L1: Cell Theory

Characteristics of Living Things

• In order for something to be classified as a living thing, it must have the following
characteristics:
• (MRS GREN)
• able to grow
• able to reproduce
• able to move without help
• respond to its environment (stimuli)
• made of cells
• growth; single celled = increase volume, multicellular = add to # of cells in their body
• response; homeostasis (regulating body temperature) or behaviour (responses)

Cell
• A cell is the smallest unit that can perform the functions of life

Cell Theory
• Cell theory has been called the foundation of biology, and it states that:
1. All living things are made up of one or more cells
2. Cells come from existing cells by division
3. A cell is the smallest unit of a living thing

Prokaryotic Cells
• Simplest cells around
• Very small cells
• Unicellular (only one cell)
• Do not have a nucleus
• The DNA floats freely in the cell
• Can be found in bacteria and archaea

Eukaryotic Cells
• Are bigger and more complex cells than prokaryotic cells
• Can be unicellular or multicellular
• They have an organized and defined nucleus
• They keep their DNA in the nucleus
• They have organelles
• Eukaryotic cells can be found in plants, fungi, animals, and protists
 L2: Cell Organelles
Cell Structure
• A eukaryotic cell has specialized parts, called organelles that carry out specific functions
necessary for life.
• Organelle: a cell structure that performs a specific function for the cell

Cell Organelles
• Cytoplasm
• Jellylike substance that fills up the rest of the cells
• Suspends or contains all other
• Cell Membrane
• surrounds the cell to hold the cell together
• controls what goes in and out of the cell
• Nucleus
• a roughly spherical structure in the cell that contains (DNA) that controls all cell
activities.
• The genetic information is stored on chromosomes or CHROMATIN.
• Nuclear Membrane or Envelope
• Surrounds the nucleus to protect the DNA by, controlling what enters
• Nucleolus
• Makes ribosomes, inside nucleus
• Ribosomes
• Found free floating in the cytoplasm or bound to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in
the cell
• Makes protein in the cell
• Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Folds, processes, and transports proteins and fats within the cell
• There are two types of ER: rough ER and smooth ER
• Rough ER has ribosomes attached to it
• Mitochondria
• singular: mitochondrion
• “power house” of the cell because they make energy.
• produces energy for the cell by converting food (glucose) into a usable form (ATP) via
cellular respiration.
• glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + usable energy (ATP)
• Golgi Bodies
• modifies, packages, and distributes molecules around the cell
• Vacuoles
 • Stores water, food, and waste
• Animal cells may have many small vacuoles, while plant cells have a very large
vacuole

Organelles in Plants Cells Only

• Cell Wall
• is a rigid outer layer made of cellulose and is found just outside the cell membrane
• provides support for the cell and protection from physical injury
• Chloroplasts
• where water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight combine to produce food for plants
• CO2 + H2O + energy (sunlight) → glucose + oxygen
• Photosynthesis allows plants to obtain their energy from the Sun so that they can
make their own food.
• Plant cells still need mitochondria to make glucose into ATP, just as animal cells do.
• Central Vacuole
• a large membrane bound organelle located in the centre of the cell that

Organelles in Animal Cells Only

• Lysosomes
• contain enzymes that break down food, cell waste, and foreign particles that enter
the cell (like bacteria)
• recycles old cell parts and dead cell parts
• Centrioles
• aid in cell division

L3: The Cell Cycle

How do we grow?
● The cell is the ___________ unit of life.
● Since the cell is a living thing, it can _______________
● Cells reproduce by splitting in half → _____________________

Functions of Cell Division

Cells divide for 3 reasons:
● To ________ damaged tissue
● To ________
● To __________________ new organisms
The Cell Nucleus
The nucleus __________ the _____________ of the cell. The nucleus contains these main structures:
1. Nucleolus → manufactures ___________________
2. Nuclear Envelope → _____________ around nucleus
3. Genetic Material (DNA)
a) Chromosomes
• DNA is ___________ packed (can be seen with a light microscope)
• Found only during ___________________
b) Chromatin
• DNA is ____________ packed (cannot be seen with a light microscope
• Found when the cell is _______________________

The Cell Nucleus

The Cell Cycle
In order for a cell to reproduce, the ___________________________ (DNA) inside the nucleus
must be ____________.
This way, the _____________ will have the _________ genetic material as the _________________.
The Cell Cycle has 3 Stages:
● Interphase → cell ______________ to divide
● Mitosis → cell _____________ goes through
_________________________
● Cytokinesis → cell __________ into 2 identical cells

The Cell Cycle: Interphase

● The ____________ stage in the life cycle
● the cell carries out all __________________________
except for cell division (growing, respiration, specialized
functions)
Stages of Interphase
● G1 Phase → cell _________, genetic material (DNA) appears
as ______________
● S Phase → DNA is ________________ (makes a copy)
● G2 Phase → cell ______________ for division by producing
organelles and structures

The Cell Cycle: Mitosis

● the genetic material (DNA) in the nucleus ______________
Stages of Mitosis
● Prophase
● Metaphase
● Anaphase
● Telophase

The Cell Cycle: Cytokinesis

● The _________________ of cell division
● Division of the _____________________ such as cytoplasm, organelles, and the cell membrane
● The division produces 2 identical ________________________.
Limits to Cell Growth
Cells are not meant to grow indefinitely. The cell cycle _______________ how long a cell lives.
Necrosis
● this is the ___________ of a cell due to _____________
● ex: burns, scrapes, gangrene
Apoptosis
● this is the ___________ of a cell that is _____________________ → normal process to aid
in ______________ of organisms
● ex: loss of tail in a tadpole, loss of webbing between fingers and toes in a human fetus

L4: Mitosis

Mitosis
Mitosis is a process where a ________________ divides into ______ identical daughter cells.
Each daughter cell will have the same ___________ and ______ of chromosomes as the parent cell
There are _____ stages in mitosis:
1. Prophase 2. Metaphase 3. Anaphase 4. Telophase

Chromosomes
● Chromosomes contain _______
● A duplicated chromosome has 2 __________ chromatids that are
genetically _____________
● A ______________ is a single strand in a duplicated chromosome
● Chromatids are attached together at their __________________

The Cell Cycle

Recall …. the cell cycle has 3
phases:
● Interphase
● Mitosis
● Cytokinesis
 The Cell Cycle

INTERPHASE
● _____________________ phase
● Genetic material is ___________________ (chromatin)
● ________________ are duplicating

MITOSIS: Prophase
● DNA condenses → __________________
● Nucleolus & nuclear envelope ____________
● ________________ form off the centrioles
● Centrioles ____________ to opposite ends of the cell

MITOSIS: Metaphase
● Chromosomes line up in the ___________ of the cell
● Spindle fibers attach to the _______________ of the
chromosomes → __________________

MITOSIS: Anaphase
● Centromeres _________ and sister chromatids
_______________
● Chromosomes move to _____________ ends of the cell

MITOSIS: Telophase
● Chromosomes become ______________ → chromatin
● Spindle fibers _________________
● Nuclear membrane & nucleolus ____________
CYTOKINESIS
● ___________________ begins to divide
● Cell ______________ into two identical
__________________ cells

note
L4b: Cancer
Limits to Cell Growth
• Cells are not meant to grow indefinitely. The cell cycle regulates how long a cell lives.
• Necrosis
• this is the premature death of a cell due to injury
• ex: burns, scrapes, gangrene
• Apoptosis
• this is the programmed death of a cell that is no longer useful → normal process to
aid in survival of organisms
• ex: loss of tail in a tadpole, loss of webbing between fingers and toes in a human
fetus

Apoptosis Protects Us!

• In humans, as many as 10^11 cells die each day and are replaced by other cells. In fact, the
mass of cells we lose each year through normal cell death is close to our entire body weight!

What is Cancer?
• Cancer is a disease that occurs when there is a loss of balance between cell division and cell
death. The cells that should have died, divide uncontrollably instead.
Tumors: Benign vs Malignant
• Uncontrolled cell division gives rise to a rapidly growing mass of cells that form a lump or
tumor.
• Benign:
• The tumor does not affect the surrounding tissues.
• Benign tumors are not cancerous.
• Malignant:
• The tumor interferes with the functioning of surrounding cells.
• Malignant tumors are cancerous.
• Metastasis occurs when cancer cells break away from the original tumor and settle in a new
location in the body.
• Metastasis is one of the reasons why cancer is so dangerous!

Cancer & Mutations

• Cancer results from a mutation → a random change in the DNA. This mutation causes a cell
to behave abnormally.

Causes of Cancer
• Some mutations are caused by environmental factors called carcinogens. Some examples of
carcinogens are:
• cigarette smoke
• radiation from x-rays
• UV radiation from the sun and tanning beds
• some viruses such as HPV and hepatitis B
• certain chemicals in plastics → bisphenol A (BPA)
• food additives
• According to Health Canada, smoking causes 9 out of 10 cases of lung cancer. Smoking also
increases the risk of over a dozen other types of cancer. DO NOT SMOKE!
 L5: Cell Specialization

There are 10 000 000 000 000 total cells in the human body, with over 200 different types of cells, like
bone cells, stomach cells, liver cells, etc., which all look different and do different things - If all human
beings arose from a single cell, how do you think we manage to have all these different types of cells?

Cell Specialization
● also known as cell ____________________
● the process by which different __________ of cells are made to perform ________________
within the body
● is directed by the _______ inside the ______________ of the cell
● Cell specialization is very important in the development of an embryo. Different cells have
very specific functions to develop the tissues, organs, and bones.

Levels of Specialization:
a. Cellular Level - Heart muscle cell
b. Tissue Level - Heart muscle tissue
c. Organ Level - Heart
d. Organ system Level - Circulatory System
e. Organism - Deer

1. Cells The basic unit of structure and function of living things

2. Tissues (Animal) Tissues are groups of specialized cells that have the same structure
and perform the same function.

3. Organs An organ is a structure composed of different tissues that work

together to perform a specific function.

4. Organ System Organs work with other organs to form systems that maintain vital
bodily function.

5. Organism (most A body made up of tissues, organs, and organ systems, that work
complex) together to carry on the various tasks necessary for life
Stem Cells
A cell that can differentiate into many different cell types is called a ____________________.
There are 2 types of stem cells:
● Embryonic → can differentiate into _______ type of cell
● Adult → can differentiate into __________ types of cells
A stem cell is an _____________________ cell that can become a __________________cell →
perform a specific task

Adult Stem Cell

● Found in many places such as _________, _____________, and ________________
● Have ______________ ability to create new types of cells
● Importance: regeneration of new tissue to _______________ diseased organs
● Controversial: _____________ of body organs
Ex: Tissue stem cells found in bone marrow can differentiate into:
white blood cells

red blood cells

platelets

Embryonic Stem Cells

● found in _______________
● ability to differentiate into ______ new cell type
● Human embryonic stem cells are called __________________________________________
● Importance: potential to ________ thousands of _______________ such as Alzheimer’s
Disease, Spinal Cord Injury, Heart Disease, Diabetes, etc
● Controversial: obtained from embryos or fetal tissue during _____________________________

Stem Cell Cloning

● Cloning is the process of producing a genetically identical copy of a ______ or an
___________________
● Cloning can be used to produce a ___________________ of unspecialized stem cells.
● In the future, the cloned cells could be _________________ into a patient to ____________
damaged cells.
● Cloning allows farmers to better produce ________ and _____________ food.
 L7: Digestive System
• When food enters the human mouth, it begins a 10 metre long journey.
• Made up of the digestive tract and accessory organs

Function: To _________________ food/water so that ______________ can be absorbed by the

body and __________ can be _________________.

Organs: mouth, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, gallbladder, liver, intestines, rectum

MAIN ORGANS

1. Mouth
● Begins process of breaking down food:
● Mechanical → __________ and _____________
● Chemical → __________ and ______________
2. Esophagus
● A ___________ tube joining the mouth to the
stomach
● food moves by means of _____________ →
rhythmic contractions of the smooth muscles
3. Stomach
● Continues to ________________ food:
● Mechanical → ________ food using muscular
contractions
● Chemical → lining produces ____________ and
strong _________
4. Small Intestine
● most digestion and ______________ of ____________ occurs here
● nutrients ___________ through the intestinal wall and absorb into the
________________
5. Large Intestine (Colon)
● __________ is absorbed ________ into the body from undigested food
6. Rectum & Anus
● Remaining ________________ stores in the rectum and ________ through the
anus
ACCESSORY ORGANS

Liver

● produces a fluid called _______ which breaks down ________

Gall bladder

● purpose is to _________ bile and release as needed

Pancreas

● produces the enzyme ___________ which regulates the

concentration of ________ in the blood

Disorders of the Digestive System

● Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD), Gallstones, Celiac Disease, Crohn's Disease,
Hemorrhoids, Diverticulitis, Colitis, Hepatitis, Ulcers, Appendicitis

L8: Circulatory System

Function: transportation of _________, ___________, and _________ throughout the body

Organs: blood, heart, blood vessels

MAIN ORGANS

Heart

• the heart is a muscular _______

• it's about the size of your ______ and located slightly ______ of _________ in your chest

• circulates _________ and ___________ to all parts of the body

• divided into ____ chambers:

a. Left and right _________

b. Left and right ____________

The division ___________ oxygen-rich blood from ___________ with oxygen-poor blood.

The chambers of the heart are separated by _____ valves so that blood flows only in ________
_________________.

Each valve has flaps, called leaflets or _______, that open and close _______ during each heartbeat.

Arteries

• _________ -walled vessels (can withstand pressure)

• Carry blood from the heart to body tissues

Veins

• ____________ -walled vessels

• Carry blood from body tissues back _____ the heart

• Have __________ to prevent blood from flowing backwards

Capillaries

• ______________ blood vessel → only 1 cell thick!

• _____________ allow gases, nutrients, and waste to pass through easily in a process called
diffusion → net movement of substances from an area of ___________ concentration to an
area of __________ concentration
THE CIRCULATION OF BLOOD

Arteries:

• carry blood from the heart to the body tissues

In the capillaries:

• _________ diffuses _____ of the ________ & into body tissues

• ________________ diffuses _____ of _____________ & into the

blood

Veins:

• carry the blood back to the heart

In the heart, blood:

• flows through the ________ atrium and ventricle

• flows to the ________ to get oxygenated

• __________ to the _________ through the ______ atrium and ventricle

• gets _______________ through the _____________ to go to body tissues

ANATOMY OF THE HEART

The aorta is the large _________ _____________ the heart.

The superior vena cava is the large ______ that brings blood from the ________ and _______
to the heart

The inferior vena cava is the large _______ that brings blood from the ____________ and ______
to the heart.

The pulmonary artery is not like other arteries → it carries _______________ blood from the
__________ to the _________.

The pulmonary veins are not like other veins → they carry _______________ blood from the
_______ to the _________.

There are _______ pulmonary veins → 2 on either side of the heart.

PATHWAY OF BLOOD FLOW

1. Deoxygenated blood enters the Right Atrium via the Superior and Inferior Vena Cava
2. Blood travels through the Right Atrium and into the right Ventricle through the tricuspid
valve
3. and then is pumped to the lungs via the Pulmonary Artery(major artery out of heart to
the lungs)
4. Lungs take in oxygen from the environment and give to the blood
5. Blood is now oxygenated
6. Pulmonary Vein transports oxygenated blood into the heart
7. Blood travels through the Left Atrium and into the left Ventricle
8. and then is pumped to the body via the Aorta (major artery out of heart)

DISORDERS OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

• Coronary artery disease, Arteriosclerosis, Stroke, Heart Attack, Hypertension, Congestive

Heart Failure, Cardiomyopathy, Cardiac Dysrhythmia, Heart Murmurs, Angina
 L9: Respiratory System
Function: to obtain ___________ for the body and release _________________

Organs: nasal cavity, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, lungs, diaphragm

MAIN ORGANS

Lungs

• pair of _________, air-filled organs

• contain structures needed for gas exchange

Trachea

• also called the _______________

• inhaled air comes from the mouth or nasal passage and passes through a long, ____________
structure called the ___________

Bronchi

• air from the trachea passes through the 2 tubular ____________ called _________ (bronchus
for 1) → bronchi further split into many ________________

Alveoli

• Bronchioles end at the alveoli where _____________________ occurs

OTHER STRUCTURES

Pharynx: cavity at the back of the __________

Larynx:

• a _________ area in our throat

• also known as our ________________

Epiglottis

• leaf-shaped ________ in the throat

• prevents ________ from entering the windpipe and the lungs

GAS EXCHANGE

• Occurs in the _________ → capillaries surround the alveoli (recall capillaries have thin walls)

• Oxygen diffuses ______ oxygen-poor blood

• Carbon dioxide diffuses _________ the capillary and gets ___________

when we breath out

CILIA: THE AIRWAYS LITTLE HELPERS

Hair-like projections called ________ line the primary bronchus to __________ microbes and
debris from the interior of the lungs

BREATHING

• When the diaphragm __________, our lungs _________ and fill with air → called ______________
(or inspiration)

• When the diaphragm __________, it pushes air _____ of our lungs → called ______________ (or
respiration)

• ___________ in the rib cage also expand and contract with breathing

• Breathing is _____________ → controlled by our nervous system

DISORDERS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

• Asthma, Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), Emphysema,

Pneumonia, Chronic bronchitis, Pleural effusion, Cystic fibrosis,
Tuberculosis, Lung cancer

Systems working together

● Homeostasis: is the state of steady internal, physical, and chemical

conditions maintained by living systems.
● Organ systems are interdependent because the action of one system contributes to the
action of another system

E.g Exercise:

● Muscular system → as you run, your muscles use up energy and nutrients stored in the
blood.

● Respiratory System → as you run, you need more oxygen so you start to breathe faster

● Digestive System → your digestive system will break down carbs for energy and if no
carbs are available they will resort to breaking down fats

● Circulatory System → your heart beats faster so the blood cells can get energy,
nutrients, and oxygen to the muscles.

● Thus, all these systems are interdependent on each other!