Energy Efficiency (2009) 2:109–123

DOI 10.1007/s12053-008-9032-8

Industrial energy efficiency and climate change mitigation

Ernst Worrell & Lenny Bernstein & Joyashree Roy &
Lynn Price & Jochen Harnisch

Received: 15 June 2008 / Accepted: 7 November 2008 / Published online: 30 November 2008
# The Author(s) 2008. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com

Abstract Industry contributes directly and indirectly Introduction

(through consumed electricity) about 37% of the
global greenhouse gas emissions, of which over This article is based on chapter 7 of the Working
80% is from energy use. Total energy-related emis- Group III report to the IPCC Fourth Assessment
sions, which were 9.9 GtCO2 in 2004, have grown by (IPCC 2007) and provides a review of the trends,
65% since 1971. Even so, industry has almost opportunities, and policy options to reduce green-
continuously improved its energy efficiency over the house gas (GHG) emissions from the industrial sector.
past decades. In the near future, energy efficiency is Industry uses almost 40% of worldwide energy. It
potentially the most important and cost-effective contributes almost 37% of global GHG emissions. In
means for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions from most countries, CO2 accounts for more than 90% of
industry. This paper discusses the potential contribu- CO2-eq GHG emissions from the industrial sector
tion of industrial energy-efficiency technologies and (Price et al. 2006; US EPA 2006). These CO2
policies to reduce energy use and greenhouse gas emissions arise from three sources: (1) the use of
emissions to 2030. fossil fuels for energy, either directly by industry for
heat and power generation or indirectly in the
Keywords Greenhouse gas mitigation . Industry . generation of purchased electricity and steam, (2)
Energy efficiency . Policy . Potentials non-energy uses of fossil fuels in chemical processing

E. Worrell (*) L. Price

Science, Technology & Society, Copernicus Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory,
ECOFYS/Utrecht University, 1 Cyclotron Road,
Heidelberglaan 2 3584 CS, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
Utrecht, The Netherlands
e-mail: e.worrell@uu.nl J. Harnisch
ECOFYS,
L. Bernstein Langrabenstrasse 94,
L.S. Bernstein and Associates, 90443 Nürnberg, Germany
LLC. 488 Kimberly Avenue,
Asheville, NC 28804, USA Present address:
J. Harnisch
J. Roy KfW,
Jadavpur University, Palmengartenstrasse 5-9,
Kolkata 700032, India 60325 Frankfurt/Main, Germany
110 Energy Efficiency (2009) 2:109–123

and metal smelting, and (3) non-fossil fuel sources, for production of energy-intensive industrial goods has
example cement and lime manufacture. Industrial grown dramatically and is expected to continue
processes, primarily chemical manufacturing and metal growing as population and per capita income increase.
smelting, also emit other GHGs, including methane Since 1970, global annual production of cement
(CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), HFCs, CFCs, and PFCs, increased 336%; aluminum, 252%; steel, 95% (USGS
The energy intensity of industry has steadily 2005); ammonia, 353% (IFA 2005); and paper, 190%
declined in most countries since the oil price shocks (FAO 2008). Much of the world’s energy-intensive
of the 1970s. Historically, industrial energy-efficiency industry is now located in developing nations (see
improvement rates have typically been around 1%/ Fig. 1). In 2006, developing countries accounted for
year. However, various countries have demonstrated 74% of global cement manufacture (USGS 2005), 63%
that it is possible to double these rates for extended of global nitrogen fertilizer production, about 50% of
periods of time (i.e., 10 years or more) through the global primary aluminum production (USGS 2008),
use of policy mechanisms. Still, large potentials exist and 48% of global steel production (USGS 2008).
to further reduce energy use and GHG emissions in In 2006, developing countries accounted for 49%
most sectors and economies. of final energy use by industry, developed countries
40%, and economies in transition 11%. Since many
facilities in developing nations are new, they some-
Historic and future trends times incorporate the latest technology and have the
lowest specific emission rates (BEE 2006; IEA
Globally, energy-intensive industries still emit the 2006b). Many older, inefficient facilities remain in
largest share of industrial GHG emissions (Dasgupta both industrialised and developing countries. Howev-
and Roy 2000; IEA 2007, 2008; Sinton and Fridley er, there is a huge demand for technology transfer
2000). Hence, this paper focuses on the key energy- (hardware, software, and know-how) to developing
intensive industries: iron and steel, chemicals (includ- nations to achieve energy efficiency and emissions
ing fertilizers), petroleum refining, minerals (cement, reduction in their industrial sectors. Though large-
lime, glass, and ceramics), and pulp and paper. The scale production dominates these energy-intensive

Fig. 1 The 1990 and 2006 100%

share of commodities pro-
duction from OECD, EIT, 90%
and non-OECD countries. 80%
Source: IFA (2005), UN
(2007), USGS (2007), IEA 70%
(2008), and FAO (2008) 60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
1990 2006 1990 2006 1990 2006 1990 2002 1990 2006 1990 2005 1990 2006

Steel Cement Aluminium Ethylene Ammonia Petroleum Pulp and

Pdts Paper

OECD EIT non-OECD

Source: IFA, 2005; UN, 2007; USGS, 2007, IEA, 2008, FAO, 2008.
Energy Efficiency (2009) 2:109–123 111

industries, globally small- and medium-sized enter- in the B2 scenario for the industrialized countries and
prises have significant shares in many developing countries with economies-in-transition.
countries, which create special challenges for mitiga-
tion efforts.
Total industrial sector GHG emissions are currently Energy efficiency and GHG emission mitigation
estimated to be about 12 GtCO2-eq/year. Global and
sectoral data on final energy use, primary energy use, IEA (2005) found, “The energy intensity of most
and energy-related CO2 emissions, including indirect industrial processes is at least 50% higher than the
emissions related to electricity use, for 1971 to 2005 theoretical minimum.” This provides a significant
are shown in Table 1. In 1971, the industrial sector opportunity for reducing energy use and its associated
used 91 EJ of primary energy, 40% of the global total CO2 emissions. A wide range of technologies have
of 227 EJ. By 2005, industry’s share of global the potential for reducing industrial GHG emissions,
primary energy use declined to 38%. of which energy efficiency is one of the most
Energy use represents the largest source of GHG important, especially in the short- to mid-term. Other
emissions in industry (83%). In 2005, energy use by the opportunities include fuel switching, material effi-
industrial sector resulted in emissions of 10.2 GtCO2, ciency, renewables, and reduction of non-CO2 GHG
38% of global CO2 emissions from energy use. Direct emissions. Within each category, some technologies
CO2 emissions totalled 5.2 Gt, the balance being such as the use of more efficient motor systems are
indirect emissions associated with the generation of broadly applicable across all industries, while others
electricity and other energy carriers. The developing are process specific. Below, we discuss cross-cutting
nations’ share of industrial CO2 emissions from energy and industry-wide technology opportunities, process
use grew from 18% in 1971 to 55% in 2005. In 2000, or sector-specific technologies, as well as manage-
CO2 emissions from non-energy uses of fossil fuels ment or operational opportunities.
(e.g., production of petrochemicals) and from non-
fossil fuel sources (e.g., cement manufacture) were Sector-wide technologies
estimated to be 1.7 GtCO2 (Olivier and Peters 2005).
Industrial emissions of non-CO2 gases totaled about Approximately 65% of electricity consumed by
0.4 GtCO2-eq in 2000 and are projected to be at about industry is used by motor systems (De Keulenaer et
the same level in 2010. Direct GHG emissions from al. 2004; Xenergy 1998). The efficiency of motor-
the industrial sector are currently about 7.3 GtCO2-eq, driven systems can be increased by reducing losses in
and total emissions, including indirect emissions, are the motor windings, using better magnetic steel,
about 12.3 GtCO2-eq. improving the aerodynamics of the motor, and
Future projections of the IPCC (IPCC 2000) show improving manufacturing tolerances. However, max-
energy-related industrial CO2 emissions of 14 and imizing efficiency requires properly sizing of all
20 GtCO2 in 2030 for the B2 and A1B scenarios1, components, improving the efficiency of the end-use
respectively. In both scenarios, CO2 emissions from devices (pumps, fans, etc.), reducing electrical and
industrial energy use are expected to grow signifi- mechanical transmission losses, and the use of proper
cantly in the developing countries while remaining operation and maintenance procedures. Implementing
essentially constant in the A1 scenario and declining high-efficiency motor-driven systems or improving
existing ones in the EU-25 could save about 30% of
the energy consumption of up to 202 TWh/year (De
Keulenaer et al. 2004) and over 100 TWh/year by
1 2010 in the USA (Xenergy 1998).
The terms refer to the IPCC Special report on Emission
Scenarios and denote two different world views. The A1-family IEA (2006a) estimates that steam generation
of scenarios assumes a world of rapid economic growth and consumes about 15% of global final industrial energy
regional convergence, with global population peaking mid- use. The efficiency of current steam boilers can be as
century. The B2 scenario reflects a world with modest
high as 85%, through general maintenance, improved
economic and population growth, while the economies are
more locally oriented. Neither scenario is considered more or insulation, combustion controls, and leak repair
less probably than the other. improved steam traps and condensate recovery.
112 Energy Efficiency (2009) 2:109–123

Table 1 Industrial sector final energy, primary energy, and energy-related carbon dioxide emissions, nine world regions, 1971–2005

Final energy (EJ) Primary energy (EJ) Energy-related carbon dioxide, including indirect
emissions from electricity use (MtCO2)

1971 1990 2005 1971 1990 2005 1971 1990 2005

Pacific OECD 6.02 8.04 10.09 8.29 11.47 14.29 524 710 821
North America 20.21 19.15 21.89 25.88 26.04 28.06 1,512 1,472 1461
Western Europe 14.78 14.88 16.69 19.57 20.06 21.83 1,380 1,187 1144
Central and East Europe 3.75 4.52 2.80 5.46 7.04 3.85 424 529 246
Former Soviet Union 11.23 18.59 10.81 15.67 24.63 15.00 1,095 1,631 873
Developing Asia 7.34 19.88 37.88 9.38 26.61 60.47 714 2,012 4505
Latin America 2.79 5.94 8.39 3.58 7.53 11.16 178 327 480
Sub-Saharan Africa 1.24 2.11 2.44 1.7 2.98 3.56 98 178 203
Middle East and North Africa 0.83 4.01 6.72 1.08 4.89 8.65 65 277 468
World 68.18 97.13 117.71 90.61 131.25 166.86 5,990 8,324 10,199

Biomass energy included. Industrial sector “final energy” use excludes energy consumed in refineries and other energy conversion
operations, power plants, coal transformation plants, etc. (IEA 2007, 2008). However, this energy is included in “primary energy”.
Upstream energy consumption was reallocated by weighting electricity, petroleum, and coal products consumption, with primary
factors reflecting energy use and loses in energy industries. Final energy includes feedstock energy consumed, for example in the
chemical industry. “CO2 emission” in this table are higher than in IEA’s Manufacturing Industries and Construction category because
they include upstream CO2 emissions allocated to the consumption of secondary energy products such as electricity and petroleum
fuels. To reallocate upstream CO2 emissions to final energy consumption, we calculate CO2 emission factors, which are multiplied by
the sector’s use of secondary energy (De la Rue du Can and Price 2008)

Studies in the USA identified energy-efficiency of pressure relief valves in steam networks and
opportunities with economically attractive potentials organic Rankine cycles from low-temperature waste
of up to 18–20% (Einstein et al. 2001; US DOE 2002). streams. Bailey and Worrell (2005) found a potential
Energy recovery techniques are old, but large savings of 1% to 2% of all power consumed in the
potentials still exist (Bergmeier 2003). It can take USA, which would mitigate 21 MtCO2.
different forms: heat, power, and fuel recovery. The Cogeneration (also called combined heat and
discarded heat can be re-used in other processes power, CHP) involves using energy losses in power
onsite or used to preheat incoming water and production to generate heat and/or cold for industrial
combustion air. New, more efficient heat exchangers processes and district heating, providing significantly
or more robust (e.g., low-corrosion) heat exchangers higher system efficiencies. Industrial cogeneration is
are being developed continuously, improving the an important part of power generation in Germany
profitability of enhanced heat recovery. Waste heat and the Netherlands and in many countries. Mitiga-
conversion by heat transformers or by thermo- tion potential for industrial cogeneration is estimated
electrical conversion as well as recovery of brake energy at almost 150 MtCO2 for the USA (Lemar 2001) and
by power electronics to electricity poses great potential. 334 MtCO2 for Europe (De Beer et al. 2001).
Typically, cost-effective energy savings of 5% to 40%
are found in process integration analyses in almost all Inter-industry energy-efficiency opportunities
industries (Worrell et al. 2002; IEA-IETS n.d.).
Power can be recovered from processes operating Use of granulated slag in Portland cement may
at elevated pressures using even small pressure increase energy use in the steel industry, but can
differences to produce electricity through pressure reduce both energy consumption and CO2 emissions
recovery turbines. Examples of pressure recovery during cement production by about 40% (Cornish and
opportunities are blast furnaces, fluid catalytic crack- Kerkhoff 2004). Co-siting of industries can achieve
ers, and natural gas grids. Power recovery may also GHG mitigation by allowing the use of byproducts as
include the use of pressure recovery turbines instead useful input and by integrating energy systems. In
Energy Efficiency (2009) 2:109–123 113

Kalundborg (Denmark), various industries (e.g., ce- processes to reduce heat loss, increasing recovery of
ment and pharmaceuticals production and a CHP waste energy and process gases, and efficient design
plant) form an eco-industrial park that serves as an of electric arc furnaces, for example, scrap preheating,
example of the integration of energy and material high-capacity furnaces, foamy slagging, and fuel and
flows (Heeres et al. 2004). Heat-cascading systems, oxygen injection. The potential for energy-efficiency
where waste heat from one industry is used by improvement varies based on the production route
another, are a promising cross-industry option for used, product mix, energy and carbon intensities of
saving energy. Based on the Second Law of Thermo- fuel and electricity, and the boundaries chosen for the
dynamics, Grothcurth et al. (1989) estimated up to evaluation. Kim and Worrell (2002a) estimated socio-
60% theoretical energy-saving potential from heat economic potential by taking industry structure into
cascading systems. However, as the potential is account. They benchmarked the energy efficiency of
dependent on many site-specific factors, the practical steel production to the best practice performance in
potential of these systems may be limited to approx- five countries with over 50% of world steel produc-
imately 5% (Matsuhashi et al. 2000). Other examples tion, finding potential CO2 emission reductions due to
are the use of (waste) fuels generated by one industry energy-efficiency improvement varying from 15%
and used by another industry, while this results in (Japan) to 40% (China, India, and the USA). A study
GHG emission reductions, this may not result in in 2000 estimated the 2010 global technical potential
energy-efficiency improvement. for energy-efficiency improvement with existing
technologies at 24% (De Beer et al. 2000a) and that
Process-specific technologies and measures an additional 5% could be achieved by 2020 using
advanced technologies such as smelt reduction and
This section discusses process-specific mitigation near net shape casting. Economics may limit the
options, focusing on energy-intensive industries: iron achievable emission reduction potential. A recent
and steel, chemicals, petroleum refining, minerals analysis of the efficiency improvement of electric
(cement, lime, and glass), and pulp and paper. These arc furnaces in the US steel industry found that the
industries (excluding petroleum refining) accounted average efficiency improvement between 1990 and
for almost 70% of industrial final energy use in 2003 2002 was 1.3%/year, of which 0.7% was due to stock
(IEA 2006a). With petroleum refining, the total is turnover and 0.5% due to retrofit of existing furnaces
over 80%. All the industries discussed in this section (Worrell and Biermans 2005).
can also benefit from application of the technologies
and measures described above. Chemicals and fertilizers The chemical industry is
highly diverse, with thousands of companies produc-
Iron and steel Global steel industry with production ing tens of thousands of products in quantities varying
of 1,129 Mt in 2005 emits 2,200 to 2,500 MtCO2 or from a few kilograms to thousand of tonnes. Worrell
about 6% to 7% of global anthropogenic emissions and Galitsky (2004) identify separations, chemical
(Kim and Worrell 2002a), including emissions from synthesis, and process heating as the major energy
coke manufacture and indirect emissions due to consumers in the chemical industry and list examples
power consumption. Emissions per tonne of steel of technology advances that could reduce energy
vary widely between countries: 1.25 tCO2 in Brazil, consumption in each area, for example, improved
1.6 tCO2 in Korea and Mexico, 2.0 tCO2 in the USA, membranes for separations, more selective catalysts
and 3.1 to 3.8 tCO2 in China and India (Kim and for synthesis, and greater process integration to
Worrell 2002a). These differences are due to a range reduce process heating requirements. Longer-term,
of factors, including fuel mix, different degrees of biological processing offers the potential of lower
integration but mainly due to the age and type of energy routes to chemical products.
technology, and levels of retrofitting of energy-
relevant process steps. Ethylene, which is used in the production of
Iron and steel production is a combination of batch plastics and many other products, is produced by
processes. Steel industry efforts to improve energy steam cracking hydrocarbon feedstocks, from ethane
efficiency include enhancing continuous production to gas oil. Hydrogen, methane, propylene, and heavier
114 Energy Efficiency (2009) 2:109–123

hydrocarbons are produced as byproducts. The heavi- ly improve energy efficiency by 10–20% and provid-
er the feedstock, the more and heavier the byproducts, ed a list of over 100 potential energy-saving steps.
and the more energy consumed per tonne of ethylene The petroleum industry has had long-standing energy-
produced. Ren et al. (2006) report that steam cracking efficiency programs for refineries and the chemical
for olefin production is the most energy-consuming plants with which they are often integrated. These
process in the chemicals industry, accounting for efforts have yielded significant results. Exxon Mobil
emissions of about 180 MtCO2/year and that signif- reported over 35% reduction in energy use in its
icant reductions are possible. Cracking consumes refineries and chemical plants from 1974 to 1999 and
about 65% of the total energy used in ethylene in 2000 instituted a program whose goal was a further
production, but use of state-of-the-art technologies 15% reduction. Chevron reported a 24% reduction in
(e.g., improved furnace and cracking tube materials its index of energy use between 1992 and 2004.
and cogeneration using furnace exhaust) could save
up to about 20% of total energy. The remainder of the Cement Global cement production grew from 594 Mt
energy is used for separation of the ethylene product, in 1970 to 2,550 Mt in 2006. In 2006, developed
typically by low-temperature distillation and com- countries produced 529 Mt (21% of world production)
pression. Up to 15% total energy can be saved by and developing countries 1,886 Mt (74%) (USGS
improved separation and compression techniques 2005). The production of clinker emits CO2 from the
(e.g., absorption technologies for separation). calcination of limestone. The major energy uses are
Swaminathan and Sukalac (2004) report that the fuel for the production of clinker and electricity for
fertilizer industry uses about 1.2% of world energy grinding raw materials and the finished cement. Based
consumption. More than 90% of this energy is used in on average emission intensities, total emissions in 2005
the production of ammonia (NH3). However, as the are estimated at 1,800 to 2,000 MtCO2 or about 7% of
result of energy-efficiency improvements, modern global CO2 emissions, half from process emissions,
ammonia plants are designed to use about half the 40% from direct energy use, and 10% from used
energy per tonne of product than those designed in electricity. Global average CO2 emission per tonne
1960s, with design energy consumption dropping from cement production is estimated by Worrell et al. (2001)
over 60 GJ/t NH3 in the 1960s to 28 GJ/t NH3 in the at 814 kg. CO2 emission/t cement vary by region from
latest design plants, approaching the thermodynamic a low of 700 kg in Western Europe and 730 kg in
limit of about 19 GJ/t NH3. Benchmarking data Japan and South Korea to a high of 900, 930, and
indicate that the best-in-class performance of operating 935 kg in China, India, and the United States
plants ranges from 28.0 to 29.3 GJ/t NH3 (Chaudhary (Humphreys and Mahasenan 2002; Worrell et al.
2001; PSI 2004). The newest plants tend to have the 2001). This reflects differences of fuels mixes, cement
best energy performance, and many of them are located types, and also kiln technologies, with age and size
in developing countries, which now account for 63% being critical parameters.
of nitrogen fertilizer production (USGS 2007). Indi- Emission intensities have decreased by approxi-
vidual differences in energy performance are mostly mately 0.9%/year since 1990 in Canada, 0.3%/year
determined by feedstock (natural gas compared with (1970–1999) in the USA, and 1%/year in Mexico
heavier hydrocarbons) and the age and size of the (Nyboer and Tu 2003; Worrell and Galitsky 2004;
ammonia plant (PSI 2004; Phylipsen et al. 2002). Sheinbaum and Ozawa 1998). Benchmarking and
other studies have demonstrated a technical potential
Petroleum refining As of the beginning of 2004, there for up to 40% improvement in energy efficiency (Kim
were 735 refineries in 128 countries, with a total and Worrell 2002b; Worrell et al. 1995). Countries
crude oil distillation capacity of 82.3 million barrels with a high potential still use outdated technologies,
per day. Petroleum industry operations consume up to like the wet process clinker kiln.
15% to 20% of the energy in crude oil or 5% to 7% of
world primary energy, with refineries consuming most Pulp and paper Direct emissions from the pulp,
of that energy (Eidt 2004). Worrell and Galitsky paper, paperboard, and wood products industries are
(2005), based on a survey of US refinery operations, estimated to be 264 MtCO2/year (Miner and Lucier
found that most petroleum refineries can economical- 2004). The industry’s indirect emissions from pur-
Energy Efficiency (2009) 2:109–123 115

chased electricity are less certain, but are estimated to industry-accepted index developed by a private
be 130 to 180 MtCO2/year (WBCSD 2005). Mitiga- company (Barats 2005). Many benchmarking pro-
tion opportunities in the pulp and paper industry grams are developed through trade associations or ad
consist of energy-efficiency improvement, cogenera- hoc consortia of companies, and their details are often
tion, increased use of (self-generated) biomass fuel, proprietary. However, ten Canadian potash operations
and increased recycling of recovered paper. As the published the details of their benchmarking exercise
pulp and paper industry consumes large amounts of (CFI 2003), which showed that increased employee
motive power and steam, the cross-cutting measures awareness and training was the most frequently
discussed above apply to this industry. identified opportunity for improved energy perfor-
Because of increased use of biomass and energy- mance. Several governments have supported the
efficiency improvements, the GHG emissions from the development of benchmarking programs in various
pulp and paper industry have been reduced over time. forms, for example Canada, Flanders (Belgium), the
Since 1990, CO2 emission intensity of the European Netherlands, Norway, and the USA.
paper industry has decreased by approximately 25% Application of housekeeping and general mainte-
(WBCSD 2005), the Australian pulp and paper nance on older, less-efficient plants can yield energy
industry about 20% (A3P 2006), and the Canadian savings of 10–20%. Low-cost/minor capital measures
pulp and paper industry over 40% (FPAC n.d.). Fossil (e.g., combustion efficiency optimization, recovery
fuel use by the US pulp and paper industry declined and use of exhaust gases, use of correctly sized, high-
by more than 50% between 1972 and 2002 (AF&PA efficiency electric motors, and insulation) show
2004). However, despite these improvements, Martin energy savings of 20–30%. Higher capital expendi-
et al. (2000) found a technical potential for GHG ture measures (e.g., automatic combustion control,
reduction of 25% and a cost-effective potential of improved design features for optimization of piping
14% through widespread adoption of 45 energy- sizing and air intake sizing, and use of variable speed
saving technologies and measures in the US pulp drive motors, automatic load control systems, and
and paper industry. Inter-country comparisons of process residuals) can result in energy savings of 40–
energy intensity in the mid-1990s suggest that fuel 50% (UNIDO 2001; Bakaya-Kyahurwa 2004).
consumption by the pulp and paper industry could be
reduced by 20% or more in a number of countries by
adopting best practices (Farla et al. 1997). Medium-term mitigation potential and cost

An attempt to estimate global mitigation potential

Management and operations from national and regional estimates was unsuccess-
ful. Information is lacking for the former Soviet
Management tools can reduce energy use. Staff Union, Africa, Latin America, and parts of Asia.
training in companies’ general approach to energy- However, we were able to develop a global estimate
efficiency (Caffal 1995) reward systems has had good for the industrial sector by summing estimates of the
results. Several countries have instituted voluntary mitigation potential in specific industry sub-sectors,
corporate energy management standards (e.g., Can- e.g., iron and steel. Table 2 presents an estimate of the
ada, Denmark, Ireland, Sweden, and the USA). industrial sector mitigation potential and cost in 2030.
Companies of all sizes use energy audits to identify Mitigation potential and cost for industrial CO2
opportunities for reducing energy use. Approximately emissions were estimated as follows:
10% (Okazaki et al. 2004) of total energy consump-
tion in steel making could be saved through improved 1. Price et al. (2006) estimates for 2030 production
energy and materials management. rate by industry and geographic area for the SRES
Companies can use benchmarking to compare their A1 and B2 scenarios (IPCC 2000) were used.
operations with those of others, to industry average or 2. Mitigation potential estimates available from liter-
to best practice, to improve energy efficiency. The ature have been supplemented by mitigation
petroleum industry has the longest experience with potential estimates developed by assuming deploy-
energy-efficiency benchmarking through the use of an ment of current best practice by all plants in 2030.
116 Energy Efficiency (2009) 2:109–123

Mitigation cost estimates are based on both Table 2 is based on a limited number of studies and
published values and expert judgment. In most cases, implicitly assumes that current trends will continue
the available cost information was not comprehen- until 2030. Key uncertainties in the projections
sive, and we have not developed marginal abatement include the rate of technology development and
cost curves. Estimates have not been made for some diffusion, the cost of future technology, future energy
smaller industries (e.g., glass) and for the light and carbon prices, the level of industrial activity in
industries. A significant amount of information was 2030, and policy driver, both climate and non-climate.
available on industrial sector mitigation potential and The use of two scenarios, A1B and B2, helps in
cost by country or region. To build up a truly global estimation of range of values to reflect uncertainties.
estimate from this data was not possible at the time About a third of the savings potential of electric
as robust information was lacking for the former motor systems (see above) was assumed to be realized
Soviet Union, Africa, Latin America, and parts of in the baseline, resulting in a net mitigation potential
Asia. of 13% of industrial electricity use. This mitigation

Table 2 Estimated potential for CO2 emission reduction in 2030

Areaa 2030 production (Mt)b Mitigation Cost range, Mitigation potential (MtCO2-eq/year)
potential (%) ($/tCO2-eq)
A1 B2 A1 B2

CO2 emissions from processes and energy use

Steelc,d Global 1,554 1,578 15–40 <50 430–1,500 420–1,500
OECD 436 388 15–40 <50 90–300 80–260
EIT 176 193 25–40 <50 80–240 85–260
Dev. Nat. 941 997 25–40 <50 260–970 250–940
Primary aluminume,f Global 49 43 15–25 <100 53–82 49–75
OECD 12 12 15–25 <100 16–25 15–22
EIT 6 6 15–25 <100 12–19 8–13
Dev. Nat. 31 25 15–25 <100 25–38 26–40
Cementg,h,i Global 5,524 4,418 11–40 <50 720–2,100 480–1,700
OECD 596 553 11–40 <50 65–180 50–160
EIT 313 219 11–40 <50 40–120 20–60
Dev. Nat. 4,615 3,645 11–40 <50 610–1,800 410–1,500
Ethylenej Global 329 218 20 <20 85 58
OECD 138 147 20 <20 35 40
EIT 19 11 20 <20 5 3
Dev. Nat. 171 60 20 <20 45 15
Ammoniak,l Global 199 195 25 <20 110 100
OECD 20 18 25 <20 11 10
EIT 19 22 25 <20 10 12
Dev. Nat. 159 155 25 <20 87 80
Petroleum refiningm Global 4,838 4,697 10–20 Half <20 150–300 140–280
OECD 2,220 2,123 10–20 Half <50 70–140 67–130
EIT 412 415 10–20 Half <50 12–24 12–24
Dev. Nat. 2,206 2,160 10–20 Half <50 68–140 65–130
Pulp and papern Global 1,226 927 5–40 <20 49–420 37–300
OECD 657 536 5–40 <20 28–220 22–180
EIT 62 42 5–40 <20 3–21 2–13
Dev. Nat. 508 349 5–40 <20 18–180 13–110
Other industries, electricity conservation
Global 25% <20 1,100–1,300 410–540
OECD 25% <50 140–210 65–140
EIT 50% <100 340–350 71–85
–d
Dev. Nat. 640–700 280–320
Energy Efficiency (2009) 2:109–123 117

Table 2 (continued)

Areaa 2030 production (Mt)b Mitigation Cost range, Mitigation potential (MtCO2-eq/year)
A1 B2 potential (%) ($/tCO2-eq) A1 B2

Total
Sumo,p,q Global 2,300–7,500 1,500–6,100
OECD 400–1500 300–1,300
EIT 500–900 200–600
Dev. Nat. 1,500–4,600 1,000–3,800

Results are presented for selected energy-intensive industries and for three world regions. Impact of increased recycling is included in
the potentials as (material) efficiency improvement. Note that it was impossible to distinguish fuel mix effects from efficiency
changes. However, fuel mix effects are generally very small, except for the cement and pulp and paper industries
a
Global total may not equal sum of regions due to independent rounding
b
Price et al. 2006
c
Kim and Worrell 2002a
d
Expert judgment
e
Emission intensity based on IAI Life-Cycle Analysis, excluding alumina production and aluminum shaping and rolling. Emissions
include anode manufacture, anode oxidation, and power and fuel used in the primary smelter, but exclude PFC emission reduction
f
Assumes upgrade to current state-of-the art smelter electricity use and 50% penetration of zero emission inert electrode technology by 2030
g
Humphreys and Mahasenan 2002
h
Hendriks et al. 1999
i
Worrell et al. 1995
j
Ren et al. 2005
k
Basis for estimate: 10 GJ t−1 NH3 difference between the average plant and the best available technology and operation on natural gas
l
Rafiqul et al. 2005
m
Worrell and Galitsky 2005
n
Farahani et al. 2004
o
Due to gaps in quantitative information, the column sums in this table do not represent total industry emissions or mitigation
potential. Global total may not equal sum of regions due to independent rounding
p
The mitigation potential of the main industries include electricity savings
q
Mitigation potential for other industries includes only reductions for reduced electricity use for motors. Limited data in the literature
did not allow estimation of the potential for other mitigation options in these industries

potential was included in the estimates of mitigation The total potential for GHG emission mitigation in
potential for energy-intensive industries presented in the industrial sector by 2030 is estimated to be 10–33%
Table 2. of the A1B SRES scenario and 9–37% in the B1 SRES
However, it is also necessary to consider the scenario.
potential for electricity savings from non-energy-
intensive industries, which are large consumers of
electricity. Due to data limitations, US data (EIA Lessons learned and policy implications
2005) on electricity use as a fraction of total energy
use by industry and on the fraction of electricity use Industry can respond to the potential for increased
consumed by motor-driven systems were taken as government regulation or changes in consumer
representative of global patterns. The emission reduc- preferences in two ways: by mitigating its own
tion potential from motor systems in the non-energy- GHG emissions and by developing new, lower GHG
intensive industries have been estimated as residual emission products and services. To the extent that
by subtracting the savings from energy-intensive industry does this before being required by either
industries from total industrial emissions reduction regulation or the market, it is demonstrating the type
potential. of anticipatory or planned adaptation. Due to the
118 Energy Efficiency (2009) 2:109–123

variety of barriers faced by industrial decision makers, savings, which was a 50% increase over historical
there is no “silver bullet”, i.e., no single policy to autonomous energy-efficiency rates in the Nether-
resolve the barriers for all industries. We discuss in lands prior to the agreements (Kerssemeeckers 2002;
next sections a portfolio of policies that have been Rietbergen et al. 2002).
tried in various countries. In addition to the energy and carbon savings,
these agreements have important longer-term
Voluntary programs and agreements impacts (Delmas and Terlaak 2000; Dowd et al.
2001), including changing attitudes, reducing barriers
Voluntary agreements are defined as formal agree- to innovation and technology adoption, creating market
ments that are essentially contracts between govern- transformations, promoting positive dynamic interac-
ment and industry that include negotiated targets with tions between different actors involved in technology
time schedules and commitments on the part of all research and development, deployment, and market
participating parties (IEA 1997). Voluntary agree- development, and facilitating cooperative arrangements
ments by industry have been implemented in indus- that provide learning mechanisms within an industry.
trialized countries since the early 1990s. These
agreements fall into three categories: completely Financial instruments: taxes, subsidies, and access
voluntary, voluntary with the threat of future taxes to capital
or regulation if shown to be ineffective, and volun-
tary, but associated with an energy or carbon tax To date, there is limited experience with taxing
(Price 2005). Agreements that include explicit targets industrial GHG emissions. The UK Climate Change
and exert pressure on industry to meet those targets Levy applies to industry only and is levied on all non-
are the most effective (UNFCCC 2002). Voluntary household use of coal, gas, electricity, and non-
agreements typically cover a period of 5 to 10 years transport LPG. Fuels used for electricity generation
so that strategic energy-efficiency investments can be or non-energy uses, waste-derived fuels, renewable
planned and implemented. energy, including quality CHP, which uses specified
Independent assessments find that experience with fuels and meets minimum efficiency standards, are
voluntary agreements has been mixed with some of exempted from the tax.
the earlier programs appearing to have been poorly Subsidies are also used to stimulate investment in
designed, failing to meet targets or only achieving energy-saving measures by reducing investment cost.
business-as-usual savings (Bossoken 1999; Chidiak Subsidies to the industrial sector include grants,
2000, 2002; Hansen and Larsen 1999; OECD 2002; favorable loans, and fiscal incentives such as reduced
Starzer 2000). Recently, a number of voluntary taxes on energy-efficient equipments, accelerated
agreement programs have been modified and depreciation, tax credits, and tax deductions. Many
strengthened, while additional countries, including developed and developing countries have financial
some newly industrialized and developing countries, schemes to promote industrial energy savings. Eval-
are adopting such agreements in efforts to increase the uations show that subsidies for industry may lead to
efficiency of their industrial sectors (Price 2005). The energy savings and can create a larger market for
more successful programs are typically those that energy-efficient technologies (De Beer et al. 2000b;
have either an implicit threat of future taxes or WEC 2001). Whether the benefits to society outweigh
regulations or those that work in conjunction with the cost of these programs or whether other instru-
an energy or carbon tax, such as the Dutch Long- ments would have been more cost effective has to be
Term Agreements, the Danish Agreement on Indus- evaluated on a case-by-case basis.
trial Energy Efficiency, and the UK Climate Change Investors in developing countries tend to have a
Agreements. Such programs can provide energy weak capital base. Development and finance institu-
savings beyond business-as-usual (Bjørner and Jensen tions therefore often play a critical role in implement-
2002; Future Energy Solutions 2004, 2005) and are ing energy-efficiency policies. Their role often goes
cost effective (Phylipsen and Blok 2002). The Long- beyond the provision of project finance and may
Term Agreements, for example, stimulated between directly influence technology choice and the direction
27% and 44% (17 to 28 PJ) of the observed energy of innovation (George and Prabhu 2003). The retreat
Energy Efficiency (2009) 2:109–123 119

of national development banks in some developing industrialized countries for the industrial sector, found
countries (as a result of both financial liberalization that 20 of the technologies had environmental benefits
and financial crises in national governments) may in the areas of “reduction of wastes” and “emissions
hinder the widespread adoption of mitigation tech- of criteria air pollutants”. In addition, 35 of the
nologies because of lack of financial mechanisms to technologies had productivity or product quality
handle the associated risk. benefits (Worrell et al. 2002). Inclusion of quantified
co-benefits in an energy-conservation supply curve
Regulation and labeling for the US iron and steel industry doubled the
potential for cost-effective savings (Worrell et al.
For specific activities and regions, there is scope for 2003). In many situations, a range co-benefits result
reducing greenhouse gas emissions from industrial from improving efficiencies at the useful energy level.
sectors via regulation. For example, mandating the Long-term efficiency approaches by process substitu-
labeling of mass-produced motor systems or of tion relying on major innovations are likely to become
products containing fluorinated gases is an option, increasingly important as existing technology options
as well as training and certification requirements for reach full market penetration.
technicians or planners or requiring adequate invest- Industry is not running out of energy-efficient
ment profitability calculations based on life cycle technologies, as new technologies are developed con-
costing approaches. The first regulations on non-CO2 tinuously (Worrell et al. 2002). Technology RDD&D is
GHGs are emerging in Europe. A new EU regulation carried out by both governments (public sector) and
(EC 842/2006) on fluorinated gases includes prohibi- companies (private sector). Ideally, the roles of the
tion of the use of SF6 in magnesium die casting. The public and private sectors will be complementary.
regulation contains a review clause that could lead to Flannery (2001) argued that it is appropriate for
further use restrictions. National legislation is in place governments to identify the fundamental barriers to
in Austria, Denmark, Luxembourg, Sweden, and technology and find solutions that improve perfor-
Switzerland that limits the use of HFCs in refrigeration mance, including environmental, cost and safety
equipment, foams, and solvents. During the review of performance, and perhaps customer acceptability but
permits for large installations under the EU’s Integrated that the private sector should bear the risk and capture
Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Directive the rewards of commercializing technology. Studies by
(EC, 96/61), a number of facilities have been required Luiten and Blok (2003a, b) have shown that a better
to implement best available control technologies, e.g., understanding of the technology and the development
for N2O and fluorinated gases. process cultivating “champions” for technology devel-
opment is essential in the design of effective govern-
Technology research, development, deployment, ment support of technology development. In its
and diffusion (RDD&D) analysis of its Accelerated Technology scenarios, IEA
(2006a), as well as the estimate of the 2030 potential
Most industrial processes use at least 50% more than discussed above, found that end-use energy efficiency,
the theoretical minimum energy requirement deter- much of it in the industrial sector, contributed most to
mined by the laws of thermodynamics, suggesting a mitigation of CO2 emissions from energy use. It
large potential for energy-efficiency improvement and accounted for 39–53% of the projected reduction.
GHG emission mitigation (IEA 2006a). However, However, IEA countries spent only 17% of their public
RDD&D is required to capture these potential energy R&D budgets on energy efficiency (IEA 2005).
efficiency gains and achieve significant GHG emis-
sion reductions. It is important to realize that
successful technologies must also meet a host of Conclusions
other performance criteria, including cost competi-
tiveness, safety, and regulatory requirements, as well Industry contributes directly and indirectly about
as winning consumer acceptance. A review of 54 37% of the global greenhouse gas emissions. Total
emerging energy-efficient technologies, produced or energy-related industrial emissions have grown by
implemented in the US, EU, Japan, and other 65% since 1971.
120 Energy Efficiency (2009) 2:109–123

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as all reviewers that provided comments on earlier versions of
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