes, barbels are absent. Lower lip is protruded interiorly but the
upper lip is slightly bifurcated. The jaws are of equal length, the lower one is provided with
tubercles, and upper jaw is slightly notched. The origin of dorsal fin is behind that of ventral
fin.

Economic importance
They grow very fast and attains 2 to 5 Kg. It is usually cultured along with Catla in
reservoirs.

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 Etroplus suratensis (Pearl spot)

Body is light greenish with eight yellowish oblique bands and white spots. Laterally
compressed body. Caudal peduncle is compressed. Eyes are placed dorsolaterally. Small
terminal mouth with a small cleft. Snout is spout-like, eyes large and lateral, lips thin and
jaws equal. Teeth villiform, present on both jaws. Palate is edentulous. Dorsal fin extended
with 18 spines. Pelvic fin is characterized with one spine. Scales are ctenoid. Lateral line
is interrupted and thereafter continuing as small open pores in each side. Scales above
lateral line have a central pearly spot; and possess some triangular black spots on the
abdomen. Fins, except the pectorals are of dark leaden colour while the pectoral is
yellowish with jet black base. Anal fin possesses 12-13 spines and 11 or 12 soft rays.
Specimens from salt waters have a deep purple colour and bands are almost black.
Fingerlings possess a conspicuous ocellus on the dorsal fin.

Economic importance
Karimeen is a highly nutritive food. In addition to a good amount of meat, Karimeen also
includes fat, phosphorus, calcium, ash, iron and water. Percentage of these contents in
karimeen includes fat: 17.5 percent, phosphorus: 1.65 percent, calcium: 0.50 percent, ash:
1.08 percent, iron: 4.90 percent and water: 79.70 percent.
It is an important candidate species for aquaculture in ponds, in both brackish water and
freshwater. It feeds on algae, plant material and insects. This fish is fairly expensive and is
available throughout the year.
The most astonishing features of Karimeen, which makes it a candidate species, includes:
1. Ability to live in varying genre ofwater resources.
2. Ability to make their living together with a wide variety of fishes
3. Lively growth rate and high survival rate of young ones.
4. Delicious taste and flavourofkarimeen.
5. High survival rate of eggs, due to its ability of parental care.
6. Consistent and stable market price
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Oreochromis mossambicus (Tilapia)

They are laterally compressed and deep-bodied with long dorsal fins with 15 spine rays. The
forward portion of the dorsal fin is heavily spined. Spines are also found in the pelvis and
anal fins. Sides with 3 or 4 dark blotches or with no markings; no yellow on dorsal fin; caudal
fin without distinct vertical lines. Coloration is gray to olive above; dull yellow to gray-green
on side; yellow below. Dorsal fin black with red border; caudal fin with red distal border;
pectoral fins red; with blue upper lip. Large oblique mouth reaches under front of eye or
beyond.

Economic importance

Tilapia is a good fish for warm water aquaculture. They are easily spawned, use a wide
variety of natural foods as well as artificial feeds, tolerate poor water quality, and grow
rapidly at warm temperatures. These attributes, along with relatively low input costs, have
made tilapia the most widely cultured freshwater fish in tropical and subtropical countries.

Tilapia has become a popular food to consumers, mainly because of its high nutritional value,
mild taste, and low expense relative to other fin fishes.

Tilapia is a rich source of protein, phosphorus, potassium, selenium, niacin, vitamin B-12,
and is low in fat and saturated fat, omega-3 fatty acids, calories, carbohydrates, and sodium.
Table 1 provides a brief comparison of select nutrients between raw tilapia, raw ground beef
(85% lean meat/15% fat), and raw chicken breast.

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 EARTHWORMS USED IN VERMICULTURE
A concern for minimizing environmental pollution and a consequent demand for the safe
disposal of domestic and industrial wastes has resulted in an increased interest in the possibility
of using living organisms for decomposing wastes. Of the various organisms being considered
to perform this function, earthworms seem to offer the best choice as they upgrade the value of
the organic waste into vermicompost. Vermicompost today is a very important component of
the organic farming package. It is easy to prepare, has excellent properties and is absolutely
harmless to plants. The economic value of culturing earthworms lies in the production of useful
compost, elimination of smell associated with organic wastes and production of earthworm
biomass as a source of food and of drugs.
Recently several large scale applications of earthworms, such as, composting as a
supplement to existing solid waste processing systems and culturing the earthworms to
introduce directly in agricultural fields have begun operating in India, Australia, U.S.A., U.K.,
Canada, Japan, New Zealand, Russia, France, Belgium, Germany and other parts of the world.
Agronomists in New Zealand were the first to actively manage earthworms on a large scale of
agricultural land and the first commercial annelidic or earthworm facility was established in
Canada in 1970. This is currently processing about 70 tons per week of biodegradable refuse.
At present in Japan, such annelidic facilities processing about 10 tons of organic solid wastes
per day, primarily for specialized wastes are reported to be functioning.
Apart from earthworms being used in composting, maintenance of soil fertility, and
preparation of drugs, they could also be consumed as food either by domestic animals or by
human beings. The high protein content of earthworms could be utilised in intensive pig and
poultry farms. Earthworm protein is high in essential aminoacids. Worm meal is likely to be a
component in commercial fish feed may soon be considered a delicacy for human palate as
well.
Medicinal value of earthworms covers a range of diseases from pyorrhoea to postpartal
weakness, from smallpox to jaundice to rheumatism. Besides this the role of earthworms in the
healing of wounds, chronic boils, piles and sore throats have been reported. They are used in
the dry form for reducing fever because of its antipyretic properties. It has the potential of being
used as anti-inflammatory and fibrinolytic drugs.
Vermicompost with other biological inputs have been applied to grow vegetables and other
crops successfully. These approaches have proved to be economical as well as productive.
Experiments have been conducted on brinjal, cucumber, okra, tomato, cluster beans, ragi, black
gram and ground nut. Biochemical analysis from these experiments reveal relatively higher
protein, carbohydrate and lipid content in okra grown on vermicompost, while those harvested
from chemical treated plots show decline in their quality.
Earthworms and vermicompost, thus, are inseparably interrelated and they interact with
agriculture for an eco-friendly existence and a sustainable environment. Healthy soils have a
rich density and; diversity of soil fauna, particularly earthworms, and such healthy soils support
healthy plants with an inbuilt resistance to pest attack and diseases.
Write each organism on separate sheet
 Perionyx excavatus
Perionyx excavatus is an earthworm commonly found over a large area of tropical South
Asia. This is an epigeic species that require high moisture content and adequate amounts of
suitable organic material for populations to become fully established and to process organic
wastes efficiently. This tropical earthworm is extremely prolific, and it is easy to handle and
harvest. It’s main drawback is it’s inability to withstand low temperature conditions. For
tropical conditions, it is an ideal species. Although it has a shorter maturation and incubation
time than Eudrilus eugeniae, it’s fecundity is higher. It is a very common species in Asia and
is used in vermiculture in India, Philippines and Australia.
Perionyx excavatus does not grow much at low temperatures, but it can adapt to high
temperatures to over 30°C. Even in tropical areas, Perionyx excavatus does not grow well
during low winter temperatures, but can survive the high summer temperatures, whereas
Eudrilus eugeniae has a much narrower tolerance range for temperature and cannot survive
either the extreme low winter or the high summer temperatures. The life cycle of Perionyx
excavatus takes 40-50 days. The mean incubation time of cocoons at 25°C is 18 days, the
hatching success is high and sexual maturity is attained within 20-28 days.

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 Lampito mauritii
Refer your text book

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 TWO SPECIES OF HONEY BEES
Honey bees and their products were known to man from the very beginning of history. It is
one of the few insects that are directly beneficial to man. The first visible proof of the
association of man and bees is to be found in rock paintings attributed to the Neolithic man.
Egyptians were well acquainted with bee keeping 400 years ago. In India, bee keeping has been
practised from time immemorial. The earliest mention of it is found in Vedas and in the
Ramayana. Religious books like the Bible, the Quran and many others have mention about
these insects. Early Greeks and Romans have contributed a lot of information regarding bees
and bee keeping.
Honey bees are included in the family Apidae, genus Apis, and Apiculture can be defined
as the rearing management and maintenance of honey bees in a scientific way.
Till recently, i.e. up to the second half of the nineteenth century, honey bees had been kept
in a crude manner in India and other countries of the world. Bees were kept in logs and pot
hives and in the recesses of walls. As for honey, it was extracted by squeezing the combs. This
crude method entailed the destruction of the brood as well as the combs. Much improvement
in this field occurred with the discovery of the principle of Movable Frame - Hive ia1851 by
the Rev. L.L. Langstroth; the Honey extractor in 1865 by Major Hruschka and 'the Smoker in
1870 by Moses Quinby. Now, bee keeping has developed into a major industry in the west.
Scientific bee keeping started in India during the last part of the nineteenth century. In South
India, by 1917, the Travancore state authorities showed interest in the modern methods of bee
keeping.
A honey bee colony has a fascination of its own; Their unity, self-sacrifice calmness of
spirit, industry, equitable division of labour in their colonies etc. are admirable. By working
with them, one acquires happiness, needed diversion, self reliance and learns co-ordination of
thought.
Bees and their products are very useful to man. Honey and beeswax, the main products have
various uses for man. Besides providing honey, the honey bees do the great service of
pollinating flowers. This trait has been made use of for pollinating large orchards and big
acreages of vegetables, cloves, oilseeds and other crops. Honey bees had been used as a weapon
of warfare till World War I. Infuriated swarms of wild bees were used by opponents to create
pandemonium in political meetings in India. Strangely enough, the dreaded bee-sting has the
mysterious quality of healing muscular and nervous pains and aches of sciatica, rheumatism
and arthritis. That is why, bee keepers generally do not suffer from such ailments.
Bee keeping is an ideal hobby for several reasons. It entails outdoor work, does not require
much time, is not costly and is both interesting and instructive. This hobby is also worthwhile
from the monetary point of view as honey and wax fetch money. In short, bee keeping is a
paying past time.
Apis dorsata (Rock Bee)

This is a wild variety of honey bee found all over India, both in the plains and in the hilly
tracts up to a height of 1200 metres above sea level. The colonies shift from place to place in
search of honey or in order to escape from adverse climatic conditions.
The colony builds a single comb measuring about 1.525 m. to 2.135 m. from side to side,
and 0.610 m. to 1.220 m. from top to bottom. The comb may be suspended from rocks, ceilings
of neglected and uninhabited houses or branches of tall trees. Dozens of colonies may be found
on one tree. The comb has hexagonal cells and measures about 18.75 cells for each four linear
inches. The brood cells of the worker and drone are equal in size. The average thickness of the
brood comb is 3.2 cm. and the thickness of the top portion of the comb, where the honey is
stored, may be as much as 22.86cm.
The worker bee is about 16 to 18 mm long with light brown colour. The queen is darker in
colour than the worker and about 20 to 23 mm. long. The drone is as big as the worker and has
black colour.
Apis dorsata are good honey gatherers. They begin their day's work earlier and end it
later than Apis indica. They generally store surplus honey in the upper portion of the comb.
This honey may be harvested twice or thrice by professional honey gatherers during the season.
A single colony may yield up to 35 kg of honey during a year. These bees have a ferocious
temperament, are easily provoked and attack the enemy with fatal results. They are, however,
sensitive to smoke and are successfully managed in this way.

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Apis indica (Indian Honey Bee)

This is the completely domesticated species of honey bee found throughout India. There are
several regional varieties or strains of Apis indica. The two commonly known varieties differ
in size and colour. The worker bee of the plains is comparatively smaller and looks more yellow
than the worker bee of the hills. The plains, variety makes 24 to 25 worker brood cells for every
4 linear inches, whereas the high altitude variety makes only 21.25 to 22 cells.
In natural conditions, the bee lives in the cavities of tree trunks hollows of rocks and other
common closed and covered places. In domestication, it makes combs in all kinds of cavities
like hollowed out logs, wooden boxes, packing cases, empty kerosene cans etc. Unlike A
dorsata, it makes a series of parallel combs like its, European relation, A. mellifera. It
constructs its combs parallel to the direction of the entrance, in the plains in South India. At
higher altitudes, it constructs its combs at right angles to the entrance.
The A.indica is a bee with a gentle temperament and therefore, is easy to handle. It responds
to smoking. It is industrious and a good gatherer of honey. On an average, the colonies yield
3.628 kg to 4.536 kg. and 1.362 kg to 2.270 kg of honey per annum at higher altitudes and in
the plains respectively.
These bees are prone to heavy swarming, absconding, robbing and developing a large
number of laying workers. Such defects, however, can be remedied with suitable manipulatory
practices. They are also helpless against the wax moth which does considerable damage,
particularly during the rainy season.

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 SILK WORM – COCOON AND ADULT
Sericulture is the production of raw silk by raising silk worms. The productivity and
profitability of sericulture depends on the yield of mulberry crop. It is a cottage industry
combining agriculture and industry. The end product of this agro-industry is silk. The
production process of silk involves a long chain of inter dependent specialized operations such
as mulberry cultivation, silkworm seed production, rearing of silk worm, reeling, twisting and
weaving of silk, etc. which provide employment to about 60 lakh people in the villages of India
through family labour and is the second largest employer in the country.
Sericulture is an export oriented agro-industry. Indian silks are exported to more than
50 countries and gains about 800 crores of rupees each year from it. India has a unique position
among the silk producing countries, because India is the only country in the world producing
all the four commercially important varieties of natural silk - Mulberry, Tasar, Eri, and Muga
silk.

The scope and potentiality of sericulture, industry is not limited in the production of
silk as a textile fibre. The silk fibre produced by the mulberry silkworm and its byproducts can
be utilized for many other purposes. The special properties of silk fibre makes it a raw material
for making electric insulations, tyre linings, artificial blood vessels, surgical sutures, etc.
Hydrolized proteins, amino acids and vit B2 (Riboflavin) are extracted from the silkworm pupa.
The major byproducts in sericulture industry are rearing wastes, waste cocoons and silkworm
faeces. Rearing wastes can be used for the production of biogas and vermicompost. Waste
cocoons are the raw material of cocoon handicraft which involves the production of garlands,
flowers, dolls, greeting cards etc. Chlorophyll and phytol can be extracted from the silkworm
faeces. Phytol is a raw material for manufacturing vitamin E and K. The faeces is also used in
plastic industry and as feed for fish, pig, cattle, etc. All these sideline developments of
sericulture provide further employment opportunities and economic growth.
Silk worm cocoon
The caterpillar takes 3-4 days to complete a cocoon. Inorder to make a complete cocoon, the
larva rotates 60,000 to 3, 00,000 times and the silk is liberated at the rate of 15cm per minute.
This fibrous case called cocoon is formed of a continuous silk thread of 400 to 1500 m long.
Within the cocoon the larva remains completely immobile and is now transformed into pupa
or chrysalis. The process of pupation is over in about 15 days. The cocoon formed by a male
moth is lighter in colour than that of a female and contains more silk. Cocoons may be varied
in shapes and colours. Pupa is a non feeding stage. It can be seen only by cutting open the
cocoon. The early pupa is soft bodied. But the cuticle progressively becomes hardened so that
the body is ultimately covered by a hard shell. Though the pupa is apparently immobile, it can
change its position by contractile movement of the last few abdominal segments.

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Silk Moth Adult
The adult moth emerging from the pupa is not able to fly because of its domestication for more
than four thousand years. It does not feed during its adult life. The adult life is short ranging
from 3 to 10 days depending upon races and seasons. The body of the moth is divisible into
head, thorax, and abdomen. The body surface s covered with scales.
The silkworm moth is dioecious i.e. the sexes are separate. Fertilization is internal. Immediately
after emerging from the pupa the noths mate, lay eggs and die.

Difference between male and female moths.

Male Female
Smaller in size Larger in size
Active Sluggish

Comparatively bigger antenna Comparatively smaller antenna

Abdomen narrow Abdomen bloated

Posterior end has a pair of hooks called Posterior end had a knob like projection with
harpers or claspers sensory hairs.

Ovipositor absent Posterior end of the abdomen has a protractile

knob like ovipositor

Eight abdominal segments are visible Seven abdominal segments are visible.

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SILK WORM MOTH- MALE & FEMALE
 CASTES OF HONEY BEES
THE QUEEN

Normally only one queen is present in a colony. She is the egg-laying individual of the
colony. The queen is the largest bee in the colony and her thorax is larger than that of the
workers. She is the mother of all the bees in the colony and her sole function is to lay eggs. The
queen has no instinct or ability to feed the young or to gather nectar or pollen or to do any of
the other useful activities associated with colony life. She deposits her eggs in the cells,
normally one to each cell, attaching the egg by its smaller end to the base of the cell in an
upright manner.
A good queen, at the height of her production, will lay from 1500 to 2000 eggs a day; the
total weight of which may equal or exceed that of her body. The development of eggs in the
ovaries begins soon after the queen mates, and the first eggs are laid from two to three days
after mating.
The ovaries of the laying queen are well developed occupying a large portion of her
abdomen. But she is deficient in many other glands found in the worker. Special organs on the
legs and wax glands are also absent in the queen. Her wings appear to be shorter but only
because of the greater length of her abdomen. Her thorax is broader and deeper than that of the
worker and her head is rounder. Her compound eyes are somewhat smaller and her mandibles
are well developed and notched instead of being smooth like those of the worker. The tongue
of the queen is smaller than that of the worker. The queen has a curved sting and her poison
sac is somewhat larger. The barbs on the queen's sting are shorter than those of the worker. The
queen does not lose her sting when it is used against a rival queen.
The mating of the queen takes place within five to ten days after she emerges from her cell.
Mating takes place during flight and never in the hive. She may mate more than once before
she begins to lay but seldom mates afterwards. The spermatazoa are stored in the spermatheca.
Inside the spermatheca, the sperms are kept alive, and are used to fertilize the eggs when needed
throughout the life of the queen or until the supply is exhausted. The queen lays fertilized or
unfertilized eggs at will, depositing the fertilized eggs in worker and queen cells and the
unfertilized eggs in the drone cells.
The normally mated queen may produce satisfactorily for three or more years, her length of
life depending on many heriditary as well as environmental factors: When a queen shows signs
of failing she is generally superseded by a young queen reared by the workers. The old queen
usually disappears within a week or so after the young queen begins to lay. Often the worker
bees take a hand in disposing of the old queen.
THE WORKER

All workers are females like the queen, but are not developed for reproduction. They are unable to mate
as the sex organs of the workers are undeveloped But it has many other organs not found in either the
queen or drone and this makes it perform the many tasks connected with the social life of the colony.

The head of the worker bee is longer and more, triangular than that of the queen. The compound eyes
are on the side of the head and are well developed. Three, simple eyes or ocelli are also present on the
head. The. tongue is well developed for sucking liquids and is used in dissolving sugars and granulated
honey. The mandibles are smooth and rounded, fitted for moulding and cleaning the cells and for other
useful work in the hive. The glands of the head and thorax, used in producing food and in secreting
enzymes and possibly other secretions, are welt developed at certain ages. The four sets of wax glands
on the inside of the last four ventral segments of the abdomen are well developed when the bee is
producing wax. The honey stomach, used to carry nectar, is well developed. The sting and poison
system is also functional throughout life.

The workers perform a number of varied functions. They keep the hive clean, feed the larvae, secrete
the beeswax, construct the combs, raise queens when necessary, ventilate the hive, guard the entrance,
convert the nectar into honey and store honey and pollen in the cells. They feed the queen a predigested
food of royal jelly. They also feed the drones. When the drones are no longer needed, the workers
withhold food from them and drive them from the hive to die. They also scout for a new home at
swarming time and collect water, pollen and nectar.

It can be literally said that the worker bee works herself to death. During the active seasons, a worker
bee spends the first three weeks of her life doing th9 hive duties and the remaining three or four weeks
in field work. Most of the adult bees die outside the hive and those that die within the hive are pushed
out of the entrance and are often carried some distance away. The use of the sting also results in the
death of the worker.
THE DRONE

Drones are the male bees of the colony and they perform no useful work other than; mating with virgin
queens. In fact, the drone that is successful in the act of mating dies. Under natural conditions where
bees live in trees or caves, about one-tenth to one-fourth of the comb is composed of drone cells. But
in the domesticated and controlled condition where the comb foundation is used, the drone comb is
limited.

The drones are easily distinguished from the workers and the queen. They are heavier and longer than
the workers but generally shorter than the queen. Wax glands, brood food glands, specialized structures
on the leg, sting etc. are lacking in the drone.

The workers may tolerate the drones during the favourable season but the drones are starved and driven
out of the hive when the nectar flow ceases or decreases.

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 BEE KEEPING EQUIPMENTS
Bee Box
The most important equipment is the Bee box. It consists of six parts (1) Bottom board (2)
Brood chamber or Bottom chamber (3) Super chamber or Honey chamber (4) Inner cover (5)
Top coyer and (6) Frames. The Bee box is usually placed on a hive stand. The Bottom board
form the base of the box. The brood chamber rests on the bottom board and the chamber above
the brood chamber is called super chamber or Honey chamber. The frames can be arranged in
these two chambers. The number of frames that can be arranged in a chamber, determines the
size of the Bee box. Accordingly there are four types of Bee boxes with 10,8,7 and 6 frames.
Frames of the super chamber may be smaller than that of the brood chamber. Usually the frames
of the brood chamber has an inner width of 6 inches and that of upper chamber has an inner
width of 2 1/2 inches. The queen bee lays eggs in the combs made in the bottom chamber. As
these chamber contains eggs and larvae, this chamber is called brood chamber. Honey is taken
only from the super chamber.
During the honey flow seasons, the honey bees stores the honey in the combs made in the
super chamber. Two or three super chambers can be used according to the availability of honey.
Above the super chamber, there is the inner cover and top cover is on the top. The hive has to
be kept on a hive stand: about 2.5 feet high from the ground level.

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 Smoker
Smoke has been used for centuries to pacify bees; and various kinds of smoke applicators
have been recorded in bee literature. It consists of a tin can provided with a spout for directing
the smoke from the smoldering material inside it with the help of bellows. Usually coir is used
for smoking.

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 Honey extractor
This is equipment with which honey is extracted in the purest form without damaging the
comb. The honey comb is whirled in a cage enclosed in an outside container and the honey
thus thrown out under centrifugal force is free from any extraneous matter. Various models of
extractors, both hand - operated and power-operated, are now widely used.

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 IDENTIFICATION AND USES
Beeswax
It is an important by-product of the bee keeping industry. It is produced from honey combs,
old combs, cappings collected during the extraction of honey and odd bits and pieces of old
combs. The output of beeswax in a modern apiary is not much as honey combs are not crushed
to extract honey. In India, wax is mainly obtained from the combs of wild bees, particularly
Apis dorsata.
Beeswax is yellowish to grey-brown in colour. It is insoluble in water but completely soluble
in ether, chloroform and in fixed and volatile oils. It melts at 63°C to 65°C. Chemically,
beeswax consists of a mixture of cerotic acid and myrican (myricyle palmitate).
The value of beeswax was recognised even by the ancients. The Egyptians made use of
beeswax in the preservation of their dead. The Romans used it for writing, for modeling and in
making candles. Beeswax has remained an important article down to the present day, in spite
of the development of various other waxes including paraffin.
Beeswax is used in the manufacture of more than 300 items. It is largely used in cosmetic
industry and in making the candles used in churches. Beeswax is widely used in making comb
foundation. It is also used in the manufacture of face creams, ointments lotions, lipsticks,
polishes for boots, furniture and floor, lubricants, electric insulating apparatus, pharmaceutical
preparations, modeling and plastic works, water proofing compounds, protective coatings,
different kinds of inks and waxes, paints and varnishes.
Beeswax contains 12% paraffin, 72% esters and 13% free long chain acids.

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Honey
Honey has been highly valued by Indians from time immemorial. Honey is a natural, unrefined
food and in the only un-manufactured sweet available in commercial quantities.
The nectar collected from the flowers is digested using the enzymes produced from the glands
of honey stomach and convert it into simple sugars. As it is an already digested food, it can be
absorbed directly into the blood. Honey contains several aminoacids. Vitamins like vitamins
B-complex, Vitamin C etc. and minerals like iron, calcium, silica, manganese, potassium,
sodium etc. Enzymes like invertase, diastase, catalase etc. are also present in honey.
As a medicine, the use of honey is varied. It can be considered as the nature's antibiotic because
it is an excellent remedy for cuts, wounds, and burns. Continuous use of honey cause the
disappearance of scars, due to burns and wounds. It is highly appreciated as food for infants,
the aged and invalids both in this country and abroad. It helps to build haemoglobin of the
blood. As it provides energy in a readily available form, honey is largely taken by athlete to
regain lost energy after hard exercise.
Honey is made use of in a large variety of ways in homes. Honey may be used in tea, coffee,
milk or buttermilk instead of sugar. The drink acquires an attractive and delicate flavour when
honey is added. lt has the excellent quality of being hygroscopic and hence when used in baking
bread, cakes and biscuits, it enhances their keeping capacity by retarding their drying up. Honey
also improves their flavour. Honey can be used in fruits, cereals, in salad dressing and for
flavouring meats and vegetables. It is also used in canning and preserving. In the west, chunk
honey or sections of honey in the comb itself is served at table but this has not become popular
in our country.
Honey as such or in combination with other ingredients is used in medical preparations in the
Ayurvedic and unani systems of medicine. Honey is used as a laxative, a blood purifier, a
preventive against cold, cough and fever and a curative for sores, for ulcers on the tongue, sore
throat and burns. Under certain circumstances it has proved useful to diabetic and allergic
patients.
Honey has an honoured place in the religious rites of various religions of the world, it is
necessary for pujas. Hindus and Jews use honey for the preparation of special cakes at certain
religious festivals. Catholics prepare mead from honey for a similar purpose. It is also given as
first feed to the new born.
Honey has several other uses in the west. Large quantities of honey are used to make alcoholic
drinks, mead, vinegar and wine; skin and beauty lotions; for stimulating the milk yield of dairy
cows, for increasing the stamina of race horses; and as an ingredient of cigarette and chewing
tobacco. Chewing-gum owes its sweet taste to honey. Honey also plays an important part in
the preparation of bacterial cultures.
Approximate composition of Honey is a follows:
Water -23%
Glucose -35%
Fructose – 36%
Sugar -3%
Minerals-2%
Dextrin, Gum, Vitamin, Protein, Aminoacids etc. - 2%.
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Silk
Silk is a fibrous protein produced by the silkworm for spinning cocoon. This cocoon provides
protection to the soft delicate worm during its pupal life. Silk is secreted as a fluid which turns
into a fine long solid thread in the air. Silk is a long filament composed of two proteins -fibroin
or real silk which constitutes the core of the filament and sercin or gum stuff which is a waxy
substance around the fibroin. The secretion of the silk filament is continuous ranging from 350
meters to 1800 meters or more. Commercial silk is obtained by reeling cocoons. Reeling is the
unwinding of the silk filament from the cocoon after killing the pupa.

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Vermicompost
The end product of vermicomposting is Vermicompost. It is a finely divided peat like material
with high porosity, water holding capacity and a low C:N ratio. The C:N ratio influences the
rate of decomposition of organic matter and this results in the release or immobilization of the
soil nitrogen. If the organic matter in the soil contains more nitrogen in proportion to the carbon,
the nitrogen is released into the soil from the decomposing organic matter. If the organic
material has less amount of nitrogen in relation to carbon, then the microorganisms will utilize
the soil nitrogen for further decomposition and the soil nitrogen will be immobilized and will
not be available for plants.
Vermicomposting is a low cost technology, environmental friendly process used to treat
organic waste. The Vermicompost has been shown to have several positive impacts on plant
growth and health. This organic fertilizer is therefore increasingly considered in agriculture
and horticulture as a promising alternative to inorganic fertilizer.
Vermicompost contains many nutrients in forms that are readily taken up by the plants. It also
contains plant growth hormones produced by micro organisms and plant growth regulators
such as humus in the production of which micro organisms also play a role.

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 CHANDRIKA / NETRIKA USED IN SERICULTURE
CHANDRIKA
Chandrika is made of bamboo. It consists of a rectangular mat having the size 1.8 x 1.2 m. A
spiral of bamboo tape about 5 cm broad fixed on the mat leaving a space about 5 cm between
the spirals. Chandrika provides all the advantages of a good mountage. There is sufficient space
for spinning cocoons so prevents the formation of double cocoons to a minimum. It allows free
circulation of air. So the excreta of the worms dry up quickly and do not remain to stain the
cocoons. It is easily available from the villages where bamboo weaving industry is common. It
can be easily transported and stored. The mountages can be used again and again.

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NETRIKA
The other forms of mountages in use are Netrika, screen type mountage, bamboo strip
mountage etc. Netrika is collapsible plastic mountage.