Criminology

The Knowledge Organiser

Unit 3
Crime Scene to Courtroom

01 Overview
This will help you know what is required at each stage of your learning
02 Powerful Knowledge
The key information you need to recall
03 Practice Pages
Use the knowledge from section 2 to practise exam questions here
04 Revision Tools
Tasks to help you embed your knowledge

1
Crime Scene to Courtroom

The Overview
This will help you know what is required at each stage of your learning.
AC1.1 Evaluate the effectiveness of the roles of personnel involved in criminal investigations
Will be able to give a clear and detailed evaluation of the effectiveness of the roles of the following
personnel involved in criminal investigations:
Will be able to understand the roles and consider their effectiveness in relation to the following potential
limitations:
AC1.1.01 To know and understand the role of the police officer in criminal investigations
To show knowledge, describe the role of police officers and detectives in criminal investigations
[PE]
To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples of cases that demonstrate the
effectiveness of police officers [A]
To analyse, consider the effectiveness of police officers in relation with regards to
funding/cost/availability and training/recruitment/expertise [C]
To evaluate, evaluate the advantages and limitations of police officers in criminal investigations
[E]
AC1.1.01.01 The Police Officer / A police officer is usually the first person called to a crime scene
and they have a vital role at the start of the investigation. Officers need to safeguard the public
and attend to anyone seriously injured at the scene, for example by calling an emergency
ambulance. If possible, they need to arrest the suspect, though in many cases they will have left
the scene. However, as far as the investigation is concerned, the police officer's key job is to
secure the crime scene in order to conserve the evidence. As far as possible they should avoid
contaminating the scene by moving furniture, opening doors etc.
AC1.1.01.02 The Police Detective and Specialists / Police detectives are officers who manage a
range of criminal investigations, particularly those involving complex or serious crimes. They work
within specialist departments such as the CID (criminal investigations department), fraud. drugs
and firearms squads, child protection department and Special Branch. Police forces also have
other specialist units, such as traffic and mounted police, air support and underwater search
teams, and dog handler units.
AC1.1.01.03 The Golden Hour is the name sometimes given to the period immediately after a
crime is discovered, when officers must act quickly to preserve the scene. It is also important to
take initial statements from witnesses and victims while events are still fresh in their minds.
AC1.1.01.04 Limitations of Police Officers The police have been criticised for sometimes failing to
secure crime scenes and preserve evidence. and mote generally for failure to investigate certain
crimes, for example domestic abuse or hate crimes such as racist attacks. Such failures can be
due to incompetence in handling evidence or discriminatory attitudes of individual officers. It can
also be due to system-level failings such as the institutional racism in the Metropolitan Police that
was identified in the Macpherson Report into their investigation of the murder of Stephen
Lawrence. Among other matters. the report criticised the force for its scene of crime procedures
and for the failure to give first aid to Stephen at the scene.
AC1.1.01.01 ®Commandagons / Police Officers
AQ1.1.01.1 Describe the role of police officers and detectives in criminal investigations
AQ1.1.01.2 Outline examples of cases that demonstrate the effectiveness of police officers
AQ1.1.01.3 Assess the effectiveness of police officers in relation with regards to
funding/cost/availability and training/recruitment/expertise
AQ1.1.01.4 Evaluate the advantages and limitations of police officers in criminal investigations
AQ1.1.01.5 Evaluate the effectiveness of the role of police officers in criminal investigations.

2
 AC1.1.02 To know and understand the role of the crime scene investigator in criminal investigations
To show knowledge, describe the role of the crime scene investigator in criminal investigations
[PE]
To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples of cases that demonstrate the
effectiveness of crime scene investigators [A]
To analyse, consider the effectiveness of crime scene investigators in relation with regards to
funding/cost/availability and training/recruitment/expertise [C]
To evaluate, evaluate the advantages and limitations of crime scene investigators in criminal
investigations [E]
AC1.1.02.01 The Crime Scene Investigator / Crime scene investigators or CSIs are also known in
some police forces as scenes of crime officers (SOCOs). They are usually civilians rather than
police officers. CSIs undergo specialist training and many have a science degree. The largest
forces employ dozens of CSIs, who provide a 24/7 on-call service. The CSIs role is to collect and
process evidence from crime scenes, as well as from post mortems and accidents. A key
responsibility is to preserve evidence in an uncontaminated condition, since contamination
means that it will be inadmissible in court. Their main activities include the following: Taking
charge of the crime scene, liaising with police to find out what evidence is required from the
scene and deciding how best to obtain it., Photographing crime scenes, items and people, such as
tyre marks shoeprints, weapons, injuries, victims and suspects. Recovering physical or biological
evidence from crime scenes, including fingerprints, gunshot and explosives residue, clothing
fibres, hairs, bodily fluids and DNA. Packaging, storing and documenting the material recovered
from crime scenes. Attending post mortem examinations of suspicious deaths. Advising police
investigators on the physical evidence, photography and samples for laboratory analysis. Giving
evidence in court.
AC1.1.02.02 Strengths and Limitations CSIs may gather evidence that conclusively links suspects
to crime scenes and victims. The evidence may also prove conclusively that a suspect is in fact
innocent, e.g. when their fingerprints do not match those found by the CSI at the crime scene.
Limitations The work requires specialist skills (such as forensic photography), as well as patience,
meticulous care and attention to detail. Failure to collect and record evidence correctly, or
allowing it to become contaminated, can lead to a guilty person going free or an innocent one
being convicted. The forensic samples that CSIs handle may put their health or safety at risk.
These include blood and other body fluids, hazardous chemicals, explosives and incendiary
devices, firearms and ammunition, knives and hypodermic syringes. The work may be stressful
and emotionally demanding. This can lead to burn-out and people leaving the profession,
resulting in staff shortages.
AC1.1.02.01 ®Double Bubble / Police Officer vs. Crime Scene Investigator
AC1.1.02.01 ®Commandagons / Police Officers
AQ1.1.02.1 Describe the role of crime scene officers in criminal investigations
AQ1.1.02.2 Outline examples of cases that demonstrate the effectiveness of crime scene
investigators
AQ1.1.02.3 Assess the effectiveness of crime scene investigators in relation with regards to
funding/cost/availability and training/recruitment/expertise
AQ1.1.02.4 Evaluate the advantages and limitations of crime scene investigators in criminal
investigations
AQ1.1.02.5 Evaluate the effectiveness of the role of crime scene investigators in criminal
investigations.
AC1.1.03 To know and understand the role of Forensic Scientists in criminal investigations
To show knowledge, describe the role of Forensic Scientists in criminal investigations [PE]
To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples of cases that demonstrate the
effectiveness of Forensic Scientists [A]
To analyse, consider the effectiveness of Forensic Scientists in relation with regards to
funding/cost/availability and training/recruitment/expertise [C]
To evaluate, evaluate the advantages and limitations of Forensic Scientists in criminal
investigations [E]
AC1.1.03 The Forensic Scientist / Forensic science involves applying scientific knowledge to crime
and the legal system. Forensic scientists use their scientific knowledge and expertise to analyse
and interpret evidence that has been recovered from the crime scene. For example, they may

3
 analyse samples of blood or other bodily fluids to extract DNA and then compare these with a
'control sample' taken from a suspect to see if they match. They then produce a report of their
findings and interpretations for the court. Forensic scientists generally specialise in particular
areas, such as DNA analysis. Other specialisms include the analysis of fires (in arson
investigations), toxicology (poisons and drugs), computing, psychology and forensic
anthropology, which may involve analysis of human remains found in mass graves, for example as
a result of war crimes.
AC1.1.03.01 Forensic Scientist Strengths and Limitations / Strengths The special expertise of
forensic scientists may be able to identify and interpret evidence that proves a suspect's guilt or
innocence. Their expertise may be essential in complex cases where the criminal also has
specialist knowledge or skills. Limitations Forensic scientists are highly qualified and their services
are expensive. Contamination of evidence can occur when it is being examined by scientists, as in
the case of Adam Scott, who spent five months on remand in 2011-12 charged with rape. His
DNA sample, originally taken by police as a result of a spitting incident in Exeter, became mixed
up with genetic material taken from a rape victim in Manchester. Forensic experts may disagree.
For example, experts called by the defence may contradict those called by the prosecution. The
court lacks specialist knowledge and may be unable to evaluate which side is right. If an expert
deliberately or accidentally misleads the court, this can result in a miscarriage of justice. At the
trial of Sally Clark in 1999 for the murder of her two baby sons, an expert witness, the
paediatrician Professor Sir Roy Meadow, told the jury that the chance that both deaths were
accidental was one in 73 million. Experts now believe that the risk could be as low as one in 100.
Sally Clark was convicted and only freed on appeal after three years in jail.
AC1.1.03.01 ®Commandagons / Forensic Scientist
AQ1.1.03.1 Describe the role of forensic scientists in criminal investigations
AQ1.1.03.2 Outline examples of cases that demonstrate the effectiveness of forensic scientists
AQ1.1.03.3 Assess the effectiveness of forensic scientists in relation with regards to
funding/cost/availability and training/recruitment/expertise
AQ1.1.03.4 Evaluate the advantages and limitations of forensic scientists in criminal
investigations
AQ1.1.03.5 Evaluate the effectiveness of the role of forensic scientists in criminal
investigations.
AC1.1.04 To know and understand the role of pathologists in criminal investigations
To show knowledge, describe the role of pathologists in criminal investigations [PE]
To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples of cases that demonstrate the
effectiveness of pathologists [A]
To analyse, consider the effectiveness of pathologists in relation with regards to
funding/cost/availability and training/recruitment/expertise [C]
To evaluate, evaluate the advantages and limitations of pathologists in criminal investigations [E]
AC1.1.04 The Pathologist /Pathologists are medical doctors who specialise in studying the causes
of disease and death, including the examination of dead bodies and body tissues in post mortem
examinations (also called autopsies). Where homicide is suspected, Home Office-registered
forensic pathologists provide a 24/7 service to assist the police and coroner in establishing the
probable cause of death. At the post mortem, the pathologist first makes a detailed external
examination of the body for signs of foul play. Depending on the case, they may also examine
internal organs and take tissue samples for laboratory analysis. They can also advise police on
how to recover the body from the crime scene to avoid vital trace evidence being lost. Before the
body is released for burial or cremation, a 'defence' post mortem may be carried out on behalf of
the defendant in the case, conducted by a different pathologist. Once all the test results are
collected, the pathologist produces a report for the coroner and a witness statement for the
police. He or she may also be asked to advise police and prosecutors throughout their
investigation and to give evidence in court.
AC1.1.04.02 Pathologist Strengths and Limitations Strengths The key strength that the
pathologist brings to an investigation is that they can often provide conclusive scientific evidence
as to the cause and time of death. This may prove decisive in establishing the guilt or innocence
of a suspect. Limitations • There are only about 35 Home Office-registered forensic pathologists
in England and Wales — partly because it is a highly specialised role involving up to seven years
further training after first qualifying as a doctor. The shortage of suitably qualified pathologists

4
 can delay investigations.• As highly trained specialists, pathologists are very well paid and
forensic pathology services can be an expensive part of a criminal investigation.• The work
demands close attention to detail and sound judgement. Mistakes can cause miscarriages of
justice and result in the wrong person serving a life sentence for murder. For example, Sally Clark
was wrongly jailed for the murder of her two baby sons partly as a result of the home office
pathologist Alan Williams failing to disclose information to her defence lawyers. As a result, they
remained unaware that Williams had found lethal levels of bacterial infection which could have
been the cause of death.
AC1.1.04.01 ®Double Bubble / Forensic Scientist vs. Pathologist
AC1.1.02.01 ®Commandagons / Pathologist
AQ1.1.04.1 Describe the role of the pathologist in criminal investigations
AQ1.1.04.2 Outline examples of cases that demonstrate the effectiveness of the pathologist
AQ1.1.04.3 Assess the effectiveness of the pathologist in relation with regards to
funding/cost/availability and training/recruitment/expertise
AQ1.1.04.4 Evaluate the advantages and limitations of the pathologist in criminal investigations
AQ1.1.04.5 Evaluate the effectiveness of the role of the pathologist in criminal investigations.
AC1.1.05 To know and understand the role of the crown prosecution service in criminal investigations
To show knowledge, describe the role of the crown prosecution service in criminal investigations
[PE]
To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples of cases that demonstrate the
effectiveness of the crown prosecution service [A]
To analyse, consider the effectiveness of the crown prosecution service in relation with regards
to funding/cost/availability and training/recruitment/expertise [C]
To evaluate, evaluate the advantages and limitations of the crown prosecution service in criminal
investigations [E]
AC1.1.05 The Crown Prosecution Service / The Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) is an
independent prosecution service operating across England and Wales in 14 regional offices. It
uses a panel of over 2,000 solicitors and barristers along with other staff to handle around half a
million criminal cases each year. The CPS has several functions in relation to criminal cases:• It
advises the police on cases for possible prosecution and reviews cases that they submit to it to
decide whether to prosecute. Most of this is done through CPS Direct, an on-call advice service
that police can access 24/7.• It makes decisions about prosecuting cases by applying tests to see
if there is sufficient evidence for a realistic prospect of conviction and to decide whether
prosecution would be in the public interest. In all more serious cases, such as rape or murder, it is
the CPS that decides whether the police will charge the suspect. Where the decision is made to
prosecute, the CPS decides what the charge will be.• It prepares cases for court hearings,
collecting evidence from the police and disclosing material to the defence.• It presents the
prosecution case in court, using its own Crown Prosecutors, as well as self-employed barristers
for more complicated cases.• It has specialist divisions dealing with prosecutions that require
specialist knowledge, such as serious organised crime, terrorism and complex frauds.
AC1.1.05.01 CPS Strengths and Limitations / Strengths • Before the CPS was set up in 1986, the
police were responsible for investigating, charging and prosecuting cases. Combining these roles
led to the risk of bias. Because the CPS independently assesses the evidence and decides whether
or not to prosecute, it prevents the police from using the prosecution system to victimise
particular individuals. • Having a national organisation responsible for prosecutions means justice
is more equal — there is more consistency between different parts of the country in deciding
whether to prosecute cases. Limitations • The CPS has the power to reject a police request to
prosecute someone — for example because the evidence police have gathered is inadequate.
This can result in a difficult relationship at times. However, it means that prosecutions are less
likely to fail due to inadequate investigation by the police. • The CPS has sometimes made serious
errors, for example in not reviewing the evidence thoroughly before prosecuting. This has
resulted in prosecutions failing, such as the murder of Damilola Taylor, where the case collapsed
after the evidence of a key witness was dismissed when she was shown to have lied. The CPS had
failed to check her account prior to trial. • Funding and staffing cuts in recent years have meant a
growing burden of cases.
AC1.1.05.01 ®Double Bubble / Police Officer vs. Crown Prosecution Service
AC1.1.05.02 ®Commandagons / Crown Prosecution Service

5
 AC1.1.05.03 ®Conceptagons / Police Officer, Crime Scene Investigator, Forensic Scientist,
Pathologist, Crown Prosecution Service
AQ1.1.05.1 Describe the role of the Crown Prosecution Service in criminal investigations
AQ1.1.05.2 Outline examples of cases that demonstrate the effectiveness of the Crown
Prosecution Service
AQ1.1.05.3 Assess the effectiveness of the Crown Prosecution Service in relation with regards to
funding/cost/availability and training/recruitment/expertise
AQ1.1.05.4 Evaluate the advantages and limitations of the Crown Prosecution Service in criminal
investigations
AQ1.1.05.5 Evaluate the effectiveness of the role of the Crown Prosecution Service in criminal
investigations.
AC1.2 Assess the usefulness of investigative techniques in criminal investigations
Will be able to assess the usefulness of the following investigative techniques in criminal investigations:
Will be able to understand the range of techniques and assess their effectiveness in the following types of
criminal investigations:
AC1.2.01 To know and understand the usefulness of forensic techniques in criminal investigations
To show knowledge, describe the use of forensic techniques in criminal investigations [PE]
To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples of when forensic techniques are used in a
range of situations and types of crimes [A]
To analyse, explain how forensic techniques are used in criminal investigations
To evaluate, assess the usefulness of forensic techniques in criminal investigations [E]
AC1.2.01 Forensic Techniques / Refers to the techniques as tests that are used to assist in
investigating crime. Can include biological materials (blood, semen, skin flakes and hair),
fingerprints, footprints, weapons, fibres and threads from clothing, paint flakes and much more.
It is essential that investigators wear appropriate clothing to avoid contaminating the evidence.
AC1.2.01.01 Strengths and Limitations of Forensic Techniques / Strengths: Everybody’s DNA is
unique, this allows for high reliability. It can help prove innocence, as well as guilt. Has led to
some successful convictions. Limitations: Cross-contamination is possible. The perpetrator must
be on the National DNA database. Trace amounts might falsely imprison someone. Financially
expensive. BUT now only around £20
AC1.2.01.01 ®Commandagons / Forensic Techniques
AQ1.2.01.1 Describe the use of forensic techniques in criminal investigations
AQ1.2.01.2 Outline examples of when forensic techniques are used in a range of situations and
types of crime
AQ1.2.01.3 Explain how and why forensic techniques are used in criminal investigations
AQ1.2.01.4 Assess the usefulness of forensic techniques in criminal investigations
AQ1.2.01.5 Evaluate the usefulness of forensic techniques in criminal investigations.
AC1.2.02 To know and understand the usefulness of surveillance techniques in criminal investigations
To show knowledge, describe the use of surveillance techniques in criminal investigations [PE]
To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples of when forensic techniques are used in a
range of situations and types of crimes [A]
To analyse, explain how surveillance techniques are used in criminal investigations
To evaluate, assess the usefulness of surveillance techniques in criminal investigations [E]
AC1.2.02.01 CCTV / One of the first things an investigating officer will ask for. Police often use
CCTV footage in criminal investigations as it can give 24-hour coverage of a location, providing a
visual record of the crime and the perpetrator. In the 2011 London Riots, CCTV images were
released to the media alongside appeals to the public to report if they recognized anyone.
AC1.2.02.01 Covert surveillance and Covert Human Intelligence Sources / This can be done in
many ways: Attaching tracking devices to vehicles and using GPS to monitor their movements.
Intercepting mail and tapping phones. Static surveillance from a fixed point. E.g. a unmarked,
parked police vehicle. Highly trained mobile surveillance teams. Covert Human Intelligence
Sources (CHIS)- individuals that maintain a relationship with the target in order to covertly gain
information.
AC1.2.02.03 Surveillance Limitations / Limitations Very strict rules due to it infringing on
somebody’s civil liberties. Ethics? Real Life Cases Colin Stagg- police used an undercover female
officer in order to form a relationship with Colin. He didn’t confess, but police used evidence from

6
 the operation against him. The Judge rules this inadmissible. Been cases of police officers using
dead babies identities to create a cover story complete with birth records.
AC1.2.01.01 ®Commandagons / Forensic Techniques
AC1.2.01.02 ®Double Bubble / Forensic vs. Surveillance
AQ1.2.02.1 Describe the use of surveillance techniques in criminal investigations
AQ1.2.02.2 Outline examples of when surveillance techniques are used in a range of situations
and types of crime
AQ1.2.02.3 Explain how and why surveillance techniques are used in criminal investigations
AQ1.2.02.4 Assess the usefulness of surveillance techniques in criminal investigations
AQ1.2.02.5 Evaluate the usefulness of surveillance techniques in criminal investigations.
AC1.2.03 To know and understand the usefulness of profiling techniques in criminal investigations
To show knowledge, describe the use of profiling techniques in criminal investigations [PE]
To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples of when profiling techniques are used in
a range of situations and types of crimes [A]
To analyse, explain how profiling techniques are used in criminal investigations
To evaluate, assess the usefulness of profiling techniques in criminal investigations [E]
AC1.2.03.01 Typological Profiling / Typological Profiling Aims to classify offenders into different
‘types’ with different characteristics based on how they behave at the crime scene. This profile
can be used by the police to help narrow down their search and predict future behaviour of the
offender. Originally developed in the 1970s in the USA by the FBI. Since then, further typologists
have been developed to classify rapists based on their behaviour during the crime. Evaluation
Information at the crime scene can be quite limited. Offenders personality, relationships and
motives might not help the police when finding them. Typology is based off of the FBIs sample of
36 convicted serial killers- this is not a large sample
AC1.2.03.02 Geographical Profiling / Offenders make choices about where to offend. These
choices are often based on what they do in their non-criminal behaviour in everyday life.
Geographical profiling aims to work back from the locations where offences take place to identify
where the offenders lives. It is based on two main principles: The least effort principle: given two
identically attractive targets, the offender will choose the one nearest to home. The buffer zone:
offenders don’t want to offend to close to their home, as they might be identified. Canter
identified two different patterns of offending: The marauder- their home or workplace is their
base and they commit their crimes close to this. Therefore, if we draw a circle through the
locations of the offences , we should expect the offenders home/work to be in the centre. The
commuter- travels away from their home area to offend in another area. Once there, their
offences seem to cluster around a main road or station.
AC1.2.03.03 Investigative Psychology Profiling / Associated with David Canter and brings in ideas
from Geographical profiling. Also brings in the following ideas: Offender consistency principle-
the offenders behaviour during a crime is consistent with their non-offending behaviour. Criminal
narrative themes- criminals base their offending behaviour on criminal narrative themes, or
personal life stories that give their crime meaning. For example, the elevated hero sees their
crime as brave. Strengths It uses concepts that can be tested in practice, such as the offender
consistency principle. Uses large scale data on patterns of offending and narrative themes to
understand offenders motives. Limitations Depends on the quality of the data- if the data is
inaccurate. The predictions will be too.
AC1.2.03.04 Strengths and Limitations of Profiling / Strengths Has led to some successful
convictions for a range of crimes. Limitations Profilers need to be sure that the crimes are all
committed by the same person- this can be difficult if the offenders mode of offending begins to
change. Any crimes that have been missed won’t be accounted for- the centre therefore might be
in the wrong place.
AC1.2.02.01 ®Commandagons / Profiling Techniques
AC1.2.03.02 ®Evaluation Line / Typological, Geographical, Investigative Psychology
AC1.2.03.03 ®Double Bubble / Forensic vs. Profiling
AQ1.2.03.1 Describe the use of profiling techniques in criminal investigations
AQ1.2.03.2 Outline examples of when profiling techniques are used in a range of situations and
types of crime
AQ1.2.03.3 Explain how and why profiling techniques are used in criminal investigations
AQ1.2.03.4 Assess the usefulness of profiling techniques in criminal investigations

7
 AQ1.2.03.5 Evaluate the usefulness of profiling techniques in criminal investigations.
AC1.2.04 To know and understand the usefulness of intelligence databases in criminal investigations
To show knowledge, describe the use of intelligence databases in criminal investigations [PE]
To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples of when intelligence databases are used
in a range of situations and types of crimes [A]
To analyse, explain how intelligence databases are used in criminal investigations
To evaluate, assess the usefulness of intelligence databases in criminal investigations [E]
AC1.2.04 Intelligence Databases / The term intelligence refers to information that has been
obtained from many sources. This information may be stored in a variety of different databases
that police officers can have access too: The Police National Database: contains intelligence
about suspected criminal activity as well as data on the PNC. It holds over 3.5 billion searchable
records. The Police National Computer (PNC): contains several separate databases. Stores details
of over 12 million people/s arrests, convictions and police cautions, with links to biometric
databases for fingerprints. Vehicle registration data and information on 48 million people who
hold a driving licence. Information on missing or wanted persons. The gangs matrix and
International databases
AC1.2.04.01 ®Commandagons / Intelligence Databases
AC1.2.04.02 ®Double Bubble / Databases vs. Profiling
AQ1.2.04.1 Describe the use of intelligence databases in criminal investigations
AQ1.2.04.2 Outline examples of when intelligence databases are used in a range of situations and
types of crime
AQ1.2.04.3 Explain how and why intelligence databases are used in criminal investigations
AQ1.2.04.4 Assess the usefulness of intelligence databases in criminal investigations
AQ1.2.04.5 Evaluate the usefulness of intelligence databases in criminal investigations.
AC1.2.05 To know and understand the usefulness of interviews in criminal investigations
To show knowledge, describe the use of interviews in criminal investigations [PE]
To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples of when interviews are used in a range of
situations and types of crimes [A]
To analyse, explain how interviews are used in criminal investigations
To evaluate, assess the usefulness of interviews in criminal investigations [E]
AC1.2.05.01 Eyewitness Testimony / Evidence given by a witness to a crime. Seen by a jury as
highly reliable- Delvin committee in 1976 found that juries convicted in 74% of cases where line-
up identification was the only prosecution evidence. Innocence project- found that in over 70% of
352 wrongful convictions that were later overturned due to DNA evidence, EWT played a role in
convicting the innocent person.
AC1.2.05.02 Expert Witnesses Interviews are conducted after the expert has submitted a report-
this allows the police to ask questions for clarification and develop their lines of enquiry. These
are the only people that can give their opinion in court. If they get it wrong however ,this can
lead to a miscarriage of justice.
AC1.2.04.01 ®Commandagons / Intelligence Databases
AC1.2.04.02 ®Double Bubble / Databases vs. Profiling
AC1.2.04.03 ®Conceptagons / Forensic, Surveillance, Profiling, Databases, Interviews
AC1.2.04.03 ®Evaluation Line / Forensic, Surveillance, Profiling, Databases, Interviews
AQ1.2.05.1 Describe the use of interviews in criminal investigations
AQ1.2.05.2 Outline examples of when interviews are used in a range of situations and types of
crime
AQ1.2.05.3 Explain how and why interviews are used in criminal investigations
AQ1.2.05.4 Assess the usefulness of interviews in criminal investigations
AQ1.2.05.5 Evaluate the usefulness of interviews in criminal investigations.
AC1.3 Explain how evidence is processed
Will be able to explain how evidence is processed. Understand the following types of evidence:
Will be able to understand how evidence is processed, including:
AC1.3.01 To know and understand how physical evidence is processed
To show knowledge, describe what physical evidence is [PE]
To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples of how physical evidence is processed [A]
To analyse, explain how physical evidence is processed including collection, transfer, storage,
analysis and the personnel involved [C]

8
 To evaluate, assess the role of physical evidence in criminal investigations [E]
AC1.3.01 Physical Evidence / Collecting, transferring and storing physical evidence. Most
contamination occurs by handing items without gloves, coughing or sneezing on them. In serious
crimes, investigators wear protective clothing when collecting materials, to avoid contamination
and sometimes to protect themselves from hazardous substances. This includes a mask, a
hooded scene suit, overshoes and two pairs of gloves. Bodily fluids and tissues Bodily fluids such
as blood, semen and saliva, and tissue such as skin flakes and hairs, can provide important
identification evidence, because DNA can be extracted from them and compared with control
samples from suspects to see if there is a match which would put the suspect at the crime scene.
These include the following: Blood (air-dry, fabric not folded, carefully packaged), Semen (air-dry,
paper bag, polythene bag, sealed, sexual assault should be examined as soon as possible), Saliva
(bites swabbed), Skin flakes, Hairs (DNA from the root, sealed bag), finger prints, impressions
from biting, shoeprints and tyre marks
AC1.3.01.01 ®Commandagons / Physical Evidence
AC1.3.01.02 ®Evaluation Line / Bodily fluids, Trace, Impression
AQ1.3.01.1 Describe what physical evidence is in criminal investigations
AQ1.3.01.2 Outline examples of how physical evidence is processed
AQ1.3.01.3 Explain how and why physical evidence is processed
AQ1.3.01.4 Assess the role of physical evidence in criminal investigations
AQ1.3.01.5 Explain how physical evidence is processed including collection, transfer, storage,
analysis and the personnel involved.
AC1.3.02 To know and understand how physical evidence is processed
To show knowledge, describe what testimonial evidence is [PE]
To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples of how testimonial evidence is processed
[A]
To analyse, explain how testimonial evidence is processed including collection, transfer, storage,
analysis and the personnel involved
To evaluate, assess the role of testimonial evidence in criminal investigations [E]
AC1.3.02 Testimonial Evidence / This is a written or spoken statement given to the court by a
witness. It can be given to support either the prosecution or the defence’s case. Before the case
goes to court, prosecution and defence must disclose any written statements that they have
taken. Each side must also provide the other side with a list of the witnesses they intend to call to
give evidence. Any evidence that is agreed and accepted as true by both sides can sometimes be
read out in court without the witness being present, but normally they must attend in person to
testify. Witnesses testify from the witness box, they can then be cross-examined by the opposing
side to test their evidence. Defendants cannot be forced to testify. Vulnerable or intimidated
witnesses can give evidence via a video link rather than attending court in person. Rules of
evidence lay down what kinds of things can and cannot be given in evidence.
AC1.3.02.01 Inadmissible Testimonial Evidence / Some evidence may not be admissible
(allowable) and must not be considered in reaching a verdict. This includes: Hearsay evidence:
repeating a rumour they have heard. Forced confession: where violence or threats have been
used to extract a confession. Entrapment: where police have tried to trick the defendant into
committing or confessing to a crime.
AC1.3.02.01 ®Commandagons / Physical Evidence
AC1.3.02.02 ®Evaluation Line / Trace, Impression, Bodily Fluids, Testimonial, Finger Prints
AC1.3.02.02 ®Conceptagons / Trace, Impression, Bodily Fluids, Testimonial, Finger Prints
AQ1.3.02.1 Describe what physical evidence is in criminal investigations
AQ1.3.02.2 Outline examples of how physical evidence is processed
AQ1.3.02.3 Explain how and why physical evidence is processed
AQ1.3.02.4 Assess the role of physical evidence in criminal investigations
AQ1.3.02.5 Explain how testimonial evidence is processed including collection, analysis and the
personnel involved.
AC1.4 Examine the rights of individuals in criminal investigations
Will be able to examine the rights of the following individuals in criminal investigations:
Will be able to consider the rights of all individuals from investigation through to appeal.
AC1.4.01 To know and understand the rights of suspects from investigation through to appeal
To show knowledge, describe what a suspect is [PE]

9
 To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples that highlight suspects rights [A]
To analyse, examine the rights of suspects from investigation through to appeal
To evaluate, evaluate the ethical considerations of suspects rights [E]
AC1.4.01.01 Stop and Account or Search / The police have certain powers to deal with suspects,
including rights to stop and search and to arrest a person. Stop and account: a police officer has
the right to ask you to account for your actions, your presence in a public place, and your
possession of a particular item Stop and search: Police have 19 different powers of stop and
search, e.g. for drugs, firearms and stolen goods, and to prevent acts of terrorism. Police also
have certain powers to search vehicles and premises.
AC1.4.01.01 Police Power of Arrest / Under section 24 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act
1984, police may lawfully arrest you as a suspect without a warrant from a court if, You have
been involved, attempted to be involved or are suspected of being involved in committing an
offence; and The officer has reasonable grounds to for believing the arrest is necessary, The
officer must tell you why you are being arrested, what you are being arrested for, and why the
arrest is necessary.
AC1.4.01.01 At the police station / If you are arrested, you will be taken to a police station,
where you will be handed over to the custody officer (an officer of the rank of sergeant or
above). You will be searched and then held in a cell. Your possessions will be looked after by the
custody officer.
AC1.4.01.01 Rights when being questioned / The police may question you about the crime you
are suspected of and you have a number of rights in this situation. The rights to silence- You don’t
have to answer the police’s questions, but this might harm you later on. Right to legal advice- You
have the right to free legal advice, including the right to have a solicitor present during
questioning. In serious cases, the police can make you wait for legal advice for up to 36 hours (48
for terrorism).
AC1.4.01.01 Finger prints, photographs and samples / The police have the right to take
photographs of you, as well as fingerprints and a DNA sample. They don’t need your permission
to do this, and can use reasonable force if necessary. The police need your permission and the
authority of a senior police officer to take blood or urine samples (except when taking them in
connection with drink or drug driving).
AC1.4.01.01 How long can you be held without charge / Police can hold you in custody for up to
24 hours. After that, they have to either charge you with a crime or release you. Serious crimes
can be held for 36 hours. After this, the police can detain you for a further 96 hours with the
approval of a magistrate. If arrested for a terrorist offence, this can be extended to 14 days. Bail-
they can temporarily release you on bail if there is not enough evidence to charge you. You will
have to return to the station for questioning when asked to. There might be conditions around
the bail.
AC1.4.01.01 Rights of Appeal / If you are convicted for an offence, you have certain rights of
appeal. These depend on two factors: The type of court- magistrates or crown. Whether you are
appealing against the conviction or the sentence. If you were tried in a magistrates court you can
automatically appeal for your sentence and your conviction (if you pleaded not guilty). If you
were tried in a Crown court, you have no automatic right to appeal (a judge decides whether to
allow it)
AC1.4.01.01 ®Conceptagons / Stop, Arrest and Held, Police Station, Questioned, Samples, Appeal
AQ1.4.01.1 Describe what a suspect is
AQ1.4.01.2 Outline examples that highlight suspects rights
AQ1.4.01.3 Examine the rights of suspects from investigation through to appeal
AQ1.4.01.4 Evaluate the ethical considerations of suspects rights
AQ1.4.01.5 Examine the rights of suspects in criminal investigations.
AC1.4.02 To know and understand the rights of victims from investigation through to appeal
To show knowledge, describe what a victim is [PE]
To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples that highlight victims' rights [A]
To analyse, examine the rights of victims from investigation through to appeal
To evaluate, evaluate the ethical considerations of victims' rights [E]
AC1.4.02.01 Victims' Rights / Victims of crime have rights in relation to criminal investigations
and court processes. They are set out in the Code of Practice for Victims of Crime. These rights
also apply to close relatives of someone who has died as a result of a crime.

10
 AC1.4.02.01 Rights when reporting a crime / When you report a crime, the police must give you
written confirmation, a crime reference number and contact details for the officer dealing with
your case. They must also: Tell you what will happen next and how often they will update you.
Assess what support you need and ask a victim support organization to contact you. Ask if you
want to write a Victim Personal Statement about how the crime has affected you.
AC1.4.02.01 Rights during the investigation / The police must give you updates and tell you
when the suspect is arrested or charged, set free or released on bail, or given a caution. If the
police drop the charge, they must also tell you. If you disagree then you can ask for a review. If
the police give information to the media to help with their investigation, they will normally ask
the victims permission first. In the cases of sexual assault or rape, it is against the law for anyone
to publish the name, photo or anything that could identify the victim.
AC1.4.02.01 Victims rights in court proceedings / Rights relating to trials: CPS must tell you when
and where the trial will be. If you have to give evidence, a Witness Care Officer will support you
before and during the trial. If the defendant is convicted, you may be able to read your Victim
Personal Statement to the court. After the trail, your Witness Care Officer must tell you the
verdict within 24 hours, what sentencing the offender gets, if found guilty and if the offender
appeals. You can claim compensation from the Criminal Injuries Compensation Authority if the
crime was violent. You could meet the offender through a restorative justice scheme.
AC1.4.02.01 Rights of vulnerable victims / You are also entitled to extra support if you are the
victim of a serious crime (wounding, attempted murder, domestic abuse, sexual offences,
kidnapping, hate crime, human trafficking or terrorism). Vulnerable victims are entitled to receive
information more quickly, to be given specialist advice and –if a close relative- be assigned a
Family Liaison Officer
AC1.4.02.01 ®Conceptagons / Reporting, During the Investigation, Court
AC1.4.02.02 ®Double Bubble / Suspects vs. Victims
AQ1.4.02.1 Describe what a victim is
AQ1.4.02.2 Outline examples that highlight victims' rights
AQ1.4.02.3 Examine the rights of victims' from investigation through to appeal
AQ1.4.02.4 Evaluate the ethical considerations of victims' rights
AQ1.4.02.5 Examine the rights of victims in criminal investigations.
AC1.4.03 To know and understand the rights of witnesses from investigation through to appeal
To show knowledge, describe what a witness is [PE]
To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples that highlight witnesses' rights [A]
To analyse, examine the rights of witnesses from investigation through to appeal
To evaluate, evaluate the ethical considerations of witnesses rights [E]
AC1.4.03.01 Witness Rights / The Witness Charter sets out standards of care for witnesses that
should be provided by the police, the Crown Prosecution Service, court staff, the Witness Service
and defence lawyers. These standards include the following: Witnesses will have a main point of
contact throughout the process who will keep them informed of the progress of the case.
Measures to ensure that the court is a safe environment and that prosecution and defence
witnesses wait in separate areas. Information about the court process in advance of giving
evidence so witnesses know what to expect. Prosecution witnesses will be informed of any
appeal against conviction or sentence.
AC1.4.03.02 Vulnerable and intimidated witnesses / Intimidated witnesses include victims of
sexual offence or human trafficking, witnesses to gun or knife crimes, and witnesses whose
evidence is likely to be affected by fear or distress about testifying in court. Special measures for
vulnerable and intimidated witnesses: Giving evidence from behind a screen or via live video link,
or video recording their statement to be played in court later. Judges and Lawyers removing their
wigs and gowns to create a less intimidating atmosphere. Help from a communications specialist
for witnesses who have difficulty understanding questions in police interviews or in court.
AC1.4.03.01 ®Double Bubble / Witness vs. Victims
AQ1.4.03.1 Describe what a witness is
AQ1.4.03.2 Outline examples that highlight witnesses rights
AQ1.4.03.3 Examine the rights of witnesses from investigation through to appeal
AQ1.4.03.4 Evaluate the ethical considerations of witnesses' rights
AQ1.4.03.5 Examine the rights of witnesses in criminal investigations.
AC2.1 Explain the requirements of the Crown Prosecution Service for the prosecution of suspects

11
 Will be able to explain the requirements of the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) for prosecuting
suspects, including:
Will be able to understand the role of the CPS. Explain the evidential and public interest tests in
the decision to prosecute.
AC2.1.01 To know and understand the requirements of the Crown Prosecution Service
To show knowledge, describe the role of the CPS [PE]
To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples that highlight the requirements of the
Crown Prosecution Service [A]
To analyse, explain the requirements of the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) for prosecuting
suspects, including the charging role, the Prosecution of Offences Act 1985 and the Full Code Test
To evaluate, evaluate how effective the CPS is [E]
AC2.1.01 The Charging Role / Advise the police in their investigations about lines of inquiry and
about what evidence might be required to build a case. Independently assesses the evidence
submitted by the police and decides whether to prosecute, and if so, what charges should be
brought. In order to make their decision about whether to prosecute, the CPS applies tests that
are laid down in the Code for Crown Prosecutors.
AC2.1.02 The Full Code Test / The evidential test Is there enough evidence to get a realistic
conviction against a suspect? Is the evidence admissible? E.g could it be rules out as hearsay? Is
the evidence reliable? E.g are witnesses truthful? Is the evidence credible? (believable). The
public interest test Is a prosecution in the public interest? Not all questions are relevant in every
case, and the weight attached to each one differs.
How serious is the offence? What is the suspects level of culpability. E.g what was there level of
involvement, was the offence planned, did they benefit? Any previous convictions? What harm
has the victim suffered? The more vulnerable the victim, the more likely that a prosecution is
required. For example, if the suspect is in a position of authority? Suspects age and maturity-
Younger suspects are less likely to be punished. If under 18, is it beneficial to give them a criminal
conviction? What is the impact on the community? Is the prosecution a proportionate response?
E.g. in complex cases it might be better to only prosecute the ringleaders. Do sources of
information require protecting?
AC2.1.03 The Threshold Test / In some cases, a suspect may still be charged even if the evidence
requirements of the Full Code Test cannot be met. In these cases the Threshold test must be
applied. 5 conditions, all of which must be met before a suspect can be charged: There must be
reasonable grounds to believe the person has committed the offence. There must be reasonable
grounds to believe further evidence can be obtained that will provide a realistic prospect of
conviction. The crime is serious enough to justify charging the suspect immediately. There must
be substantial grounds to object to bail – e.g. a suspect who is likely to interfere with witnesses. It
must be in the public interest to charge the suspect
AC2.1.01 ®Double Bubble / Evidential Test vs. Public Interest Test
AQ2.1.01 Explain the requirement of the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) for prosecuting
suspects
AC2.2 Describe trial processes
Describe the following trial processes:
Have knowledge of each of the stages of the trial process, including the roles of the personnel
involved.
AC2.2.01 To know and understand the pre-trial process
To show knowledge, describe the pre-trial process [PE]
To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples of aspects of the pre-trial process [A]
To analyse, explain the trial process including Pre-trial, Plea bargaining, Bail [C]
To evaluate, evaluate how effective the pre-trial process is [E]
AC2.2.01 Offences / There are 3 types of criminal offence in terms of their seriousness and where
they can be tried: Indictable offence- serious crimes such as murder, treason, rape, robbery and
GBH. These must be tried in a crown court, although the first hearing will be in a magistrates
court. Summary offence- less serious cases such as many motoring offences and assaults without
injury. These are usually tried in a magistrates’ court. Triable either way offences (‘hybrid
offences’)- theft, fraud, burglary, handling stolen goods, assault (ABH) and criminal damage.
These can be tried in either a magistrates or a crown court.

12
 AC2.2.02 Plea / Before a trial begins, the defendant will be read out the charge and asked to
plead guilty or not guilty. Guilty pleas- magistrates hear evidence of aggravating and mitigating
factors. They then pass sentence immediately or adjourn the case for reports before sentencing
at a later date. If the offence is too serious, it will be sent to the Crown Court for sentencing. For
not guilty pleas- magistrate must make a decision about reports, legal aid and bail before the
trial can go ahead. Plea Bargaining This is an agreement between the prosecutor and defendant,
where the defendant agrees to plead guilty in return for some concession from the prosecutor.
This must be struck be. fore the case goes to court. These are charge bargaining, count bargaining
and sentence bargaining. Critics argue that unregulated plea bargaining can apply undue
pressure to defendants and undermine their right to a fair trial.
AC2.2.03 Legal Aid / Legal aid exists to enable individuals that would not be able to afford to pay
for a lawyer, to have access to one
AC2.2.04 Bail / This is the temporary release of an accused person whilst they are awaiting trial.
Everyone has the right to bail, ‘innocent until proven guilty’. Two types of bail: Unconditional
bail- the court imposes no conditions, except to attend court as required. Conditional bail- the
court imposes conditions that the offender must agree to. E.g. report to a police station every
day, not contact certain persons, abide by a curfew. If a court refuses bail or the defendant
breaches conditions, they may be remanded in custody until their trail. The court may refuse bail.
AC2.2.01 ®Double Bubble / Indictable vs. Summary
AC2.2.02 ®Double Bubble / Conditional Bail vs. Unconditional Bail
AC2.2.03 ®Double Bubble / Guilty Plea vs. Not Guilty Plea
AQ2.2.01 Describe the trial process [4] (pre-trial)
AC2.2.01 To know and understand the role of courts in the trial process
To show knowledge, describe the trial process in court [PE]
To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples of aspects of the trial process in court [A]
To analyse, explain the trial process including Roles, Courts, Appeals [C]
To evaluate, evaluate how effective the trial process is [E]
If a court refuses bail or the defendant breaches conditions, they may be remanded in custody
until their trail. The court may refuse bail.
AC2.2.05 Courts / The majority of cases are first heard in the Magistrates court, and over 95% of
them are decided there. These are local courts that deal with the least serious offences- if they
are serious then they must be passed to the crown court. Usually 3 magistrates who are lay-
people (members of the local community without legal qualifications). They are assisted by a
clerk of the court who is legally qualified. The magistrates decide if the accused is guilty or not-
guilty, they can impose fines of up to £5,000 and/or 6 months in prison (this extends to £10,000
or 12 months if more than 1 offence). Crown Court sits in around 90 centres around the country
and deals with: Indictable offences, e.g. murder, rape and robbery. Triable-either-way offences.
Appeals from the magistrates court. Will include a jury who are 12 members of the public. Jury’s
role is to listen to all the evidence and to both arguments. They may examine physical evidence
and take notes, ask questions. They retire to a jurors room to consider their verdict in secret.
They are normally expected to produce a unanimous verdict, but the judge may accept a majority
(10-2) verdict. The Judge ensures the trial is fair and protects the defendant’s human rights.
Advise the jury on points of law, court procedure and their duties. Acts as the referee between
the defence and prosecution. Pass the sentence is the accused is found guilty. If there is a danger
of jurors being bribed or intimidated, the Criminal Justice Act 2003 permits a judge to try a case
without a jury
AC2.2.06 Appeals / If you are convicted of an offence, your right to appeal depends on: The type
of court that convicted you- Magistrates court or Crown court and whether your appeal is against
your conviction or just your sentence. If you were convicted in a magistrates court, you have two
automatic rights of appeal: Against your conviction (if you pleaded not guilty) and against your
sentence. You must appeal within 21 days of being sentenced. Appeals against the Crown Court
verdicts are handled by the Court of Appeal (Criminal Division). There is no automatic right of
appeal- a judge will decide whether to allow it or not. You must seek leave to appeal within 28
days. The only ground for appeal is that the conviction was unsafe. Appeals to the Supreme Court
which is the highest court in the legal system. Leave is required to appeal- there is no automatic
right. Normally only hears cases where a point of law of general public importance is at stake
AC2.2.04 ®Double Bubble / Magistrate vs. Crown

13
 AC2.2.05 ®Conceptagons / Offences, Plea, Legal Aid, Bail, Courts, Appeals
AQ2.2.02 Describe the trial process [4] (courts)
AC2.3 Understand rules in relation to the use of evidence in criminal cases
Will show detailed understanding of the following rules in relation to the use of evidence in
criminal cases:
Will understand how evidence is used in court.
AC2.3.01 To know and understand the rules in relation to the use of evidence in criminal cases
To show knowledge, describe the rules in relation to the use of evidence in criminal cases [PE]
To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples of application of these rules [A]
To analyse, explain how evidence is used in court [C]
To evaluate, evaluate how effective the rules are in relation to the use of evidence [E]
AC2.3.01 Relevance and Admissibility / How true is the evidence: Credible- does the court
believe that the witness was telling the truth? If so, were there any other prevailing conditions
that may have made it impossible for the witness to see clearly. Authentic- a document
presented in evidence may be forged. Accurate- is the evidence of an expert in fact supported by
the rest of the scientific community? E.g. Professor Sir Roy Meadow and his cot death statistics.
Relevance: The law makes a distinction between two types of fact in a trial: Facts in issue- the
matters in which are in dispute in a case and which the court have to decide about. E.g. DID David
beat Jack with a club? Relevant facts- facts that are needed in order to prove or disprove the facts
in issue. E.g. the presence of David’s fingerprints and Jack’s blood on the club. Admissibility of
Evidence: Not all evidence may be admissible in court. There are several types of evidence that
may not be allowed by the judge or magistrates: Illegally obtained evidence- this is obtained by
breaking the law or violating a person’s human rights. This would include evidence obtained in an
illegal search conducted without a warrant, and using torture or degrading treatments to obtain a
confession. Improperly obtained evidence- incudes the use of entrapment (deception). For
example, in the case of Colin Stagg. Can also apply in ‘sting’ operations where an undercover
officer poses as a criminal. The right to remain silent: The accused doesn’t have to prove their
innocence and so in theory doesn’t have to provide any evidence. However, the Criminal Justice
and Public Order Act 1994 allows the jury to draw inferences about a defendants guilt if they
remain silent in the following circumstances: Failure to answer police questions- when
questioned under caution, failure to answer can be used as evidence to infer the defendants
guilt. So too can failing to account for a particular object or their presence in a particular place.
Failure to testify in court- may be used to infer the defendants guilt, unless they can give a
reason for not doing so that they jury finds acceptable. Evidence of bad character The Criminal
Justice Act 2003 defines bad character as ‘evidence of or disposition towards misconduct’.
Misconduct includes previous convictions and cautions as well as things such as racism, bullying
and bad disciplinary record at work. Bad character evidence is only admitted under certain
circumstances, such as when it shows that the defendant has a tendency to lie. Character
evidence cannot be used in relation to non-defendants (such as victims, police officers,
witnesses). Feminists have criticized the tendency in rape cases for defence lawyers to introduce
evidence about the victims sexual history
AC2.3.02 Disclosure of Evidence / The Prosecutions Duty of Disclosure The prosecution has a
duty to: Notify the accused of all the evidence they intend to rely on. Make available to the
defence any unused material relevant to the case that they do not intend to present in court.
Unused materials include anything that might undermine the prosecutions own case or assist the
defence’s case. Prosecution: The number of cases where charges were dropped due to the
prosecutions failure to disclose has increased in recent years. E.g. Liam Allen in 2017, his rape
trial was halted when a computer disk emerged with evidence that the victim had pestered him
for casual sex. The police had not disclosed this disk to the defence. Sometimes it is within the
public interest for certain materials not to be disclosed. For example, the identity of an
undercover police officer. Defence: The defence must also disclose certain information. Including
the nature of defence they intend to offer. They do not have to disclose unused material
AC2.3.03 Hearsay Rule and Exceptions / A statement that has been made by someone out of
court to a witness who is appearing in court, and which the witness wishes to rely on as evidence
of a fact. E.g. Joan is a witness in a murder trial. She testifies that Colin told her he had seen the
defendant shoot the victim. This is second hand evidence. Exceptions: Where all parties agree to
it (prosecution, defence and judge). Where the judge roles that it is in the interests of justice.

14
 Where common law permits it, e.g. in the case if publicly available information, reputation or
expert advice. Where a witness is absent abroad, dead, unfit to testify due to fear or to their
bodily or mental condition, or has disappeared
AC2.3.01 ®Conceptagons / Relevance, admissibility, Disclosure of evidence, Hearsay rule,
exceptions
AC2.3.02 ®Commandagons / Rules relating to evidence
AQ2.3.01 Explain the rules of evidence during a trial
AC2.4 Assess key influences affecting the outcomes of criminal cases
Assess the following key influences affecting the outcomes of criminal cases:
Understand the many factors that can influence the outcome of a trial and be able to assess their
impact
AC2.4.01 To know and understand the key influences affecting the outcomes of criminal cases
To show knowledge, describe the key influences affecting the outcomes of criminal cases [PE]
To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples how key influences affect the outcomes
[A]
To analyse, explain how key influences affect the outcomes of criminal cases [C]
To evaluate, evaluate the impact of factors that can influence the outcomes of a trial [E]
AC2.4.01 Evidence / Before the case can even go to court, the police must provide enough
evidence to the CPS
Once the case goes to court, the prosecution will present evidence and arguments against the
defendant. The defence will challenge the prosecution case, cross-examining the prosecutions
witnesses on their evidence.
By the end of the trial, the prosecution must have convinced the jury or magistrates that the
accused is guilty beyond reasonable doubt. Otherwise the defendant must be acquitted
AC2.4.01 Witnesses / Both parties are entitled to call witnesses to give evidence. This would
normally have to be done in court, with two exceptions: Where witness evidence is agreed by
both parties, it can be given in the form of a written statement. Vulnerable or intimidated
witnesses may be allowed to give their evidence by a live video link or video recording rather
than attending court. Or behind a screen in court to protect their identity. Can be called from
both sides to give evidence, they are then usually cross-examined by the alternative side. The
jurors or magistrates may give whatever weight to they chose to a witness. This might be
determined by the quality of the evidence. For example, if a witness has shown to have lied or if
their evidence seems inconsistent. Stereotyping Racial prejudices or gender stereotypes held by
jurors may influence how willing they are to believe a witness’s testimony. Kaufmann et al found
that jurors judgement of how credible they found a rape victims testimony depended strongly on
the emotions the victim showed when giving their evidence, and not the content. Brodsky found
that jurors’ view of the witness’ knowledge, likeability, trustworthiness and confidence were key
factors on choosing to decide whether to believe their evidence. Eyewitnesses Juries are often
ready to believe an eye-witness, yet their evidence is not always accurate. Innocence project
found that in over 70% of 352 wrongful convictions that were later overturned on the basis of
DNA evidence, EWT misidentification helped to convict an innocent person.
AC2.4.01 Experts / Expert witnesses are people with specialist knowledge that ordinary members
of the public do not have. In complex cases that rely heavily on technical evidence, the testimony
given by expert witnesses can be crucial in determining the outcome of the case. Jurors, who
have little specialist knowledge, rely heavily on expert witnesses. A danger is assuming that the
expert is always right, or misinterpreting what they say- this can lead to miscarriages of justices
like in the case of Sally Clark
AC2.4.01 Barristers and Legal Teams / Barristers and solicitors are both qualified lawyers. Work
in higher level courts where they act as advocates speaking on behalf of clients (either the
defence or the prosecution). Barristers will often be briefed on the case by a solicitor, who will
prepare relevant papers and gather evidence for the barrister to use in court. The quality of the
barristers can affect outcome of the case- a more eloquent, persuasive or charismatic barrister
might sway a jury’s decision.
AC2.4.01 Judiciary / Affecting the Verdict The judge is an expert in the law and in legal
procedure. In a trial, the judge has several key powers and responsibilities: To clarify the law for
the jury and direct them on how it is to be applied in the case they are trying. To rule on the
admissibility of evidence and on whether the line of questioning taken by the prosecution or

15
 defence is permissible. To sum up the main issues and evidence in the case for the jury before
they retire to consider their verdict. The judge also has the power to dismiss a case, order a re-
trial or even direct the jury to bring in a particular verdict. They jury does not have to follow their
direction. Juryless Trial Under the Criminal Justice Act 2003, a judge mat sit without a Jury:
Where there is a risk of jury tampering. In complex fraud cases, in which a jury might have
difficulty understanding, or in attending court for months on end. Judicial bias. Bias may arise for
several reasons: Class background- judges come mainly from the higher social classes. In 2019,
65% of senior judges were privately educated, and 75% had attended Cambridge or Oxford.
Gender- 65% of judges are male. They may lack sympathy in cases like rape. Carol Smart quotes
one male judge as saying ‘women who say no do not always mean no. If she doesn’t want it she
only has to keep her legs shut’
AC2.4.01 Politics / Laws have two main sources: Common law- comes from precedent, in which
courts follow rulings made by judges in previous cases. Statute law- made by Parliament passing
Acts or statutes. The government proposes legislation, which Parliament then debate and
sometimes amend. Parliament can therefore affect the criminal law and the outcome of cases in
three ways: Creating new offences- for example, following a media-inspired moral panic,
Parliament passed the Dangerous Dogs Act 1991, outlawing certain dog breeds. Abolishing
existing offences-parliament can repeal or amend existing laws that previously made something
a crime. Changing the penalties- for example, parliament abolished the death penalty for murder
in 1965. Public Interest Immunity Certificates Another way in which politics may influence the
outcome of criminal cases is through public-interest immunity (PII) certificates. These can be
issued by the government minister to prevent sensitive evidence such as official secrets being
revealed in court
AC2.4.01 The Media / Moral panic- this can affect sentencing and law creation. For example, the
London 2011 riots and the Dangerous Dogs Act 1991. Trial by media- High profile cases attract a
great deal of media interest. This may make a fair trial impossible. Cheryl Thomas found that
1/5th of jurors serving on a high-profile case said they found it difficult to disregard pre-trial
media coverage of the case.
AC2.4.01 ®Conceptagons / Evidence, Witnesses, Experts, Barristers and legal teams, Judiciary,
Politics, The media
AC2.4.02 ®Evaluation Line / The Most Significant Influence: Evidence, Witnesses, Experts,
Barristers and legal teams, Judiciary, Politics, The Media
AQ2.4.01 Assess key influences affecting the outcomes of criminal cases
AC2.5 Discuss the use of laypeople in criminal cases
Will be able to discuss the use of the following laypeople in criminal cases:
Will be able to discuss the strengths and weaknesses of both juries and lay magistrates
AC2.5.01 To know and understand the use of both juries and lay magistrates
To show knowledge, describe juries and magistrates [PE]
To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples how juries and magistrates are used in
criminal cases [A]
To analyse, explain how juries and magistrates are used in criminal cases [C]
To evaluate, evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of both juries and lay magistrates [E]
AC2.5.01 Juries / In most Crown Court trials, the verdict is normally decided by a jury of 12
laypeople. They hear the evidence and arguments put forward by the prosecution and defence.
They then retire from the courtroom and decide whether they find the defendant guilty, not
guilty or guilty of a less serious crime. If guilty- they must be convinced beyond reasonable doubt.
The jury’s decision is taken in secret and it is a criminal offence for anyone to question jurors
about their verdict or how they reach it. Jurors cannot disclose their deliberations.
Selected at random by a computer from the names on the electoral register. Those selected will
receive a summons to attend court and it normally lasts around 2 weeks. To be eligible: Be 18-75.
Be a citizen of the UK, Irish Republic or a British Commonwealth Country, Have resided in the UK,
the Channel Islands or the Isle of Man for 5 years, Not be disqualified (on bail, received a prison
sentence of 5+ years), Not exempt (medical grounds, have a holiday booked). Strengths. Jury
equity- free to decide a case based on what they feel is fair or morally right, regardless of the law
of how the judge might direct them. E.g. Kay Gilderdale. Justice is seen to be done- Juries make
the legal system more open because ordinary members of the public decide the outcome.
Impartiality and a fairer trial- Being tried by a randomly selected cross-section of society makes it

16
 more likely that individuals’ prejudices will be cancelled out. Secrecy- As deliberations are held in
private, it allows them to bring in verdicts that may be unpopular. Public confidence and
democracy- allows ordinary citizens to become involved in the administration of justice, rather
than leaving it all in the hands of the state. Weaknesses. Racial bias- Racial bias may result in
unjust verdicts (e.g. Kuldip Sander). Although research is conflicting, with studies saying that Race
doesn’t influence outcomes. Black, Asian and minority ethnic defendants are more likely than
White defendants to opt for a jury trial at Crown Court where possible. Media influence- Jurors
may be influenced by the media coverage E.g. Taylor and Taylor sisters. Jury tampering- Involves
attempts to pervert the course of justice by bribing or intimidating jurors, usually to acquit the
defendant. For example R v Twomey estimated costs of £6m to stop Jury tampering. Perverse
decisions- as the jury doesn’t have to listen to the law, this may lead to a perverse decision that
goes against the facts of the case. Secrecy- did the jury reach the verdict for the right reasons? As
they cannot enquire into the jury's decision this has led to a few unfair cases. E.g Connor and
Rollock whereby the jury didn’t want to spend long deciding who was guilty so they just
convicted both. The Criminal Justice and Courts Act 2015 makes it an offence for jurors to search
the internet for information relevant to the case, and an offence to disclose such information to
another juror. Judges also instruct jurors not to research their cases on the internet. Despite this,
Thomas found 12% of jurors admitted to looking on the internet for information about the cases
they were trying
AC2.5.01 Lay Magistrates / Unpaid, part-time volunteers who are members of their local
community. Receive training, but they are not legally qualified- but assisted by a legally qualified
clerk who advises them on law and procedure. Strengths. Democracy- allows local citizens to
become involved, Local knowledge- Magistrates serve in their local court and have knowledge of
the local area which they can apply to cases and reflect local needs and priorities, Representative
of the population- in 2019, 13% were from Black, Asian or minority ethnic backgrounds (the
figure for the population is 14%), 56% were women, Limited number of appeals-Only around
5,000 of the 1.5 million cases they deal with goes to appeal. Most are against the sentence, not
the verdict, Cost- as they are volunteers, they are an economical way of giving justice. One
estimate suggests that if paid professional judges had to be used, it would cost about £100m per
year. Weaknesses. Unrepresentative of the population- in terms of age and social class. Only 1%
are under 30 and the majority of them come from middle-class professional and managerial
backgrounds. Inconsistency in sentencing- trained to follow official Sentencing Guidelines,
despite this consistency doesn’t always happen. E.g. in 2010, Bristol magistrates handed out
custodial sentences 11.1% of the time, compared to Coventry which was 6.8%. Bias- Convict in
90% of all cases, critics have argued this is because they are case hardened and bias in favour of
believing the police and prosecution. Over-use of short prison sentences- short sentences are
costly and ineffective at rehabilitation
AC2.5.01 ®Evaluation Line / Strengths and Limitations of Juries
AC2.5.01 ®Evaluation Line / Strengths and Limitations of Lay Magistrates
AQ2.4.01 Discuss the use of lay people in criminal cases
AC3.1 Examine information for validity
Will be able to examine the following information for validity:
Examine the validity of the above information in terms of:
Will be able to show the ability to review the information sources and make judgements on the
suitability of the content they provide against a number of criteria
AC3.1.01 To know and understand how to review information sources and make judgements on the
suitability
To show knowledge, describe a range of sources of information and describe aspects of validity
[PE]
To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples how juries and magistrates are used in
criminal cases [A]
To analyse, explain how juries and magistrates are used in criminal cases [C]
To evaluate, evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of both juries and lay magistrates [E]
AC3.1.01 Evidence / Before the evidence can be used in court, the CPS requires the evidence to
be: Admissible, Reliable, Credible. This indicates that it may be valid, but it is not guaranteed. The
defence can demonstrate inconsistencies or shortcomings during cross-examination. Many
convictions from Eye-witness testimony have been overturned when more accurate and reliable

17
 evidence has come to light, such as DNA. Research by Psychologists such as Loftus et al shows
that witnesses memory and the evidence they give can be affected by many factors, such as:
Time when the event took place, Whether they discussed what they saw, How long ago they
witnessed it, They way questions about the event are put to them in court. Jurors may find that
an experts opinion is especially credible and give it great weight when reaching a verdict. If an
expert is biased or incompetent, this can undermine the validity of the information. E.g. Roy
Meadow who falsely gave information that there was a 1 in 73 million of 2 children in the same
household dying from SIDS. This led to Sally Clark being found guilty of murder
AC3.1.02 Trial Transcripts / A complete and exact written record of every word spoken in court
by the judge, lawyers, witnesses and defendant. Anyone can apply for a transcript of a court
hearing, however, the court can refuse to provide one. For example, if the hearing was
confidential.
AC3.1.03 Media Reports / Can be used for: Evidence that can be used in an appeal. E.g. a
defendant might show irregularities in. the proceedings or a biased summing up by the judge.
Parole boards use them to consider a prisoners application to be released on parole. Recognised
as highly valid sources of information. They are simply the words spoken in court as they were
spoken. Therefore, there is no need for someone to remember the words. Although the
recording system is highly reliable, there is always the small risk of malfunctioning. For example,
the noise of the court room interrupting. Newspapers tend to support one party or another. For
example, the sun tends to be very right-wing and support conservatives whereas the mirror is
left-wing and supports labour. Radio & TV have a duty to provide a balanced coverage of political
issues. For example, the BBC is required to treat controversial subjects with ‘due impartiality’
rather than taking sides. These differences mean that coverage of crime and justice issues varies
from one media source to another. For example, Right-wing papers tend to favour tougher laws
and more prison sentences to tackle crime. This can affect the validity of their coverage, with a
one-sided approach that selects information supporting this view. Moral Panics. The media
attracts an audience by providing a sensationalized coverage. For example: London Riots,
Dangerous Dogs, Mods & Rockers. This leads to a picture being painted that is not valid or
accurate. Tabloids often portray suspects in police investigations in a negative light. This can be
based off of what the offender looks and acts like. E.g. Sexually deviant & a creepy loner. These
are often reinforced with old and unflattering photos. E.g. Christopher Jefferies. Racial
stereotyping- Hall et al describe how the media in the 1970s portrayed ‘mugging’ as a black youth
problem
AC3.1.04 Judgements / Judgements made by courts are not always valid. This can be due to
several reasons, such as unintentional bias and unconscious stereotyping and incorrect rulings by
judges and coroners. Unbiased judgements is essential if defendants are to receive a fair trial, but
research shows that unconscious biases can influence the judgement of jurors. Race- Plant and
Peruche found that in a video-game simulation, US police officers were more likely to shoot
unarmed Black suspects than unarmed White ones. Other studies have shown trial judges and
death penalty lawyers have biases against Black people. Gender- Ellison & Munro found that in
simulations of rape trials, jurors used victims lack of signs of physical injury or emotional
response, and their delays in reporting the attack as reasons for bringing a not guilty verdict.
When a sudden death occurs due to the actions of public organisations such as the police, they
receive state-funded legal representation at the inquest. By contrast the bereaved families have
no automatic entitlement- making it hard for them to challenge the verdict if they feel that they
are unfair. E.g. Hillsborough On 15th April 1989, 96 Liverpool fans died and 766 were injured. The
crush occurred after the police march commander, Chief Superintendent David Duckenfield
ordered an exit gate to be opened. This led to a surge of supporters to enter the stadium. In the
weeks that followed- the police fed false stories to the media blaming hooliganism and drunken
football fans. The family of Mark Duggan sought to overturn the inquest verdict of lawful killing.
The police officer believed that Duggan was armed with a handgun. The coroner misdirected the
jury that they should only return a lawful killing verdict if they thought the officer honestly
believed that he was in danger. The coroner should have also added that the officers belief
should have been based on reasonable grounds.
AC3.1.05 Law Reports / Reports of decisions made by courts. They are published on a regular
basis- many of them weekly. Their purpose is to inform lawyers and judges about important
judgements in the courts and to prevent two courts reaching differing decisions on identical facts.

18
 Principle of precedent- only about 2% of cases are reported in law reports. These are the cases
that set a precedent (law down a new principle of law). This allows more consistency and fairness
between similar cases. Official law reports can be seen as valid, authoritative sources of
information on the law: Accuracy- accurate accounts of cases, with an exact transcript of the
judgement, and with key details of important cases written up in a standard format. Currency- Up
to date as reported on a weekly basis. Bias– objective, unbiased reports. Opinion- contain the
opinions of the court, since this is essential for other courts to understand the reasons for
judgement. They do not contain the opinions of the person who write the report
AC3.1.01 ®Evaluation Line / Evidence, Trial transcripts, Media reports, Judgements, Law reports
AQ3.1.01 Examine Information for Validity
AC3.2 Draw conclusions from information
Will be able to draw objective conclusions from information on criminal cases in relation to the
following:
Will be able to show the skills needed to analyse the information in order to draw conclusions
based on reasoned evidence.
AC3.2.01 To know and understand how to draw objective conclusions from information on criminal
cases
To show knowledge, describe a range of sources of information and describe aspects of validity
[PE]
To apply knowledge and show depth, outline examples how juries and magistrates are used in
criminal cases [A]
To analyse, explain how juries and magistrates are used in criminal cases [C]
To evaluate, evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of both juries and lay magistrates [E]
AC3.2.01 Just Verdicts / A just verdict is one that is deserved, lawful and proper. It is a verdict
that does justice to the facts of the case, finding the guilty, guilty and the innocent not guilty. The
jury does not always produce verdicts that are just. For example, the double jeopardy rule,
Stephen Lawrence. Double Jeopardy. This stopped prosecutors repeatedly prosecuting someone
until they were found guilty. Certain cases, it becomes clear that a not guilty verdict was unjust-
this can happen due to the offender admitting that they had done it, or new evidence coming to
light. Examples- Billy Dunlop & Stephen Lawrence. Jury equity or jury nullification Sometimes the
law seems unjust- therefore the jury deliberately reject the evidence and decide to acquit the
defendant. Juries sometimes do this when they believe the existing law or the punishment is
unfair. If juries consistently refuse to convict defendants for particular crimes, this sends a signal
to the law makers that the law needs changing. Famous cases of jury equity. Capital punishment-
in 19th century England, the theft of items worth more than 40 shillings carried the death
sentence. Juries were often unwilling to condemn petty thieves to death. They therefore brought
about not guilty verdicts. Runaway slaves- 1850s USA, juries in the Northern states protested the
Fugitive Slaves Act by acquitting defendants. Some of these cases lead to just verdicts, but can
also produce the opposite result. For example, in the US there have been cases of all white juries
refusing to convict members of the Ku Klux Klan.
AC3.2.02 Unsafe Verdicts and Miscarriage of Justice / This is where the innocence of the
appellant (the person making the appeal), is proven. This is usually down to new evidence. If the
court of appeal decides that a conviction is a miscarriage of justice, then there will not normally
be a need for a re-trial. Unsafe Convictions. Miscarriages of justice are one type of unsafe
verdict, however, wrongful convictions can also occur where it is not clear whether the accused
was innocent or guilty. In these cases, the conviction is usually overturned because there was
something wrong with the trial process. This led to the accused not receiving a fair trial and so we
cannot be sure beyond reasonable doubt. Defects in the trial procedure: Judge misdirecting the
jury, Judge making mistakes in their legal rulings, such as wrongly excluding or including
evidence, Failure to call relevant witnesses or evidence, Jury irregularities (tampering,
researching the case on the internet). EG Birmingham Six. 21st November 1974- two pubs were
bombed with the loss of 21 loves. 6 men were arrested, deprived of food and sleep, interrogated
for up to 12 hours, threatened and beaten and subjected to a mock execution. 4 of 6 of them
men signed confessions.
Charged with murder and found guilty.
AC3.2.01 Just Sentencing / An important part of a fair justice system is those who are found
guilty of a crime receive an appropriate sentence. When judges and magistrates sentence an

19
 offender, they are guided by two factors: The law- laying down the possible sentences that can
be given for a particular offence. The sentencing guidelines- where within the law the offenders
sentence should sit. E.g. was the crime pre-planned, harm to victim, previous convictions, age or
maturity, pleaded guilty or not.
AC3.2.01 ®Evaluation Line / Evidence, Trial transcripts, Media reports, Judgements, Law reports
AQ3.1.01 Do you believe Gareth Hughes' case was a safe verdict?

20
The Powerful Knowledge
The key information you need to recall. Use this to generate flashcards, mind maps or essay
paragraphs.
© idea
AC1.1.01.01 The Police Officer / A police officer is usually the first person called to a crime scene and
they have a vital role at the start of the investigation. Officers need to safeguard the public and attend
to anyone seriously injured at the scene, for example by calling an emergency ambulance. If possible,
they need to arrest the suspect, though in many cases they will have left the scene. However, as far as
the investigation is concerned, the police officer's key job is to secure the crime scene in order to
conserve the evidence. As far as possible they should avoid contaminating the scene by moving
furniture, opening doors etc.
Crime investigation in action - full length - YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W_5yU-
xK-Lw
Police at funding 'breaking point' | ITV News - YouTube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GQACXlMwG9g
AC1.1.01.02 The Police Detective and Specialists / Police detectives are officers who manage a range of
criminal investigations, particularly those involving complex or serious crimes. They work within
specialist departments such as the CID (criminal investigations department), fraud. drugs and firearms
squads, child protection department and Special Branch. Police forces also have other specialist units,
such as traffic and mounted police, air support and underwater search teams, and dog handler units.
Specialist Police Units (futurelearn.com) https://www.futurelearn.com/info/courses/how-to-
become-a-police-officer-in-england-and-wales/0/steps/247550
AC1.1.01.03 The Golden Hour is the name sometimes given to the period immediately after a crime is
discovered, when officers must act quickly to preserve the scene. It is also important to take initial
statements from witnesses and victims while events are still fresh in their minds.
Investigation process (college.police.uk) https://www.app.college.police.uk/app-
content/investigations/investigation-process/
AC1.1.01.04 Limitations of Police Officers The police have been criticised for sometimes failing to
secure crime scenes and preserve evidence. and mote generally for failure to investigate certain crimes,
for example domestic abuse or hate crimes such as racist attacks. Such failures can be due to
incompetence in handling evidence or discriminatory attitudes of individual officers. It can also be due
to system-level failings such as the institutional racism in the Metropolitan Police that was identified in
the Macpherson Report into their investigation of the murder of Stephen Lawrence. Among other
matters. the report criticised the force for its scene of crime procedures and for the failure to give first
aid to Stephen at the scene.
Stephen Lawrence - What happened? What went wrong? | BBC - YouTube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JruFrZtutkY
AC1.1.02.01 The Crime Scene Investigator / Crime scene investigators or CSIs are also known in some
police forces as scenes of crime officers (SOCOs). They are usually civilians rather than police officers.
CSIs undergo specialist training and many have a science degree. The largest forces employ dozens of
CSIs, who provide a 24/7 on-call service. The CSIs role is to collect and process evidence from crime
scenes, as well as from post mortems and accidents. A key responsibility is to preserve evidence in an
uncontaminated condition, since contamination means that it will be inadmissible in court. Their main
activities include the following: Taking charge of the crime scene, liaising with police to find out what
evidence is required from the scene and deciding how best to obtain it., Photographing crime scenes,
items and people, such as tyre marks shoeprints, weapons, injuries, victims and suspects. Recovering
physical or biological evidence from crime scenes, including fingerprints, gunshot and explosives
residue, clothing fibres, hairs, bodily fluids and DNA. Packaging, storing and documenting the material
recovered from crime scenes. Attending post mortem examinations of suspicious deaths. Advising
police investigators on the physical evidence, photography and samples for laboratory analysis. Giving
evidence in court.
Scenes of Crime Officer - YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=467aWZEtCmI

21
 AC1.1.02.02 Strengths and Limitations CSIs may gather evidence that conclusively links suspects to
crime scenes and victims. The evidence may also prove conclusively that a suspect is in fact innocent,
e.g. when their fingerprints do not match those found by the CSI at the crime scene. Limitations The
work requires specialist skills (such as forensic photography), as well as patience, meticulous care and
attention to detail. Failure to collect and record evidence correctly, or allowing it to become
contaminated, can lead to a guilty person going free or an innocent one being convicted. The forensic
samples that CSIs handle may put their health or safety at risk. These include blood and other body
fluids, hazardous chemicals, explosives and incendiary devices, firearms and ammunition, knives and
hypodermic syringes. The work may be stressful and emotionally demanding. This can lead to burn-out
and people leaving the profession, resulting in staff shortages.
AC1.1.03 The Forensic Scientist / Forensic science involves applying scientific knowledge to crime and
the legal system. Forensic scientists use their scientific knowledge and expertise to analyse and
interpret evidence that has been recovered from the crime scene. For example, they may analyse
samples of blood or other bodily fluids to extract DNA and then compare these with a 'control sample'
taken from a suspect to see if they match. They then produce a report of their findings and
interpretations for the court. Forensic scientists generally specialise in particular areas, such as DNA
analysis. Other specialisms include the analysis of fires (in arson investigations), toxicology (poisons and
drugs), computing, psychology and forensic anthropology, which may involve analysis of human remains
found in mass graves, for example as a result of war crimes.
Forensics The Real CSI - Series 2 Episode 2 BBC Documentary 2021 - YouTube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PD3Z16fJb08
AC1.1.03.01 Forensic Scientist Strengths and Limitations / Strengths The special expertise of forensic
scientists may be able to identify and interpret evidence that proves a suspect's guilt or innocence. Their
expertise may be essential in complex cases where the criminal also has specialist knowledge or skills.
Limitations Forensic scientists are highly qualified and their services are expensive. Contamination of
evidence can occur when it is being examined by scientists, as in the case of Adam Scott, who spent five
months on remand in 2011-12 charged with rape. His DNA sample, originally taken by police as a result
of a spitting incident in Exeter, became mixed up with genetic material taken from a rape victim in
Manchester. Forensic experts may disagree. For example, experts called by the defence may contradict
those called by the prosecution. The court lacks specialist knowledge and may be unable to evaluate
which side is right. If an expert deliberately or accidentally misleads the court, this can result in a
miscarriage of justice. At the trial of Sally Clark in 1999 for the murder of her two baby sons, an expert
witness, the paediatrician Professor Sir Roy Meadow, told the jury that the chance that both deaths
were accidental was one in 73 million. Experts now believe that the risk could be as low as one in 100.
Sally Clark was convicted and only freed on appeal after three years in jail.
Forensic Science Jobs - 2021 | Indeed.com
https://uk.indeed.com/jobs?q=forensic%20science&l&vjk=94f2524c523fa81c
AC1.1.04 The Pathologist /Pathologists are medical doctors who specialise in studying the causes of
disease and death, including the examination of dead bodies and body tissues in post mortem
examinations (also called autopsies). Where homicide is suspected, Home Office-registered forensic
pathologists provide a 24/7 service to assist the police and coroner in establishing the probable cause of
death. At the post mortem, the pathologist first makes a detailed external examination of the body for
signs of foul play. Depending on the case, they may also examine internal organs and take tissue
samples for laboratory analysis. They can also advise police on how to recover the body from the crime
scene to avoid vital trace evidence being lost. Before the body is released for burial or cremation, a
'defence' post mortem may be carried out on behalf of the defendant in the case, conducted by a
different pathologist. Once all the test results are collected, the pathologist produces a report for the
coroner and a witness statement for the police. He or she may also be asked to advise police and
prosecutors throughout their investigation and to give evidence in court.
Examining the body and post-mortem | The Morgue - YouTube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UC61_KAPwpY&list=PLScgI9IJlBNWcf9952GtHZVKLp1ThQln
N
AC1.1.04.02 Pathologist Strengths and Limitations Strengths The key strength that the pathologist
brings to an investigation is that they can often provide conclusive scientific evidence as to the cause
and time of death. This may prove decisive in establishing the guilt or innocence of a suspect.
Limitations • There are only about 35 Home Office-registered forensic pathologists in England and
Wales — partly because it is a highly specialised role involving up to seven years further training after

22
 first qualifying as a doctor. The shortage of suitably qualified pathologists can delay investigations.• As
highly trained specialists, pathologists are very well paid and forensic pathology services can be an
expensive part of a criminal investigation.• The work demands close attention to detail and sound
judgement. Mistakes can cause miscarriages of justice and result in the wrong person serving a life
sentence for murder. For example, Sally Clark was wrongly jailed for the murder of her two baby sons
partly as a result of the home office pathologist Alan Williams failing to disclose information to her
defence lawyers. As a result, they remained unaware that Williams had found lethal levels of bacterial
infection which could have been the cause of death.
Sally Clark - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sally_Clark
Pathologist Jobs - 2021 | Indeed.com https://uk.indeed.com/Pathologist-
jobs?vjk=a23990ecd3198fa0
AC1.1.05 The Crown Prosecution Service / The Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) is an independent
prosecution service operating across England and Wales in 14 regional offices. It uses a panel of over
2,000 solicitors and barristers along with other staff to handle around half a million criminal cases each
year. The CPS has several functions in relation to criminal cases:• It advises the police on cases for
possible prosecution and reviews cases that they submit to it to decide whether to prosecute. Most of
this is done through CPS Direct, an on-call advice service that police can access 24/7.• It makes decisions
about prosecuting cases by applying tests to see if there is sufficient evidence for a realistic prospect of
conviction and to decide whether prosecution would be in the public interest. In all more serious cases,
such as rape or murder, it is the CPS that decides whether the police will charge the suspect. Where the
decision is made to prosecute, the CPS decides what the charge will be.• It prepares cases for court
hearings, collecting evidence from the police and disclosing material to the defence.• It presents the
prosecution case in court, using its own Crown Prosecutors, as well as self-employed barristers for more
complicated cases.• It has specialist divisions dealing with prosecutions that require specialist
knowledge, such as serious organised crime, terrorism and complex frauds.
CPS Recruitment 2021 - Sarah - YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YnI_oJqoGds
AC1.1.05.01 CPS Strengths and Limitations / Strengths • Before the CPS was set up in 1986, the police
were responsible for investigating, charging and prosecuting cases. Combining these roles led to the risk
of bias. Because the CPS independently assesses the evidence and decides whether or not to prosecute,
it prevents the police from using the prosecution system to victimise particular individuals. • Having a
national organisation responsible for prosecutions means justice is more equal — there is more
consistency between different parts of the country in deciding whether to prosecute cases. Limitations
• The CPS has the power to reject a police request to prosecute someone — for example because the
evidence police have gathered is inadequate. This can result in a difficult relationship at times. However,
it means that prosecutions are less likely to fail due to inadequate investigation by the police. • The CPS
has sometimes made serious errors, for example in not reviewing the evidence thoroughly before
prosecuting. This has resulted in prosecutions failing, such as the murder of Damilola Taylor, where the
case collapsed after the evidence of a key witness was dismissed when she was shown to have lied. The
CPS had failed to check her account prior to trial. • Funding and staffing cuts in recent years have meant
a growing burden of cases.
Killing of Damilola Taylor - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killing_of_Damilola_Taylor
AC1.2.01 Forensic Techniques / Refers to the techniques as tests that are used to assist in investigating
crime. Can include biological materials (blood, semen, skin flakes and hair), fingerprints, footprints,
weapons, fibres and threads from clothing, paint flakes and much more. It is essential that investigators
wear appropriate clothing to avoid contaminating the evidence.
https://www.atascientific.com.au/technologies-forensic-sciences/
https://www.forensicscolleges.com/blog/resources/10-modern-forensic-science-technologies
AC1.2.01.01 Strengths and Limitations of Forensic Techniques / Strengths: Everybody’s DNA is unique,
this allows for high reliability. It can help prove innocence, as well as guilt. Has led to some successful
convictions. Limitations: Cross-contamination is possible. The perpetrator must be on the National DNA
database. Trace amounts might falsely imprison someone. Financially expensive. BUT now only around
£20
AC1.2.02.01 CCTV / One of the first things an investigating officer will ask for. Police often use CCTV
footage in criminal investigations as it can give 24-hour coverage of a location, providing a visual record
of the crime and the perpetrator. In the 2011 London Riots, CCTV images were released to the media
alongside appeals to the public to report if they recognized anyone.
https://www.gps-securitygroup.com/what-are-the-techniques-of-surveillance/

23
 AC1.2.02.01 Covert surveillance and Covert Human Intelligence Sources / This can be done in many
ways: Attaching tracking devices to vehicles and using GPS to monitor their movements. Intercepting
mail and tapping phones. Static surveillance from a fixed point. E.g. a unmarked, parked police vehicle.
Highly trained mobile surveillance teams. Covert Human Intelligence Sources (CHIS)- individuals that
maintain a relationship with the target in order to covertly gain information.
AC1.2.02.03 Surveillance Limitations / Limitations Very strict rules due to it infringing on somebody’s
civil liberties. Ethics? Real Life Cases Colin Stagg- police used an undercover female officer in order to
form a relationship with Colin. He didn’t confess, but police used evidence from the operation against
him. The Judge rules this inadmissible. Been cases of police officers using dead babies identities to
create a cover story complete with birth records.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killing_of_Rachel_Nickell
AC1.2.03.01 Typological Profiling / Typological Profiling Aims to classify offenders into different ‘types’
with different characteristics based on how they behave at the crime scene. This profile can be used by
the police to help narrow down their search and predict future behaviour of the offender. Originally
developed in the 1970s in the USA by the FBI. Since then, further typologists have been developed to
classify rapists based on their behaviour during the crime. Evaluation Information at the crime scene
can be quite limited. Offenders personality, relationships and motives might not help the police when
finding them. Typology is based off of the FBIs sample of 36 convicted serial killers- this is not a large
sample
https://ifflab.org/criminal-profiling-insight-criminals-mind/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offender_profiling
AC1.2.03.02 Geographical Profiling / Offenders make choices about where to offend. These choices are
often based on what they do in their non-criminal behaviour in everyday life. Geographical profiling
aims to work back from the locations where offences take place to identify where the offenders lives. It
is based on two main principles: The least effort principle: given two identically attractive targets, the
offender will choose the one nearest to home. The buffer zone: offenders don’t want to offend to close
to their home, as they might be identified. Canter identified two different patterns of offending: The
marauder- their home or workplace is their base and they commit their crimes close to this. Therefore,
if we draw a circle through the locations of the offences , we should expect the offenders home/work to
be in the centre. The commuter- travels away from their home area to offend in another area. Once
there, their offences seem to cluster around a main road or station.
Geographic profiling - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_profiling
Geographic Profiling (all-about-forensic-psychology.com) https://www.all-about-forensic-
psychology.com/geographic-profiling.html
AC1.2.03.03 Investigative Psychology Profiling / Associated with David Canter and brings in ideas from
Geographical profiling. Also brings in the following ideas: Offender consistency principle- the offenders
behaviour during a crime is consistent with their non-offending behaviour. Criminal narrative themes-
criminals base their offending behaviour on criminal narrative themes, or personal life stories that give
their crime meaning. For example, the elevated hero sees their crime as brave. Strengths It uses
concepts that can be tested in practice, such as the offender consistency principle. Uses large scale data
on patterns of offending and narrative themes to understand offenders motives. Limitations Depends
on the quality of the data- if the data is inaccurate. The predictions will be too.
Investigative psychology - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investigative_psychology
AC1.2.03.04 Strengths and Limitations of Profiling / Strengths Has led to some successful convictions
for a range of crimes. Limitations Profilers need to be sure that the crimes are all committed by the
same person- this can be difficult if the offenders mode of offending begins to change. Any crimes that
have been missed won’t be accounted for- the centre therefore might be in the wrong place.
AC1.2.04 Intelligence Databases / The term intelligence refers to information that has been obtained
from many sources. This information may be stored in a variety of different databases that police
officers can have access too: The Police National Database: contains intelligence about suspected
criminal activity as well as data on the PNC. It holds over 3.5 billion searchable records. The Police
National Computer (PNC): contains several separate databases. Stores details of over 12 million
people/s arrests, convictions and police cautions, with links to biometric databases for fingerprints.
Vehicle registration data and information on 48 million people who hold a driving licence. Information
on missing or wanted persons. The gangs matrix and International databases
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589871X19300713#:~:text=The%20primary
%20purpose%20of%20a,)%20is%20unknown%20%5B7%5D.

24
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1490298/
https://www.amnesty.org.uk/london-trident-gangs-matrix-metropolitan-police
https://www.met.police.uk/police-forces/metropolitan-police/areas/about-us/about-the-
met/gangs-violence-matrix/
AC1.2.05.01 Eyewitness Testimony / Evidence given by a witness to a crime. Seen by a jury as highly
reliable- Delvin committee in 1976 found that juries convicted in 74% of cases where line-up
identification was the only prosecution evidence. Innocence project- found that in over 70% of 352
wrongful convictions that were later overturned due to DNA evidence, EWT played a role in convicting
the innocent person.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/eyewitness-
testimony.html#:~:text=Eyewitness%20testimony%20is%20a%20legal,of%20the%20crime%20sce
ne%20etc.
https://www.psychologicalscience.org/teaching/myth-eyewitness-testimony-is-the-best-kind-of-
evidence.html
AC1.2.05.02 Expert Witnesses Interviews are conducted after the expert has submitted a report- this
allows the police to ask questions for clarification and develop their lines of enquiry. These are the only
people that can give their opinion in court. If they get it wrong however ,this can lead to a miscarriage of
justice.
https://www.cps.gov.uk/legal-guidance/expert-
evidence#:~:text=Expert%20witnesses%20are%20participants%20in,cases%20are%20dealt%20wi
th%20justly.
AC1.3.01 Physical Evidence / Collecting, transferring and storing physical evidence. Most
contamination occurs by handing items without gloves, coughing or sneezing on them. In serious
crimes, investigators wear protective clothing when collecting materials, to avoid contamination and
sometimes to protect themselves from hazardous substances. This includes a mask, a hooded scene
suit, overshoes and two pairs of gloves. Bodily fluids and tissues Bodily fluids such as blood, semen and
saliva, and tissue such as skin flakes and hairs, can provide important identification evidence, because
DNA can be extracted from them and compared with control samples from suspects to see if there is a
match which would put the suspect at the crime scene. These include the following: Blood (air-dry,
fabric not folded, carefully packaged), Semen (air-dry, paper bag, polythene bag, sealed, sexual assault
should be examined as soon as possible), Saliva (bites swabbed), Skin flakes, Hairs (DNA from the root,
sealed bag), finger prints, impressions from biting, shoeprints and tyre marks
Bodily Fluids Analysis – The Forensics Library (aboutforensics.co.uk)
https://aboutforensics.co.uk/bodily-fluids-analysis/
AC1.3.02 Testimonial Evidence / This is a written or spoken statement given to the court by a witness.
It can be given to support either the prosecution or the defence’s case. Before the case goes to court,
prosecution and defence must disclose any written statements that they have taken. Each side must
also provide the other side with a list of the witnesses they intend to call to give evidence. Any evidence
that is agreed and accepted as true by both sides can sometimes be read out in court without the
witness being present, but normally they must attend in person to testify. Witnesses testify from the
witness box, they can then be cross-examined by the opposing side to test their evidence. Defendants
cannot be forced to testify. Vulnerable or intimidated witnesses can give evidence via a video link rather
than attending court in person. Rules of evidence lay down what kinds of things can and cannot be given
in evidence.
filedownload.ashx (casdschools.org)
https://www.casdschools.org/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=7201&dataid=
6177&FileName=02-TypesOfEvidence.pdf
AC1.3.02.01 Inadmissible Testimonial Evidence / Some evidence may not be admissible (allowable) and
must not be considered in reaching a verdict. This includes: Hearsay evidence: repeating a rumour they
have heard. Forced confession: where violence or threats have been used to extract a confession.
Entrapment: where police have tried to trick the defendant into committing or confessing to a crime.
AC1.4.01.01 At the police station / If you are arrested, you will be taken to a police station, where you
will be handed over to the custody officer (an officer of the rank of sergeant or above). You will be
searched and then held in a cell. Your possessions will be looked after by the custody officer.
Being arrested: your rights - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk) https://www.gov.uk/arrested-your-rights
AC1.4.01.01 Finger prints, photographs and samples / The police have the right to take photographs of
you, as well as fingerprints and a DNA sample. They don’t need your permission to do this, and can use

25
 reasonable force if necessary. The police need your permission and the authority of a senior police
officer to take blood or urine samples (except when taking them in connection with drink or drug
driving).
Being arrested: your rights: Giving fingerprints, photographs and samples - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk)
https://www.gov.uk/arrested-your-rights/giving-fingerprints-photographs-and-samples
AC1.4.01.01 How long can you be held without charge / Police can hold you in custody for up to 24
hours. After that, they have to either charge you with a crime or release you. Serious crimes can be held
for 36 hours. After this, the police can detain you for a further 96 hours with the approval of a
magistrate. If arrested for a terrorist offence, this can be extended to 14 days. Bail- they can temporarily
release you on bail if there is not enough evidence to charge you. You will have to return to the station
for questioning when asked to. There might be conditions around the bail.
Being arrested: your rights: How long you can be held in custody - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk)
https://www.gov.uk/arrested-your-rights/how-long-you-can-be-held-in-custody
AC1.4.01.01 Police Power of Arrest / Under section 24 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984,
police may lawfully arrest you as a suspect without a warrant from a court if, You have been involved,
attempted to be involved or are suspected of being involved in committing an offence; and The officer
has reasonable grounds to for believing the arrest is necessary, The officer must tell you why you are
being arrested, what you are being arrested for, and why the arrest is necessary.
Police powers of arrest: your rights - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk) https://www.gov.uk/police-powers-
of-arrest-your-rights
AC1.4.01.01 Rights of Appeal / If you are convicted for an offence, you have certain rights of appeal.
These depend on two factors: The type of court- magistrates or crown. Whether you are appealing
against the conviction or the sentence. If you were tried in a magistrates court you can automatically
appeal for your sentence and your conviction (if you pleaded not guilty). If you were tried in a Crown
court, you have no automatic right to appeal (a judge decides whether to allow it)
AC1.4.01.01 Rights when being questioned / The police may question you about the crime you are
suspected of and you have a number of rights in this situation. The rights to silence- You don’t have to
answer the police’s questions, but this might harm you later on. Right to legal advice- You have the right
to free legal advice, including the right to have a solicitor present during questioning. In serious cases,
the police can make you wait for legal advice for up to 36 hours (48 for terrorism).
AC1.4.01.01 Stop and Account or Search / The police have certain powers to deal with suspects,
including rights to stop and search and to arrest a person. Stop and account: a police officer has the
right to ask you to account for your actions, your presence in a public place, and your possession of a
particular item Stop and search: Police have 19 different powers of stop and search, e.g. for drugs,
firearms and stolen goods, and to prevent acts of terrorism. Police also have certain powers to search
vehicles and premises.
Police powers to stop and search: your rights - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk)
https://www.gov.uk/police-powers-to-stop-and-search-your-rights
AC1.4.02.01 Rights during the investigation / The police must give you updates and tell you when the
suspect is arrested or charged, set free or released on bail, or given a caution. If the police drop the
charge, they must also tell you. If you disagree then you can ask for a review. If the police give
information to the media to help with their investigation, they will normally ask the victims permission
first. In the cases of sexual assault or rape, it is against the law for anyone to publish the name, photo or
anything that could identify the victim.
Investigating a crime - Victim and Witness Information
https://www.victimandwitnessinformation.org.uk/what-happens-after-crime/investigating-
crime/#:~:text=Your%20rights%20during%20a%20police%20investigation&text=be%20kept%20u
pdated%20by%20the,not%20to%20prosecute%20a%20suspect
AC1.4.02.01 Rights of vulnerable victims / You are also entitled to extra support if you are the victim of
a serious crime (wounding, attempted murder, domestic abuse, sexual offences, kidnapping, hate crime,
human trafficking or terrorism). Vulnerable victims are entitled to receive information more quickly, to
be given specialist advice and –if a close relative- be assigned a Family Liaison Officer
AC1.4.02.01 Rights when reporting a crime / When you report a crime, the police must give you written
confirmation, a crime reference number and contact details for the officer dealing with your case. They
must also: Tell you what will happen next and how often they will update you. Assess what support you
need and ask a victim support organization to contact you. Ask if you want to write a Victim Personal
Statement about how the crime has affected you.

26
 Give information | Crime stoppers (crimestoppers-uk.org) https://crimestoppers-uk.org/give-
information/forms/give-information-
anonymously?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIjsmVoufs8wIVj9PtCh3kfA8hEAAYASAAEgLyaPD_BwE
After a crime: your rights - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk) https://www.gov.uk/your-rights-after-crime
AC1.4.02.01 Victims' Rights / Victims of crime have rights in relation to criminal investigations and court
processes. They are set out in the Code of Practice for Victims of Crime. These rights also apply to close
relatives of someone who has died as a result of a crime.
https://www.victimsupport.org.uk/going-court/your-rights-as-a-witness/
https://www.cps.gov.uk/victims-witnesses
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aUOc0Sa1WMM
AC1.4.02.01 Victims rights in court proceedings / Rights relating to trials: CPS must tell you when and
where the trial will be. If you have to give evidence, a Witness Care Officer will support you before and
during the trial. If the defendant is convicted, you may be able to read your Victim Personal Statement
to the court. After the trail, your Witness Care Officer must tell you the verdict within 24 hours, what
sentencing the offender gets, if found guilty and if the offender appeals. You can claim compensation
from the Criminal Injuries Compensation Authority if the crime was violent. You could meet the
offender through a restorative justice scheme.

AC1.4.03.01 Witness Rights / The Witness Charter sets out standards of care for witnesses that should
be provided by the police, the Crown Prosecution Service, court staff, the Witness Service and defence
lawyers. These standards include the following: Witnesses will have a main point of contact throughout
the process who will keep them informed of the progress of the case. Measures to ensure that the court
is a safe environment and that prosecution and defence witnesses wait in separate areas. Information
about the court process in advance of giving evidence so witnesses know what to expect. Prosecution
witnesses will be informed of any appeal against conviction or sentence.
https://www.victimsupport.org.uk/going-court/your-rights-as-a-witness/
The Witness Charter: standards of care for witnesses in the criminal justice system - GOV.UK
(www.gov.uk) https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-witness-charter-standards-of-
care-for-witnesses-in-the-criminal-justice-system
AC1.4.03.02 Vulnerable and intimidated witnesses / Intimidated witnesses include victims of sexual
offence or human trafficking, witnesses to gun or knife crimes, and witnesses whose evidence is likely to
be affected by fear or distress about testifying in court. Special measures for vulnerable and intimidated
witnesses: Giving evidence from behind a screen or via live video link, or video recording their
statement to be played in court later. Judges and Lawyers removing their wigs and gowns to create a
less intimidating atmosphere. Help from a communications specialist for witnesses who have difficulty
understanding questions in police interviews or in court.
AC2.1.01 The Charging Role / Advise the police in their investigations about lines of inquiry and about
what evidence might be required to build a case. Independently assesses the evidence submitted by the
police and decides whether to prosecute, and if so, what charges should be brought. In order to make
their decision about whether to prosecute, the CPS applies tests that are laid down in the Code for
Crown Prosecutors.
AC2.1.02 The Full Code Test / The evidential test Is there enough evidence to get a realistic conviction
against a suspect? Is the evidence admissible? E.g could it be rules out as hearsay? Is the evidence
reliable? E.g are witnesses truthful? Is the evidence credible? (believable). The public interest test Is a
prosecution in the public interest? Not all questions are relevant in every case, and the weight attached
to each one differs.
AC2.1.03 The Threshold Test / In some cases, a suspect may still be charged even if the evidence
requirements of the Full Code Test cannot be met. In these cases the Threshold test must be applied. 5
conditions, all of which must be met before a suspect can be charged: There must be reasonable
grounds to believe the person has committed the offence. There must be reasonable grounds to believe
further evidence can be obtained that will provide a realistic prospect of conviction. The crime is serious
enough to justify charging the suspect immediately. There must be substantial grounds to object to bail
– e.g. a suspect who is likely to interfere with witnesses. It must be in the public interest to charge the
suspect
AC2.2.01 Offences / There are 3 types of criminal offence in terms of their seriousness and where they
can be tried: Indictable offence- serious crimes such as murder, treason, rape, robbery and GBH. These
must be tried in a crown court, although the first hearing will be in a magistrates court. Summary

27
 offence- less serious cases such as many motoring offences and assaults without injury. These are
usually tried in a magistrates’ court. Triable either way offences (‘hybrid offences’)- theft, fraud,
burglary, handling stolen goods, assault (ABH) and criminal damage. These can be tried in either a
magistrates or a crown court.
Categories of Criminal Offences in the UK | Lawtons Solicitors (lawtonslaw.co.uk)
https://www.lawtonslaw.co.uk/resources/categories-of-offences/
AC2.2.02 Plea / Before a trial begins, the defendant will be read out the charge and asked to plead
guilty or not guilty. Guilty pleas- magistrates hear evidence of aggravating and mitigating factors. They
then pass sentence immediately or adjourn the case for reports before sentencing at a later date. If the
offence is too serious, it will be sent to the Crown Court for sentencing. For not guilty pleas- magistrate
must make a decision about reports, legal aid and bail before the trial can go ahead. Plea Bargaining
This is an agreement between the prosecutor and defendant, where the defendant agrees to plead
guilty in return for some concession from the prosecutor. This must be struck be. fore the case goes to
court. These are charge bargaining, count bargaining and sentence bargaining. Critics argue that
unregulated plea bargaining can apply undue pressure to defendants and undermine their right to a fair
trial.
Should I Plead Guilty or Not Guilty to an Allegation? - Slater Heelis
https://www.slaterheelis.co.uk/crime-category/should-i-plead-guilty-or-not-guilty-to-an-
allegation/
Information for defendants – Sentencing (sentencingcouncil.org.uk)
https://www.sentencingcouncil.org.uk/going-to-court/information-for-defendants/
AC2.2.03 Legal Aid / Legal aid exists to enable individuals that would not be able to afford to pay for a
lawyer, to have access to one
https://www.gov.uk/legal-aid
AC2.2.04 Bail / This is the temporary release of an accused person whilst they are awaiting trial.
Everyone has the right to bail, ‘innocent until proven guilty’. Two types of bail: Unconditional bail- the
court imposes no conditions, except to attend court as required. Conditional bail- the court imposes
conditions that the offender must agree to. E.g. report to a police station every day, not contact certain
persons, abide by a curfew. If a court refuses bail or the defendant breaches conditions, they may be
remanded in custody until their trail. The court may refuse bail.
Bail - Crown & Magistrates Courts (thelawpages.com) https://www.thelawpages.com/legal-
directory/bail-crown-magistrates-court.php
AC2.2.05 Courts / The majority of cases are first heard in the Magistrates court, and over 95% of them
are decided there. These are local courts that deal with the least serious offences- if they are serious
then they must be passed to the crown court. Usually 3 magistrates who are lay-people (members of
the local community without legal qualifications). They are assisted by a clerk of the court who is legally
qualified. The magistrates decide if the accused is guilty or not-guilty, they can impose fines of up to
£5,000 and/or 6 months in prison (this extends to £10,000 or 12 months if more than 1 offence). Crown
Court sits in around 90 centres around the country and deals with: Indictable offences, e.g. murder,
rape and robbery. Triable-either-way offences. Appeals from the magistrates court. Will include a jury
who are 12 members of the public. Jury’s role is to listen to all the evidence and to both arguments.
They may examine physical evidence and take notes, ask questions. They retire to a jurors room to
consider their verdict in secret. They are normally expected to produce a unanimous verdict, but the
judge may accept a majority (10-2) verdict. The Judge ensures the trial is fair and protects the
defendant’s human rights. Advise the jury on points of law, court procedure and their duties. Acts as the
referee between the defence and prosecution. Pass the sentence is the accused is found guilty. If there
is a danger of jurors being bribed or intimidated, the Criminal Justice Act 2003 permits a judge to try a
case without a jury
https://www.gov.uk/courts
AC2.2.06 Appeals / If you are convicted of an offence, your right to appeal depends on: The type of
court that convicted you- Magistrates court or Crown court and whether your appeal is against your
conviction or just your sentence. If you were convicted in a magistrates court, you have two automatic
rights of appeal: Against your conviction (if you pleaded not guilty) and against your sentence. You must
appeal within 21 days of being sentenced. Appeals against the Crown Court verdicts are handled by the
Court of Appeal (Criminal Division). There is no automatic right of appeal- a judge will decide whether
to allow it or not. You must seek leave to appeal within 28 days. The only ground for appeal is that the
conviction was unsafe. Appeals to the Supreme Court which is the highest court in the legal system.

28
 Leave is required to appeal- there is no automatic right. Normally only hears cases where a point of law
of general public importance is at stake
The Court of Appeal | Courts and Tribunals Judiciary https://www.judiciary.uk/you-and-the-
judiciary/going-to-court/court-of-appeal-home/
AC2.3.01 Relevance and Admissibility / How true is the evidence: Credible- does the court believe that
the witness was telling the truth? If so, were there any other prevailing conditions that may have made
it impossible for the witness to see clearly. Authentic- a document presented in evidence may be
forged. Accurate- is the evidence of an expert in fact supported by the rest of the scientific community?
E.g. Professor Sir Roy Meadow and his cot death statistics. Relevance: The law makes a distinction
between two types of fact in a trial: Facts in issue- the matters in which are in dispute in a case and
which the court have to decide about. E.g. DID David beat Jack with a club? Relevant facts- facts that are
needed in order to prove or disprove the facts in issue. E.g. the presence of David’s fingerprints and
Jack’s blood on the club. Admissibility of Evidence: Not all evidence may be admissible in court. There
are several types of evidence that may not be allowed by the judge or magistrates: Illegally obtained
evidence- this is obtained by breaking the law or violating a person’s human rights. This would include
evidence obtained in an illegal search conducted without a warrant, and using torture or degrading
treatments to obtain a confession. Improperly obtained evidence- incudes the use of entrapment
(deception). For example, in the case of Colin Stagg. Can also apply in ‘sting’ operations where an
undercover officer poses as a criminal. The right to remain silent: The accused doesn’t have to prove
their innocence and so in theory doesn’t have to provide any evidence. However, the Criminal Justice
and Public Order Act 1994 allows the jury to draw inferences about a defendants guilt if they remain
silent in the following circumstances: Failure to answer police questions- when questioned under
caution, failure to answer can be used as evidence to infer the defendants guilt. So too can failing to
account for a particular object or their presence in a particular place. Failure to testify in court- may be
used to infer the defendants guilt, unless they can give a reason for not doing so that they jury finds
acceptable. Evidence of bad character The Criminal Justice Act 2003 defines bad character as ‘evidence
of or disposition towards misconduct’. Misconduct includes previous convictions and cautions as well as
things such as racism, bullying and bad disciplinary record at work. Bad character evidence is only
admitted under certain circumstances, such as when it shows that the defendant has a tendency to lie.
Character evidence cannot be used in relation to non-defendants (such as victims, police officers,
witnesses). Feminists have criticized the tendency in rape cases for defence lawyers to introduce
evidence about the victims sexual history
Key rules of evidence - Court Stage - Enforcement Guide (England & Wales) (hse.gov.uk)
https://www.hse.gov.uk/enforce/enforcementguide/court/rules-
key.htm#:~:text=Evidence%20is%20relevant%20if%20it,and%20has%20been%20properly%20obt
ained.&text=This%20would%20be%20irrelevant%20and%20inadmissible.
William Roache acquittal: inconsistent testimonies damaged prosecution | UK news | The
Guardian https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2014/feb/06/william-roache-acquittal-
inconsistent-testimonies
AC2.3.02 Disclosure of Evidence / The Prosecutions Duty of Disclosure The prosecution has a duty to:
Notify the accused of all the evidence they intend to rely on. Make available to the defence any unused
material relevant to the case that they do not intend to present in court. Unused materials include
anything that might undermine the prosecutions own case or assist the defence’s case. Prosecution:
The number of cases where charges were dropped due to the prosecutions failure to disclose has
increased in recent years. E.g. Liam Allen in 2017, his rape trial was halted when a computer disk
emerged with evidence that the victim had pestered him for casual sex. The police had not disclosed
this disk to the defence. Sometimes it is within the public interest for certain materials not to be
disclosed. For example, the identity of an undercover police officer. Defence: The defence must also
disclose certain information. Including the nature of defence they intend to offer. They do not have to
disclose unused material
Disclosure | The Crown Prosecution Service (cps.gov.uk) https://www.cps.gov.uk/about-
cps/disclosure
AC2.3.03 Hearsay Rule and Exceptions / A statement that has been made by someone out of court to a
witness who is appearing in court, and which the witness wishes to rely on as evidence of a fact. E.g.
Joan is a witness in a murder trial. She testifies that Colin told her he had seen the defendant shoot the
victim. This is second hand evidence. Exceptions: Where all parties agree to it (prosecution, defence and
judge). Where the judge roles that it is in the interests of justice. Where common law permits it, e.g. in

29
 the case if publicly available information, reputation or expert advice. Where a witness is absent abroad,
dead, unfit to testify due to fear or to their bodily or mental condition, or has disappeared
Rule against hearsay - Court Stage - Enforcement Guide (England & Wales) (hse.gov.uk)
https://www.hse.gov.uk/enforce/enforcementguide/court/hearsay-
rule.htm#:~:text=%27%20Reliance%20on%20a%20statement%20made,a%20fact%20asserted%2
0remains%20hearsay.&text=The%20general%20rule%20is%20that,truth%20of%20the%20facts%
20stated.
AC2.4.01 Barristers and Legal Teams / Barristers and solicitors are both qualified lawyers. Work in
higher level courts where they act as advocates speaking on behalf of clients (either the defence or the
prosecution). Barristers will often be briefed on the case by a solicitor, who will prepare relevant papers
and gather evidence for the barrister to use in court. The quality of the barristers can affect outcome of
the case- a more eloquent, persuasive or charismatic barrister might sway a jury’s decision.
Trials and tribulations: my life as a criminal barrister | Barristers | The Guardian
https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/jun/26/trials-and-tribulations-my-life-as-a-criminal-
barrister
AC2.4.01 Evidence / Before the case can even go to court, the police must provide enough evidence to
the CPS
AC2.4.01 Experts / Expert witnesses are people with specialist knowledge that ordinary members of the
public do not have. In complex cases that rely heavily on technical evidence, the testimony given by
expert witnesses can be crucial in determining the outcome of the case. Jurors, who have little specialist
knowledge, rely heavily on expert witnesses. A danger is assuming that the expert is always right, or
misinterpreting what they say- this can lead to miscarriages of justices like in the case of Sally Clark
https://www.cps.gov.uk/legal-guidance/expert-evidence
Sally Clark - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sally_Clark
AC2.4.01 Judiciary / Affecting the Verdict The judge is an expert in the law and in legal procedure. In a
trial, the judge has several key powers and responsibilities: To clarify the law for the jury and direct
them on how it is to be applied in the case they are trying. To rule on the admissibility of evidence and
on whether the line of questioning taken by the prosecution or defence is permissible. To sum up the
main issues and evidence in the case for the jury before they retire to consider their verdict. The judge
also has the power to dismiss a case, order a re-trial or even direct the jury to bring in a particular
verdict. They jury does not have to follow their direction. Juryless Trial Under the Criminal Justice Act
2003, a judge mat sit without a Jury: Where there is a risk of jury tampering. In complex fraud cases, in
which a jury might have difficulty understanding, or in attending court for months on end. Judicial bias.
Bias may arise for several reasons: Class background- judges come mainly from the higher social classes.
In 2019, 65% of senior judges were privately educated, and 75% had attended Cambridge or Oxford.
Gender- 65% of judges are male. They may lack sympathy in cases like rape. Carol Smart quotes one
male judge as saying ‘women who say no do not always mean no. If she doesn’t want it she only has to
keep her legs shut’
stafford-biases-in-decision-making-winter-2017.pdf (judiciary.uk) https://www.judiciary.uk/wp-
content/uploads/2018/02/stafford-biases-in-decision-making-winter-2017.pdf
AC2.4.01 Politics / Laws have two main sources: Common law- comes from precedent, in which courts
follow rulings made by judges in previous cases. Statute law- made by Parliament passing Acts or
statutes. The government proposes legislation, which Parliament then debate and sometimes amend.
Parliament can therefore affect the criminal law and the outcome of cases in three ways: Creating new
offences- for example, following a media-inspired moral panic, Parliament passed the Dangerous Dogs
Act 1991, outlawing certain dog breeds. Abolishing existing offences-parliament can repeal or amend
existing laws that previously made something a crime. Changing the penalties- for example, parliament
abolished the death penalty for murder in 1965. Public Interest Immunity Certificates Another way in
which politics may influence the outcome of criminal cases is through public-interest immunity (PII)
certificates. These can be issued by the government minister to prevent sensitive evidence such as
official secrets being revealed in court
Dangerous Dogs Act 1991 (legislation.gov.uk)
https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1991/65/contents
Public-interest immunity - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public-
interest_immunity#:~:text=Public%2Dinterest%20immunity%20(PII),damaging%20to%20the%20
public%20interest.

30
 AC2.4.01 The Media / Moral panic- this can affect sentencing and law creation. For example, the
London 2011 riots and the Dangerous Dogs Act 1991. Trial by media- High profile cases attract a great
deal of media interest. This may make a fair trial impossible. Cheryl Thomas found that 1/5th of jurors
serving on a high-profile case said they found it difficult to disregard pre-trial media coverage of the
case.
Influence of Trial by Media on the Criminal Justice System in India (waldenu.edu)
https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=8084&context=dissertations
How "Trial by Media" Can Undermine the Courtroom | Psychology Today United Kingdom
https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/media-spotlight/201808/how-trial-media-can-
undermine-the-courtroom
AC2.4.01 Witnesses / Both parties are entitled to call witnesses to give evidence. This would normally
have to be done in court, with two exceptions: Where witness evidence is agreed by both parties, it can
be given in the form of a written statement. Vulnerable or intimidated witnesses may be allowed to give
their evidence by a live video link or video recording rather than attending court. Or behind a screen in
court to protect their identity. Can be called from both sides to give evidence, they are then usually
cross-examined by the alternative side. The jurors or magistrates may give whatever weight to they
chose to a witness. This might be determined by the quality of the evidence. For example, if a witness
has shown to have lied or if their evidence seems inconsistent. Stereotyping Racial prejudices or gender
stereotypes held by jurors may influence how willing they are to believe a witness’s testimony.
Kaufmann et al found that jurors judgement of how credible they found a rape victims testimony
depended strongly on the emotions the victim showed when giving their evidence, and not the content.
Brodsky found that jurors’ view of the witness’ knowledge, likeability, trustworthiness and confidence
were key factors on choosing to decide whether to believe their evidence. Eyewitnesses Juries are often
ready to believe an eye-witness, yet their evidence is not always accurate. Innocence project found that
in over 70% of 352 wrongful convictions that were later overturned on the basis of DNA evidence, EWT
misidentification helped to convict an innocent person.
What Do We Know About Rape Myths and Juror Decision Making - Scottish Jury Research
Working Paper 1 (gla.ac.uk) https://www.gla.ac.uk/media/Media_704445_smxx.pdf
Juror Perceptions of Women as Expert Witnesses: Suggestions for the Effects of Testimony
Complexity, Gender-Intrusive Questioning, and Perceived Credibility (thejuryexpert.com)
https://www.thejuryexpert.com/2016/04/juror-perceptions-of-women-as-expert-witnesses-
suggestions-for-the-effects-of-testimony-complexity-gender-intrusive-questioning-and-
perceived-credibility/
AC2.5.01 Juries / In most Crown Court trials, the verdict is normally decided by a jury of 12 laypeople.
They hear the evidence and arguments put forward by the prosecution and defence. They then retire
from the courtroom and decide whether they find the defendant guilty, not guilty or guilty of a less
serious crime. If guilty- they must be convinced beyond reasonable doubt. The jury’s decision is taken in
secret and it is a criminal offence for anyone to question jurors about their verdict or how they reach it.
Jurors cannot disclose their deliberations.
AC2.5.01 Lay Magistrates / Unpaid, part-time volunteers who are members of their local community.
Receive training, but they are not legally qualified- but assisted by a legally qualified clerk who advises
them on law and procedure. Strengths. Democracy- allows local citizens to become involved, Local
knowledge- Magistrates serve in their local court and have knowledge of the local area which they can
apply to cases and reflect local needs and priorities, Representative of the population- in 2019, 13%
were from Black, Asian or minority ethnic backgrounds (the figure for the population is 14%), 56% were
women, Limited number of appeals-Only around 5,000 of the 1.5 million cases they deal with goes to
appeal. Most are against the sentence, not the verdict, Cost- as they are volunteers, they are an
economical way of giving justice. One estimate suggests that if paid professional judges had to be used,
it would cost about £100m per year. Weaknesses. Unrepresentative of the population- in terms of age
and social class. Only 1% are under 30 and the majority of them come from middle-class professional
and managerial backgrounds. Inconsistency in sentencing- trained to follow official Sentencing
Guidelines, despite this consistency doesn’t always happen. E.g. in 2010, Bristol magistrates handed out
custodial sentences 11.1% of the time, compared to Coventry which was 6.8%. Bias- Convict in 90% of
all cases, critics have argued this is because they are case hardened and bias in favour of believing the
police and prosecution. Over-use of short prison sentences- short sentences are costly and ineffective at
rehabilitation

31
 Lay Magistrates - Advantages and Disadvantages - Advantages and disadvantages table in A Level
and IB Law (getrevising.co.uk)
https://getrevising.co.uk/grids/lay_magistrates_advantages_and_disadvantages
AC3.1.01 Evidence / Before the evidence can be used in court, the CPS requires the evidence to be:
Admissible, Reliable, Credible. This indicates that it may be valid, but it is not guaranteed. The defence
can demonstrate inconsistencies or shortcomings during cross-examination. Many convictions from
Eye-witness testimony have been overturned when more accurate and reliable evidence has come to
light, such as DNA. Research by Psychologists such as Loftus et al shows that witnesses memory and the
evidence they give can be affected by many factors, such as: Time when the event took place, Whether
they discussed what they saw, How long ago they witnessed it, They way questions about the event are
put to them in court. Jurors may find that an experts opinion is especially credible and give it great
weight when reaching a verdict. If an expert is biased or incompetent, this can undermine the validity of
the information. E.g. Roy Meadow who falsely gave information that there was a 1 in 73 million of 2
children in the same household dying from SIDS. This led to Sally Clark being found guilty of murder
Key rules of evidence - Court Stage - Enforcement Guide (England & Wales) (hse.gov.uk)
https://www.hse.gov.uk/enforce/enforcementguide/court/rules-
key.htm#:~:text=Evidence%20is%20relevant%20if%20it,and%20has%20been%20properly%20obt
ained.
AC3.1.02 Trial Transcripts / A complete and exact written record of every word spoken in court by the
judge, lawyers, witnesses and defendant. Anyone can apply for a transcript of a court hearing, however,
the court can refuse to provide one. For example, if the hearing was confidential.
Transcript (law) - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcript_(law)
AC3.1.03 Media Reports / Can be used for: Evidence that can be used in an appeal. E.g. a defendant
might show irregularities in. the proceedings or a biased summing up by the judge. Parole boards use
them to consider a prisoners application to be released on parole. Recognised as highly valid sources of
information. They are simply the words spoken in court as they were spoken. Therefore, there is no
need for someone to remember the words. Although the recording system is highly reliable, there is
always the small risk of malfunctioning. For example, the noise of the court room interrupting.
Newspapers tend to support one party or another. For example, the sun tends to be very right-wing and
support conservatives whereas the mirror is left-wing and supports labour. Radio & TV have a duty to
provide a balanced coverage of political issues. For example, the BBC is required to treat controversial
subjects with ‘due impartiality’ rather than taking sides. These differences mean that coverage of crime
and justice issues varies from one media source to another. For example, Right-wing papers tend to
favour tougher laws and more prison sentences to tackle crime. This can affect the validity of their
coverage, with a one-sided approach that selects information supporting this view. Moral Panics. The
media attracts an audience by providing a sensationalized coverage. For example: London Riots,
Dangerous Dogs, Mods & Rockers. This leads to a picture being painted that is not valid or accurate.
Tabloids often portray suspects in police investigations in a negative light. This can be based off of what
the offender looks and acts like. E.g. Sexually deviant & a creepy loner. These are often reinforced with
old and unflattering photos. E.g. Christopher Jefferies. Racial stereotyping- Hall et al describe how the
media in the 1970s portrayed ‘mugging’ as a black youth problem
Moral panic - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_panic#:~:text=A%20moral%20panic%20is%20a,of%20a%20c
ommunity%20or%20society.
Christopher Jefferies: What happened to the man falsely vilified over Joanna Yeates' death played
by Jason Watkins in ITV drama (inews.co.uk) https://inews.co.uk/culture/television/christopher-
jefferes-now-joanna-yeates-murder-what-happened-jason-watkins-lost-honour-itv-581069
AC3.1.04 Judgements / Judgements made by courts are not always valid. This can be due to several
reasons, such as unintentional bias and unconscious stereotyping and incorrect rulings by judges and
coroners. Unbiased judgements is essential if defendants are to receive a fair trial, but research shows
that unconscious biases can influence the judgement of jurors. Race- Plant and Peruche found that in a
video-game simulation, US police officers were more likely to shoot unarmed Black suspects than
unarmed White ones. Other studies have shown trial judges and death penalty lawyers have biases
against Black people. Gender- Ellison & Munro found that in simulations of rape trials, jurors used
victims lack of signs of physical injury or emotional response, and their delays in reporting the attack as
reasons for bringing a not guilty verdict. When a sudden death occurs due to the actions of public
organisations such as the police, they receive state-funded legal representation at the inquest. By

32
 contrast the bereaved families have no automatic entitlement- making it hard for them to challenge the
verdict if they feel that they are unfair. E.g. Hillsborough On 15th April 1989, 96 Liverpool fans died and
766 were injured. The crush occurred after the police march commander, Chief Superintendent David
Duckenfield ordered an exit gate to be opened. This led to a surge of supporters to enter the stadium. In
the weeks that followed- the police fed false stories to the media blaming hooliganism and drunken
football fans. The family of Mark Duggan sought to overturn the inquest verdict of lawful killing. The
police officer believed that Duggan was armed with a handgun. The coroner misdirected the jury that
they should only return a lawful killing verdict if they thought the officer honestly believed that he was
in danger. The coroner should have also added that the officers belief should have been based on
reasonable grounds.
The Consequences of Race for Police Officers’ Responses to Criminal Suspect
https://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/ps/racialbias.pdf
South Yorkshire Police Conspired to Cover-up Hillsborough (businessinsider.com)
https://www.businessinsider.com/south-yorkshire-police-conspired-to-cover-up-hillsborough-
2017-6?r=US&IR=T
Mark Duggan family to sue Met Police over death - BBC News https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-
england-london-47671007
AC3.1.05 Law Reports / Reports of decisions made by courts. They are published on a regular basis-
many of them weekly. Their purpose is to inform lawyers and judges about important judgements in the
courts and to prevent two courts reaching differing decisions on identical facts. Principle of precedent-
only about 2% of cases are reported in law reports. These are the cases that set a precedent (law down
a new principle of law). This allows more consistency and fairness between similar cases. Official law
reports can be seen as valid, authoritative sources of information on the law: Accuracy- accurate
accounts of cases, with an exact transcript of the judgement, and with key details of important cases
written up in a standard format. Currency- Up to date as reported on a weekly basis. Bias– objective,
unbiased reports. Opinion- contain the opinions of the court, since this is essential for other courts to
understand the reasons for judgement. They do not contain the opinions of the person who write the
report
What is a Law Report? - ICLR https://www.iclr.co.uk/blog/archive/what-is-a-law-report/
AC3.2.01 Just Sentencing / An important part of a fair justice system is those who are found guilty of a
crime receive an appropriate sentence. When judges and magistrates sentence an offender, they are
guided by two factors: The law- laying down the possible sentences that can be given for a particular
offence. The sentencing guidelines- where within the law the offenders sentence should sit. E.g. was the
crime pre-planned, harm to victim, previous convictions, age or maturity, pleaded guilty or not.
AC3.2.01 Just Verdicts / A just verdict is one that is deserved, lawful and proper. It is a verdict that does
justice to the facts of the case, finding the guilty, guilty and the innocent not guilty. The jury does not
always produce verdicts that are just. For example, the double jeopardy rule, Stephen Lawrence. Double
Jeopardy. This stopped prosecutors repeatedly prosecuting someone until they were found guilty.
Certain cases, it becomes clear that a not guilty verdict was unjust- this can happen due to the offender
admitting that they had done it, or new evidence coming to light. Examples- Billy Dunlop & Stephen
Lawrence. Jury equity or jury nullification Sometimes the law seems unjust- therefore the jury
deliberately reject the evidence and decide to acquit the defendant. Juries sometimes do this when they
believe the existing law or the punishment is unfair. If juries consistently refuse to convict defendants
for particular crimes, this sends a signal to the law makers that the law needs changing. Famous cases
of jury equity. Capital punishment- in 19th century England, the theft of items worth more than 40
shillings carried the death sentence. Juries were often unwilling to condemn petty thieves to death.
They therefore brought about not guilty verdicts. Runaway slaves- 1850s USA, juries in the Northern
states protested the Fugitive Slaves Act by acquitting defendants. Some of these cases lead to just
verdicts, but can also produce the opposite result. For example, in the US there have been cases of all
white juries refusing to convict members of the Ku Klux Klan.
AC3.2.02 Unsafe Verdicts and Miscarriage of Justice / This is where the innocence of the appellant (the
person making the appeal), is proven. This is usually down to new evidence. If the court of appeal
decides that a conviction is a miscarriage of justice, then there will not normally be a need for a re-trial.
Unsafe Convictions. Miscarriages of justice are one type of unsafe verdict, however, wrongful
convictions can also occur where it is not clear whether the accused was innocent or guilty. In these
cases, the conviction is usually overturned because there was something wrong with the trial process.
This led to the accused not receiving a fair trial and so we cannot be sure beyond reasonable doubt.

33
 Defects in the trial procedure: Judge misdirecting the jury, Judge making mistakes in their legal rulings,
such as wrongly excluding or including evidence, Failure to call relevant witnesses or evidence, Jury
irregularities (tampering, researching the case on the internet). EG Birmingham Six. 21st November
1974- two pubs were bombed with the loss of 21 loves. 6 men were arrested, deprived of food and
sleep, interrogated for up to 12 hours, threatened and beaten and subjected to a mock execution. 4 of 6
of them men signed confessions.

34
The Exam Practice

[Exam]
AQ1.1.01.1 Describe the role of police officers and detectives in criminal investigations
PE
AQ1.1.01.2 Outline examples of cases that demonstrate the effectiveness of police officers
A
AQ1.1.01.3 Assess the effectiveness of police officers in relation with regards to
funding/cost/availability and training/recruitment/expertise
C
AQ1.1.01.4 Evaluate the advantages and limitations of police officers in criminal investigations
E
AQ1.1.01.5 Evaluate the effectiveness of the role of police officers in criminal investigations.
An example of a personnel involved within a criminal investigation is the … who…
With regards to funding/cost/availability…
With regards to training/recruitment/expertise…
There are many advantages of using the … within criminal investigations, an example being…
Another example is… etc
However, an example of a limitation would be… Another example is… etc
An example of a case that shows… being a limitation is…
Overall…
AQ1.1.02.1 Describe the role of crime scene officers in criminal investigations
PE
AQ1.1.02.2 Outline examples of cases that demonstrate the effectiveness of crime scene investigators
A
AQ1.1.02.3 Assess the effectiveness of crime scene investigators in relation with regards to
funding/cost/availability and training/recruitment/expertise
C
AQ1.1.02.4 Evaluate the advantages and limitations of crime scene investigators in criminal
investigations
E
AQ1.1.02.5 Evaluate the effectiveness of the role of crime scene investigators in criminal
investigations.
An example of a personnel involved within a criminal investigation is the … who…
With regards to funding/cost/availability…
With regards to training/recruitment/expertise…
There are many advantages of using the … within criminal investigations, an example being…
Another example is… etc

35
 However, an example of a limitation would be… Another example is… etc
An example of a case that shows… being a limitation is…
Overall…
AQ1.1.03.1 Describe the role of forensic scientists in criminal investigations
PE
AQ1.1.03.2 Outline examples of cases that demonstrate the effectiveness of forensic scientists
A
AQ1.1.03.3 Assess the effectiveness of forensic scientists in relation with regards to
funding/cost/availability and training/recruitment/expertise
C
AQ1.1.03.4 Evaluate the advantages and limitations of forensic scientists in criminal investigations
E
AQ1.1.03.5 Evaluate the effectiveness of the role of forensic scientists in criminal investigations.
An example of a personnel involved within a criminal investigation is the … who…
With regards to funding/cost/availability…
With regards to training/recruitment/expertise…
There are many advantages of using the … within criminal investigations, an example being…
Another example is… etc
However, an example of a limitation would be… Another example is… etc
An example of a case that shows… being a limitation is…
Overall…
AQ1.1.04.1 Describe the role of the pathologist in criminal investigations
PE
AQ1.1.04.2 Outline examples of cases that demonstrate the effectiveness of the pathologist
A
AQ1.1.04.3 Assess the effectiveness of the pathologist in relation with regards to
funding/cost/availability and training/recruitment/expertise
C
AQ1.1.04.4 Evaluate the advantages and limitations of the pathologist in criminal investigations
E
AQ1.1.04.5 Evaluate the effectiveness of the role of the pathologist in criminal investigations.
An example of a personnel involved within a criminal investigation is the … who…
With regards to funding/cost/availability…
With regards to training/recruitment/expertise…
There are many advantages of using the … within criminal investigations, an example being…
Another example is… etc
However, an example of a limitation would be… Another example is… etc
An example of a case that shows… being a limitation is…
Overall…
AQ1.1.05.1 Describe the role of the Crown Prosecution Service in criminal investigations
PE
AQ1.1.05.2 Outline examples of cases that demonstrate the effectiveness of the Crown Prosecution
Service
A
AQ1.1.05.3 Assess the effectiveness of the Crown Prosecution Service in relation with regards to
funding/cost/availability and training/recruitment/expertise
C
AQ1.1.05.4 Evaluate the advantages and limitations of the Crown Prosecution Service in criminal
investigations
E
AQ1.1.05.5 Evaluate the effectiveness of the role of the Crown Prosecution Service in criminal
investigations.
An example of a personnel involved within a criminal investigation is the … who…
With regards to funding/cost/availability…
With regards to training/recruitment/expertise…
There are many advantages of using the … within criminal investigations, an example being…
Another example is… etc

36
 However, an example of a limitation would be… Another example is… etc
An example of a case that shows… being a limitation is…
Overall…
AQ1.2.01.1 Describe the use of forensic techniques in criminal investigations
PE: An example of an investigative technique involved within a criminal investigation is … which
means…
AQ1.2.01.2 Outline examples of when forensic techniques are used in a range of situations and types of
crime
A: An example of a case in which this was used is…. where…
AQ1.2.01.3 Explain how and why forensic techniques are used in criminal investigations
C: A situation in which it is used would be… because… and a type of crime would be… because…
AQ1.2.01.4 Assess the usefulness of forensic techniques in criminal investigations
E: There are many advantages of using … within criminal investigations, an example being…
However, an example of a limitation would be…
AQ1.2.01.5 Evaluate the usefulness of forensic techniques in criminal investigations.
An example of an investigative technique involved within a criminal investigation is … which
means…
An example of a case in which this was used is…. where…
A situation in which it is used would be… and a type of crime would be…
There are many advantages of using … within criminal investigations, an example being…
However, an example of a limitation would be…
AQ1.2.02.1 Describe the use of surveillance techniques in criminal investigations
PE
AQ1.2.02.2 Outline examples of when surveillance techniques are used in a range of situations and
types of crime
A
AQ1.2.02.3 Explain how and why surveillance techniques are used in criminal investigations
C
AQ1.2.02.4 Assess the usefulness of surveillance techniques in criminal investigations
E
AQ1.2.02.5 Evaluate the usefulness of surveillance techniques in criminal investigations.
An example of an investigative technique involved within a criminal investigation is … which
means…
An example of a case in which this was used is…. where…
There are many advantages of using … within criminal investigations, an example being…
However, an example of a limitation would be…
A situation in which it is used would be… and a type of crime would be…
AQ1.2.03.1 Describe the use of profiling techniques in criminal investigations
PE
AQ1.2.03.2 Outline examples of when profiling techniques are used in a range of situations and types of
crime
A
AQ1.2.03.3 Explain how and why profiling techniques are used in criminal investigations
C
AQ1.2.03.4 Assess the usefulness of profiling techniques in criminal investigations
E
AQ1.2.03.5 Evaluate the usefulness of profiling techniques in criminal investigations.
An example of an investigative technique involved within a criminal investigation is … which
means…
An example of a case in which this was used is…. where…
There are many advantages of using … within criminal investigations, an example being…
However, an example of a limitation would be…
A situation in which it is used would be… and a type of crime would be…
AQ1.2.04.1 Describe the use of intelligence databases in criminal investigations
PE
AQ1.2.04.2 Outline examples of when intelligence databases are used in a range of situations and types
of crime

37
 A
AQ1.2.04.3 Explain how and why intelligence databases are used in criminal investigations
C
AQ1.2.04.4 Assess the usefulness of intelligence databases in criminal investigations
E
AQ1.2.04.5 Evaluate the usefulness of intelligence databases in criminal investigations.
An example of an investigative technique involved within a criminal investigation is … which
means…
An example of a case in which this was used is…. where…
There are many advantages of using … within criminal investigations, an example being…
However, an example of a limitation would be…
A situation in which it is used would be… and a type of crime would be…
AQ1.2.05.1 Describe the use of interviews in criminal investigations
PE
AQ1.2.05.2 Outline examples of when interviews are used in a range of situations and types of crime
A
AQ1.2.05.3 Explain how and why interviews are used in criminal investigations
C
AQ1.2.05.4 Assess the usefulness of interviews in criminal investigations
E
AQ1.2.05.5 Evaluate the usefulness of interviews in criminal investigations.
An example of an investigative technique involved within a criminal investigation is … which
means…
An example of a case in which this was used is…. where…
There are many advantages of using … within criminal investigations, an example being…
However, an example of a limitation would be…
A situation in which it is used would be… and a type of crime would be…
AQ1.3.01.1 Describe what physical evidence is in criminal investigations
PE
AQ1.3.01.2 Outline examples of how physical evidence is processed
A
AQ1.3.01.3 Explain how and why physical evidence is processed
C
AQ1.3.01.4 Assess the role of physical evidence in criminal investigations
E
AQ1.3.01.5 Explain how physical evidence is processed including collection, transfer, storage, analysis
and the personnel involved.
An example of evidence is … which means…
This is processed…
AQ1.3.02.1 Describe what physical evidence is in criminal investigations
PE
AQ1.3.02.2 Outline examples of how physical evidence is processed
A
AQ1.3.02.3 Explain how and why physical evidence is processed
C
AQ1.3.02.4 Assess the role of physical evidence in criminal investigations
E
AQ1.3.02.5 Explain how testimonial evidence is processed including collection, analysis and the
personnel involved.
An example of evidence is … which means…
This is collected…
This is transferred…
It is stored… etc
AQ1.4.01.1 Describe what a suspect is
PE
AQ1.4.01.2 Outline examples that highlight suspects rights
A

38
 AQ1.4.01.3 Examine the rights of suspects from investigation through to appeal
C
AQ1.4.01.4 Evaluate the ethical considerations of suspects rights
E
AQ1.4.01.5 Examine the rights of suspects in criminal investigations.
One individual in a criminal investigation is… which means…
Their rights include…
AQ1.4.02.1 Describe what a victim is
PE
AQ1.4.02.2 Outline examples that highlight victims' rights
A
AQ1.4.02.3 Examine the rights of victims' from investigation through to appeal
C
AQ1.4.02.4 Evaluate the ethical considerations of victims' rights
E
AQ1.4.02.5 Examine the rights of victims in criminal investigations.
One individual in a criminal investigation is… which means…
Their rights include…
AQ1.4.03.1 Describe what a witness is
PE
AQ1.4.03.2 Outline examples that highlight witnesses rights
A
AQ1.4.03.3 Examine the rights of witnesses from investigation through to appeal
C
AQ1.4.03.4 Evaluate the ethical considerations of witnesses' rights
E
AQ1.4.03.5 Examine the rights of witnesses in criminal investigations.
One individual in a criminal investigation is… which means…
Their rights include…
AQ2.1.01 Explain the requirement of the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) for prosecuting suspects
AQ2.2.01 Describe the trial process [4] (pre-trial)
Mark band 1 (1-2 marks) Mark band 2 (3-4 marks)

A simple/basic description of trial processes Describe in some detail the stages of the
and/or personnel involved. May only be a list trial process, including personnel involved.

AQ2.2.02 Describe the trial process [4] (courts)

Mark band 1 (1-2 marks) Mark band 2 (3-4 marks)

A simple/basic description of trial processes Describe in some detail the stages of the
and/or personnel involved. May only be a list trial process, including personnel involved.

AQ2.3.01 Explain the rules of evidence during a trial

AQ2.4.01 Assess key influences affecting the outcomes of criminal cases
AQ2.4.01 Discuss the use of lay people in criminal cases
Mark band 1 (1-3 marks) Mark band 2 (4-6 marks)

A basic/simple description of The uses of lay people are discussed fully in relation to their
juries and magistrates strengths and weaknesses in criminal cases
AQ3.1.01 Do you believe Gareth Hughes' case was a safe verdict?
Mark band 1 (1-5 marks) Mark band 2 (6-10 marks) Mark band 3 (11-15 marks)

Limited information sources A range of information sources Detailed examination of a

are described (listed at the are examined and reviewed in relevant range of

39
 lower end). At the top end, terms of their validity. At the information sources
some information sources bottom end, the range of (including reference to the
are discussed in relation to information sources and/or the brief). There is a clear review
validity review will be limited of their suitability in terms of
validity.
AQ3.1.01 Examine Information for Validity
Mark band 1 (1-5 marks) Mark band 2 (6-10 marks) Mark band 3 (11-15 marks)

Limited information sources A range of information sources Detailed examination of a

are described (listed at the are examined and reviewed in relevant range of
lower end). At the top end, terms of their validity. At the information sources
some information sources bottom end, the range of (including reference to the
are discussed in relation to information sources and/or the brief). There is a clear review
validity review will be limited of their suitability in terms of
validity.

40
The Revision Tools
AC1.1.01.01 ®Commandagons / Police Officers
AC1.1.02.01 ®Commandagons / Pathologist
AC1.1.02.01 ®Commandagons / Police Officers
AC1.1.02.01 ®Double Bubble / Police Officer vs. Crime Scene Investigator
AC1.1.03.01 ®Commandagons / Forensic Scientist
AC1.1.04.01 ®Double Bubble / Forensic Scientist vs. Pathologist
AC1.1.05.01 ®Double Bubble / Police Officer vs. Crown Prosecution Service
AC1.1.05.02 ®Commandagons / Crown Prosecution Service
AC1.1.05.03 ®Conceptagons / Police Officer, Crime Scene Investigator, Forensic Scientist, Pathologist,
Crown Prosecution Service
AC1.2.01.01 ®Commandagons / Forensic Techniques
AC1.2.01.01 ®Commandagons / Forensic Techniques
AC1.2.01.02 ®Double Bubble / Forensic vs. Surveillance
AC1.2.02.01 ®Commandagons / Profiling Techniques
AC1.2.03.02 ®Evaluation Line / Typological, Geographical, Investigative Psychology
AC1.2.03.03 ®Double Bubble / Forensic vs. Profiling
AC1.2.04.01 ®Commandagons / Intelligence Databases
AC1.2.04.01 ®Commandagons / Intelligence Databases
AC1.2.04.02 ®Double Bubble / Databases vs. Profiling
AC1.2.04.02 ®Double Bubble / Databases vs. Profiling
AC1.2.04.03 ®Conceptagons / Forensic, Surveillance, Profiling, Databases, Interviews
AC1.2.04.03 ®Evaluation Line / Forensic, Surveillance, Profiling, Databases, Interviews
AC1.3.01.01 ®Commandagons / Physical Evidence
AC1.3.01.02 ®Evaluation Line / Bodily fluids, Trace, Impression
AC1.3.02.01 ®Commandagons / Physical Evidence
AC1.3.02.02 ®Conceptagons / Trace, Impression, Bodily Fluids, Testimonial, Finger Prints
AC1.3.02.02 ®Evaluation Line / Trace, Impression, Bodily Fluids, Testimonial, Finger Prints
AC1.4.01.01 ®Conceptagons / Stop, Arrest and Held, Police Station, Questioned, Samples, Appeal
AC1.4.02.01 ®Conceptagons / Reporting, During the Investigation, Court
AC1.4.02.02 ®Double Bubble / Suspects vs. Victims
AC1.4.03.01 ®Double Bubble / Witness vs. Victims
AC2.1.01 ®Double Bubble / Evidential Test vs. Public Interest Test
AC2.2.01 ®Double Bubble / Indictable vs. Summary
AC2.2.02 ®Double Bubble / Conditional Bail vs. Unconditional Bail
AC2.2.03 ®Double Bubble / Guilty Plea vs. Not Guilty Plea
AC2.2.04 ®Double Bubble / Magistrate vs. Crown
AC2.2.05 ®Conceptagons / Offences, Plea, Legal Aid, Bail, Courts, Appeals
AC2.3.01 ®Conceptagons / Relevance, admissibility, Disclosure of evidence, Hearsay rule, exceptions
AC2.3.02 ®Commandagons / Rules relating to evidence
AC2.4.01 ®Conceptagons / Evidence, Witnesses, Experts, Barristers and legal teams, Judiciary, Politics,
The media
AC2.4.02 ®Evaluation Line / The Most Significant Influence: Evidence, Witnesses, Experts, Barristers and
legal teams, Judiciary, Politics, The Media
AC2.5.01 ®Evaluation Line / Strengths and Limitations of Juries
AC2.5.01 ®Evaluation Line / Strengths and Limitations of Lay Magistrates
AC3.1.01 ®Evaluation Line / Evidence, Trial transcripts, Media reports, Judgements, Law reports
AC3.2.01 ®Evaluation Line / Evidence, Trial transcripts, Media reports, Judgements, Law reports

41
42
in three at the corners
43
escribe

tline

lain

al ate

hat if
44
ara ra h hain
Decide on an exam ques on and use this to sequence and link paragraphs to each other
45
al a on ine
se this to support conclusions or opinions . Add concepts, ideas or paragraphs ra ng their support or opposi on to
the ques on.
46
o ble bble
se this by entering two theories or concepts and iden fy how they are the same and how they are di erent .
47
race a
se this to break down a big idea. Think of it as a mind map you can convert into an essay easier.