BUILDING CONSTRUCTION & MATERIALS (BLD 6I604)

WALL SYSTEMS
WALLS
1. External / Internal – architectural , function
2. Load bearing / Non Load Bearing – structural capacity

TYPES OF WALL by Material And Construction System

1.Masonry Walls
2. Light Weight Dry Walls
3. Concrete Walls
4. Structural Glass Walls
5. Curtain Wall System
6. Aluminum Cladding Façade System
Q. Which of the above wall system has load bearing capacity ?
 WHAT ARE WALLS ?
walls are part of the 3 planes in architecture [ along with the
other 2 planes - the overhead (roof) plane & the base (floor)
plane ] that defines the 3-dimensional volume of mass and space
WALLS ARE THE VERTICAL (?) PLANES
WALLS OFFERS PROTECTION – FROM OUTSIDERS
AS WELL AS PROVIDES HABITABLE SPACE WITHIN
WALLS CREATES FORMS – DEFINES SPACE

The Pavilion
Mies van de Rohe
 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF WALLS

1. External Walls Offers Shelter

– resist against the Elements
2. Carry own self weight
and/or dead load above
3. Sound Insulation
4. Thermal Insulation
5. Fire Resistance
6. Durable

Name 5 external elements that may affect walls?

FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS…cont’d

1. Stability
The stability of wall may be affected by:
Foundation movement,
Eccentric loads,
Lateral forces (wind), and;
Expansion due to temperature and moisture changes.
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS…cont’d

2. Strength
A wall should be designed to safely support its own weight, wind
loads and the loads imposed by floor and roof.

The strength of wall depends on:

The strength of the material of the wall
The wall thickness.

In general, for a given material, the thicker the wall the greater the
loads it can carry
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS…cont’d

3. Exclusion of rain
The ability of a wall to exclude wind and rain will depend to some extent
on its exposure to wind. The actual exposure of a building will depend on:
Its site and will be affected by proximity to the coast,
Elevation of the site,
The height of the building, and;
Proximity of other buildings.

The behaviour of a wall in excluding wind and rain will depend on the
nature of the materials used in the construction of the wall and how there are put
together.
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS…cont’d

4. Durability
A wall which suited to the characteristics of the material, and designed
with due regard to the exposure of the wall to driving rain and with sensible
provision of damp-proof courses around doors and windows and to parapets,
should be durable for the anticipated life of the majority of most buildings and
require little if any maintenance and repair.
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS…cont’d

5. Fire resistance
The resistance of the elements of a structure to collapse, flame
penetration and heat transmission during fire is expressed in periods of from
one half to six hours. Various periods of resistance are called for depending
on the size, nature and occupancy of the building so that the national
periods of resistance to fire of the elements of the building are assumed to be
sufficient for the safe escape of occupants during fire.

In general the smaller the building and the less inflammable the
contents the smaller the required period of resistance to fire.
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS…cont’d
6. Thermal properties
The walls should:
Provide adequate insulation against excessive loss or gain of heat,
Have adequate thermal storage capacity, and;
The internal face of walls should be at a reasonable temperature.

Lightweight materials with low conductivity are more effective than

dense materials with high conductivity whereas dense materials have better
thermal storage capacity than lightweight materials. Combination of a brick or
dense block inner skin, a cavity filled with some lightweightinsulating
material and an outer leaf of brick against penetration of rain is of advantage.
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS…cont’d

7. Resistance of sound transmission and sound absorption

Sound is transmitted as:
Airborne Sound – is generated as cyclical disturbances of air from the source
of the sound with diminishing intensity.
Impact Sound – is caused by contact with a surface.

The heavier and more dense the material of the wall the more effective it is in
reducing sound. A solid wall one brick thick, or a solid cavity wall, is generally
considered to provide reasonable sound reduction between dwellings at
reasonable cost. The small reduction in sound transmission obtained by
doubling the thickness and cost of the wall is considered prohibitive. The more
dense the material the more readily it will transmit impact sound.
WALL - as defined by its structural capacity
LOAD BEARING WALL NON LOAD BEARING WALL
Carries and distributes the load Does not carry any structural load
from roof and floor from above except self weight and wind load
(and lateral load) to structure to the structure (eg. Column, slab
or foundation below or beam)
Thickness of wall is less then the
load bearing wall

‘Wall as SKIN’

‘Wall as STRUCTURE’
 WALL - as defined by its structural capacity
LOAD BEARING WALL NON LOAD BEARING WALL
• Reinforced Concrete wall • Masonry wall
• Masonry wall • Precast concrete panel
• Precast concrete wall • Stud frame partition/ wall infill
• Light weight stud framing wall (interior or exterior)
(small scale building) • Glass curtain walling
• Aluminium curtain walling

‘Wall as SKIN’

‘Wall as STRUCTURE’
TYPES OF WALLS by Material And Construction System
MASONRY WALLS
1. stone masonry
2.clay / cement brick walls
3.concrete / AAC block walls

CHARACTERISTICS
1.can be either load bearing or non load-bearing
2.one of the oldest material, and the most common
materials for walls construction in Malaysia
3.durable, good sound insulation, fire insulation and
thermal insulation
4. offers great flexibility in form and appearance
STONE MASONRY WALLS
construction material mainly in the past
 Wall System
Types of Retaining Walls

There are many ways of constructing retaining walls. Basically, for wall less than 3 feet (900mm) in
height, un-reinforced retaining wall like mass retaining wall is built.

Mass Retaining Wall

These walls rely mainly on their own mass to overcome the tendency to slide forwards. Mass
retaining walls are not generally considered to be economic over a height of 1m in the case of
natural stonework.
 Wall System
For taller walls, and ones subjected to unusual loading or ground water, the type most frequently
employed today is the Cantilevered Concrete Retaining Walls. The shape and reinforcing of a
cantilevered wall can be custom designed to suit almost any situation.

Cantilevered Retaining Walls

Cantilevered Retaining Walls are constructed of reinforced concrete with an economic height range of
1200 t0 6000. The footing is shaped to resist sliding and overturning the wall reduces the likelihood of
undermining.
 Wall System
The pattern of steel reinforcing is designed to resist the tensile forces in the wall.
A retaining wall is a structure
that holds back earth.
Retaining walls stabilize soil
and rock from downslope
movement or erosion and
provide support for vertical
or near-vertical grade
changes.
 Stability of a retaining wall is very crucial for the earth slope
and overall structure of a building

25
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08-7-2002_panorama_tn
BLOCK WALLS
CONSIDERATIONS IN SELECTING
THE TYPE OF MASONRY
1. self weight ; loading on
structure & foundation
2. strength
3. installation time
4. insulation properties eg.
thermal, sound, fire
5. surface finish
6. cost

AUTOCLAVED AERATED
CONCRETE BLOCK CONCRETE BLOCK
 Concrete Masonry Unit
29 A concrete masonry unit (CMU) – also called concrete brick,
concrete block, cement block, besser block, breeze block and
cinder block – is a large rectangular block used in building
construction.

Concrete blocks are made from cast concrete, e.g. Portland

cement and aggregate, usually sand and fine gravel for high-
density blocks. Lower density blocks may useindustrial
wastes as an aggregate. Lightweight blocks can also be
produced usingaerated concrete.

prepared by sivaraman kuppusamy

30

Concrete blocks may be produced with

hollow centers to reduce weight or
improve insulation. The use of blockwork
allows structures to be built in the
traditional masonry style with layers (or
courses) of staggered blocks. Blocks come
in many sizes. In the US, with an R-Value of
1.11 the most common nominal size is 16 ×
8 × 8 in (410 × 200 × 200 mm); the block
measures a 3/8 in shorter, allowing for
mortar joints. In Ireland and the UK, blocks
are usually 440 × 215 × 100 mm (17.3 × 8.5
× 3.9 in) excluding mortar joints. In New
Zealand and Canada, blocks are usually 390
× 190 × 190 mm (15.4 × 7.5 × 7.5 in)
excluding mortar joints.
prepared by sivaraman kuppusamy
 Types of Concrete Blocks
31 • Solid Concrete Blocks
• Hollow Concrete Blocks
• Lightweight Aerated Concrete Blocks
• Flyash Concrete Blocks

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 Advantages and disadvantages of block
32
compare to brick
1. Thermal insulation (having dual character of keeping building cool in summer and
warm in winter).
2. Sound insulation (to decrease disturbance due to external noise).
3. Adequate strength and structural stability.
4. Highly durable.
5. Fire resistant.
6. Economy.
7. Low maintenance (No efflorescence).
8. Environmentally Eco friendly (Constituents can be substituted by waste products
like fly ash).
9. Reduction in mortar consumption.
10.Fast and Easier construction system.
11.Better Architectural features

prepared by sivaraman kuppusamy

Concrete Masonry
Construction
Reinforced Masonry Walls
CMU Masonry with Joist & Metal Decking
CMU with Precast Concrete Decking
Electrical Rough-in
MPE Rough-In

Rough-in
•Electrical
•Plumbing
•HVAC

Fire Damper
Electrical Roughin
Building constructed in Bricks ( Malaysia)

Putrajaya - The New Malaysian Government Administrative Centre with Clay on Facing Bricks
BRICK WALLS

SMOOTH SURFACE CEMENT SAND

CLAY BRICK
FACING BRICK BRICK
INSTALLATING BRICKWALLS

RC column
Exmet laid with
mortar bed at every
4th. course
Dowel bars / bonding
ties fixed to RC
column at every 4th
course

DPC laid on
brickwork before
levelling mortar
at 150mm Fibre mesh to
above ground floor brickwall / rc
level(UBBL Cl.84(3)) column junction
Cement sand mortar
 INSTALLATING BRICKWALLS

Damp Proof Course - protection against rising damp from Ground Level

Laying DPC over fresh mortar bed Laying mortar over DPC and continue with bricklaying
INSTALLATING BRICKWALLS

Brickwall/bonding ties/fishtail ties made from

galv. or stainless steel are fixed to rc columns and
embedded at every 4th course in the brickwall.
(UBBL Cl.95)

Their main function is to improve the strength of a

brick wall by transferring some of the force applied
to the wall to a second load-bearing structure

In Malaysia dowel bars are often used as brick ties.

These are inserted into concrete columns with
epoxy EP7 or equivalent
 Wall System
Mortar Mix

Mortar is a mixture of sand and lime or a mixture of sand and

cement with or without lime.
The lime is added for workability, however, as the lime
content increase the mortar’s resistance to damage by frost
action decrease. Mortar used in site A is a mixture of sand
and cement without lime. The ratio for this cement mortar is 1
: 3 (cement : sand).

Expanded Metal (Exmet)

Brick walls are usually reinforced horizontally

with steel joint reinforcing, which is thin
enough to fit into an ordinary bed joint of
mortar, called Expanded Metal, (Exmet in
short.)
INSTALLATING BRICKWALLS
Lintels are a type of beam that spans
across openings in brickwork for windows
and doors.
They support the weight of the brickwork
above the opening and transfer this load
to the side walls.

Mesh reinforcement embedded at every

4th course and tucked into the next course
to give extra tensile strength to the Galvanised steel lintel
brickwall . It helps to withstand vibrations
and sudden loading thus preventing cracks installed at openings
in the brickwall.

Exmet Reinforcement
reinforcement installed around lintel
Wall System

Bonding is used for non load-bearing

wall and it is only advisable for short
distances only. The bending steel is
used to tie the wall to the column. The top of the brick wall is laid in
a slanted angle and the
remaining gaps are filled with
mortar. The intention of this is to
With the allow the brick wall to have room
shortage of clay to expand in the case of a fire.
blocks in Site B
(which is
stronger and
time-saving),
the contractor
used the
standard bricks
to finish up the
wall. Since the
wall is going to
be plastered,
the unsightly
bond could be
covered.
INSTALLATING BRICKWALLS

Gap between top course of

brickwork and beam soffit need
to be filled up with grout

Using hand pump to fill up gap with grout

Hand pump for injecting mortar grout

INSTALLATING BRICKWALLS

Raking and shaping excess mortar for

Facing Brickwall

Mortar must be properly raked to

prepare for wall plastering
 INSTALLATING BRICKWALLS

Reinforcement installed around door frame Reinforcement installed around

and at lintel before plastering openings for electrical services
Wall System
Openings on brick wall

The opening needs a lintel to support the load.

There are3 types of lintel, timber, concrete and steel lintel. The
common lintel used in the domestic is the concrete reinforcement
lintel. The lintel is constructed as soon as the brick level reached
the top level of the opening. Then formwork is constructed to put in
the reinforcement and lastly, concrete is poured into the formwork.

Formwork
needed to be
supported as
the formwork
for beams.
formwork can
only be
removed after
concrete is
Lintel window sill set.
Wall System

The extra length of the steel bar will

be cut off before plastering is done.

The bottom of
this lintel shows
steel bars. This
is bad as there
are no spacers
in the lintel.

The opening is done without a lintel.

Lintel is unnecessary because minimal
load is transmitted from the brickwork
on top of the window jamb.
Wall System
Temporary
supports are
needed in
installing the
door frame
before doing
lintel and
other
brickwork.

Steel ties are using to tie

the window frame to the
lintel and window jamb.

Heel stone at the bottom of the

door frame is constructed in
order to prevent dampness of
the floor penetrating and
destroying the timber. Usually
found in wet areas in the
building.
INSTALLATING BRICKWALLS
STIFFENERS are an integral
part of brickwalls for stability
by providing lateral support.
By sectionalizing brickwalls
into smaller effective areas,
cracks are reduced.
VERTICAL STIFFENER
-per 3m height

HORIZONTAL STIFFINER
-per 4m length/ width

CROSS WALL PIERS

INSTALLATING BRICKWALLS
CHASING MASONARY WALL FOR CONCEALED PIPINGS & CONDUITS

Chases in walls for pipes

and services shall leave a
minimum of 100mm
thick at the back of the
chase not less than
100mm for external walls and party walls (UBBL Cl.89)
 BRICKWALL – PLASTER & SKIM COAT
Plastering of brickwall is the
process of covering it with a
plastic material ( usually a
mixture of cement , sand and
lime mixed with water)

Special thin coat plasters (skim

coats) may be applied to
cement plastered surfaces for
smoother finish. Skim coats are
usually 2mm – 3mm thick.

• Plastering should be done after curing on the brick masonry.

• Cement and sand mix ratio should be
- 1:6 (1 cement: 6 sand) for internal plastering of bricks and
- 1:4 for external plastering.
• When applying plaster, its thickness should not be beyond 12mm or 15mm
thick per application with a maximum of 25mm overall thickness
(thicker plaster may be achieved by building up with steel reinforcement
mesh – max 50mm
• Plaster may be smooth finish or sponged (rough) finish
Cracking:
• Walls are affected by temperature and
moisture change. Materials can suffer Efflorescence:
from initial shrinkage and/or Efflorescence is the formation of a white crystalline
subsequent expansion and substance on the face of brick. This is caused by an
contraction. This movement gives rise excessive amount of moisture within the wall leaching
to the cracks. The crack shown in the through and out of the masonry. As water passes
main picture is shown as vertical, through the mortar joints, salts are collected and
which is often the case. However, the transported to the face of the brick where it then
crack sometimes follows the line of crystallizes.
least resistance and can end up
stepped.
• May be due to ongoing foundation http://bermanwright.com/diagnosing-issues-of-brick-masonry-walls/
settlement
BRICK ARCHITECTURE
AlvarAlto
 Special Shapes
3. Shape
 Benefits of Masonry
Durable and strong, variety of
colours, styles, finishes and textures
Needs no protection from the
elements
Energy efficient
Reduces noise transmission.
Never needs painting, or cleaning
Resistant to corrosion, rust, dents or
scratches
Fireproof
STUD WALL FRAMING SYSTEM
STUD WALL FRAMING SYSTEM
• timber stud wall framing construction
• light gauge metal stud wall framing construction

• CHARACTERISTICS
• load-bearing (for 1 to 2 storey small scale building)
• wall framing elements can be cut to size or even
assembled as wall panel off site
• fast, relatively simple and clean to install
• reduced on-site labour cost
 Timber stud walls
63
Stud partitions are still 100 x 50 timber studs
extensively used for internal
walls of domestic buildings.
These are non load bearing
internal dividing walls which are
easy to construct, lightweight,
adaptable and can be clad and
filled with various materials to
give different finishes and
properties.

Door opening

prepared by sivaraman kuppusamy

 Timber stud walls
64 Section A A
General construction consists of 100 x
50mm or 100 x 75mm sole plate and head 100 x 50mm stud
plate. Vertical members or studs made
from 100 x 38mm or 100 x 50mm Architrave
members are nailed in between at 400mm
centres.
The spacing is to suit the plasterboard or
other cladding material.
Nogging or bridging pieces are inserted Door
between the studs to stiffen the partition.
The timber frame is then covered with
Planted door stop
plasterboard on both sides and finished Plaster Board
with a 3 to 5mm coat of plaster. 100 x 50mm stud

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 Timber stud walls
65

100 x 50mm head plate

Ceiling joist

A A

Door
Plaster board
opening

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Floor joist 100 x 50mm sole plate 100 x 50mm studs at 400c/s
LIGHT GAUGE GALV. STEEL FRAMING
- Small scale building, normally residential

Q. Is the above a non load bearing wall system or load bearing wall system ?
TIMBER STUD WALL
- Small scale building, normally residential
TIMBER STUD WALL
Note: 1st Floor timber framing will not support concrete floor slab
TIMBER STUD WALL
600mm

1200mm
Q. How are the metal cladding
installed ?

Q. Which direction is the supporting

member installed in relationship to
the wall cladding profile?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bh2PW
hW3byQ
DRY WALL / STUD WALL FRAMING SYSTEM (INTERIOR)

Partition board wall system ;

most common system for
internal wall system
- aluminum stud wall framing
system
Characteristics
• non load-bearing
• fast, relatively simple and clean to install
• sound insulation and thermal insulation properties can be
improved by addition of mineral fibre insulation
• type of partition board and stud backing system can be
varied to suit requirements
• susceptible to water damage and moulding
• ‘hollow’, and susceptible to damage by external forces
 DRY WALL SYSTEM (internal use)

Interior – Aluminium stud wall framing system

DRY WALL – COMPONENTS
DRY WALL – COMPONENTS
 Additional layer of partition board
and fibreglas/rockwool insulation for
- Sound and/ or thermal insulation
- Fire resistance
DRYWALL – WET AREA - Not Common In Malaysia
CONCRETE WALLS

Structure vs Architecture

OR

Structure as Architecture
CONCRETE WALLS
• cast in-situ rc frame with pre-cast infill panel walls
• cast in-situ shear wall systems
• pre-cast concrete wall systems

CHARACTERISTICS
Whether a wall is load bearing depends on design / structural
intention
In situ concrete wall is normally load bearing while pre-cast
concrete wall can be either load bearing or non load bearing.
 CONCRETE WALLS
1. CAST IN-SITU RC FRAME WITH PRE-CAST INFILL PANEL WALLS
2. CAST IN-SITU SHEAR WALL SYSTEMS
3. PRE-CAST CONCRETE WALL SYSTEMS

CHARACTERISTICS
1. USUALLY LOAD BEARING depends on design / structural intention
In situ concrete wall is normally load bearing while pre-cast concrete wall
be either load bearing or non load bearing.

2. TEXTURE & APPEARANCE CAN BE CONTROLLED BY THE USE OF

FORMWORKS, ADMIXTURES & ADDITIVES
3. OFTEN USED IN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS IN MALAYSIA
4.OFTEN USED IN GOVERNMENT PROJECTS IN MALAYSIA, AS PART OF
THE INDUSTRALISED BUILDING SYSTEMS (IBS); OFFERS GREATER
SPEED OF CONSTRUCTION & CONTROL OF QUALITY
RC WALL APPEARANCE
RC WALL TEXTURE

Exposed Fine Aggregate Exposed Course Aggregate

CAST IN-SITU SHEAR WALL with timber formwork
PRE-CAST RC WALL SYSTEM
PRE-CAST RC WALL SYSTEM

Q. IS THERE A REQUIRED INSTALLATION SEQUESNCE FOR THE PRE CAST WALLS?

 PRE-CAST RC WALL SYSTEM

Completed hostel units with finishing to the pre cast walls

PRE-CAST RC WALL SYSTEM as cladding system

FINISHES
• concrete finish – smooth or textured
• stone veneer eg. granite
• expose aggregate
• paint finish

Q. LOAD BEARING OR NON LOAD BEARING PRE CAST WALLS ?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YO2paGT9TsA
GLASS WALL
1. structural glass wall system
2. non structural glass partition / glass wall panel

Characteristics
1. allows transparency, yet retain the strengths of typical
walls
2. allows for large spans
3. high cost compared to other traditional materials
4. requires specialist consultants and contractors
5. durable to weathering conditions
6. surface – strong but brittle
STRUCTURAL GLASS WALL

• Glass specification
- laminated tempered glass for
safety and strength
91
prepared by sivaraman kuppusamy
Williams Tower ( Formerly Transco Tower) Architect Philip Johnson
 Structural Glass Walls
A structural glass wall is made up of tempered glass
sheets suspended from special clamps, or spider
fittings. These fittings are stabilized against wind
pressure by perpendicular stiffeners and/or cables
and carry the glass loads

92
spider fittings-prepared by sivaraman kuppusamy
used to hold tempered glass in structural glass walls
93
prepared by sivaraman kuppusamy
structural glass wall using spider fittings
94
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structural glass wall using spider fittings
95
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 structural glass wall using
spider fittings & cable supports

96
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97 Structural Glass Roof Panels
prepared by sivaraman kuppusamy

spider fittings and cable supports

 Glass Fin System

98
Glass fins used as structural elements to carry
prepared by sivaraman kuppusamy

glass gravity loads and wind loads.

 Glass fins used as structural elements to carry
glass gravity loads and wind loads.
99
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STRUCTURAL GLASS COMPONENT
STRUCTURAL GLASS CONNECTION DETAILS
GLASS CURTAIN WALLING SYSTEM
GLASS CURTAIN WALLING SYSTEM

CHARACTERISTICS
1. Non structural, non load bearing
2. Primarily for façade treatment
3. Curtain walls may use aluminum
panels or aluminum composite
panels together with glass as infills
4. high cost and requires expertise for
design and construction
5. glass systems offer unparallel
visibility and transparency
GLASS CURTAIN WALLING SYSTEM

Horizontal – Trensom
Vertical - Mullion
 External cladding wall with glass window wall
105

prepared by sivaraman kuppusamy

Figure 1: Typical Curtain Wall Section Detail

GLASS CURTAIN WALLING SYSTEM

Unitized Stick
Unitized Curtain Wall installation Stick Curtain Wall System
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KYXpMkujo_8 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_tTc0kOBKz4
ALUMINIUM CLADDING FAÇADE SYSTEM

• Solid Aluminum panel

ALUMINIUM CLADDING FAÇADE SYSTEM

• Aluminum Composite panel

with polyethylene interlayer
 Curtain wall system with thermal break
109

prepared by sivaraman kuppusamy

 Spandrel Glass

11 Opaque glass used for covering the bands of wall

prepared by sivaraman kuppusamy
0
around the edges of floors
 Reinforced
111 Spandrel panel with insulation

prepared by sivaraman kuppusamy

 Spandrel panel with insulation
112

prepared by sivaraman kuppusamy

 Spandrel panel with insulation
VIP-Vacum Insulated Panel
113

prepared by sivaraman kuppusamy

 Spandrel panel with insulation
114

prepared by sivaraman kuppusamy

 Spandrel panel with insulation
115

prepared by sivaraman kuppusamy

 ALUMINIUM CLADDING FAÇADE SYSTEM

External metal cladding (2.22min)

• In Malaysia, Aluminum http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vmRc9c4juCU
Composite panel are not
allowed to be installed on ‘Alucabond’ clip on cladding (1:43min)
buildings taller than 20m http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hf-
1F15gVUQ&list=PLLL5qewTllFdiT59T4E1W9moAVOBIJn1Z
WHAT’S Next?

Future trends …

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jLf95eNMYvo
Rendering Machine
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2-VR4IcDhX0
Brick laying robotics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5bW1vuCgEaA