Standards Operating Procedures for Sugarcane Production at Kuraz Sugar

Development Project

SUGAR CORPORATION
Research and Development Center

Standard Operating Procedures for Sugarcane

Production at Kuraz Sugar Development Project

Sept. 2016

1 Revised by Research and Development Center Sept. 2016

 Standards Operating Procedures for Sugarcane Production at Kuraz Sugar
Development Project

Contents

1 Introduction................................................................................................................4
2 Land Preparation.........................................................................................................6
2.1 New land development.........................................................................................6
2.2 Seedbed preparation...........................................................................................13
3 Seedcane Management and Planting Material Preparation......................................16
3.1 Conventional Seedcane nursery management....................................................16
3.2 Tissue Culture based seed cane nursery management........................................17
3.3 Procedures of seedcane preparation for planting commercial cane fields..........19
3.4 Seedcane preparation for planting initial seedcane material.............................21
4 Planting and Gap Filling Practices...........................................................................23
4.1 Planting procedures............................................................................................23
4.2 Filling gaps.........................................................................................................25
5 Growth Mmeasurement and Cane Pushing..............................................................27
5.1 Growth measurement..........................................................................................27
5.2 Cane Pushing......................................................................................................28
6 Irrigation and Drainage System Management..........................................................28
6.1 Irrigation Water Management.............................................................................28
6.2 Drainage management........................................................................................44
6.3 System Maintenance...........................................................................................46
6.4 Routine maintenance..........................................................................................47
6.5 Periodic and preventive maintenance.................................................................47
6.6 Annual maintenance...........................................................................................48
7 Cultivation Practices.................................................................................................49
7.1 Ridge flattening..................................................................................................49
7.2 Moulding (Earthing up)......................................................................................50
7.3 Ratoon re-shaping (furrow reshaping) / RR+F...................................................51
8 Fertilizer Application Practices................................................................................51
8.1 Storage and handling of Urea and NPS fertilizers..............................................52
8.2 Requesting and transporting fertilizer................................................................52
8.3 Field application of urea and NPS fertilizers......................................................53
8.4 Ferrous Sulphate (FeSO4. 7H2O) application.....................................................56
9 Sugarcane Pest Management....................................................................................57
9.1 Sugarcane disease management..........................................................................57
9.2 Weed management.............................................................................................63
9.3 Insect management.............................................................................................68
9.4 Guidelines for safe use of a pesticide.................................................................75
9.5 Chemical spraying..............................................................................................76
10 Harvesting Practices.................................................................................................81
10.1 Harvesting scheme preparation...........................................................................81
10.2 Harvesting season and age..................................................................................82
10.3 Drying off...........................................................................................................82
10.4 Preparations for harvest......................................................................................83
10.5 Cane burning.......................................................................................................83
10.6 Cane cutting........................................................................................................84
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10.7 Field cleaning after harvesting...........................................................................85

11 Cane Loading and Transporting...............................................................................85
11.1 Mechanical cane loading....................................................................................85
11.2 Cane collection...................................................................................................86
11.3 Cane haulage/Transport......................................................................................87
11.4 Post-harvest deterioration and measures of loss minimization...........................88

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1 Introduction

Most of the current sugarcane production unit operations and cultural practices in the
Ethiopian sugar estates were adopted from Wonji-Shoa Sugar Estate. The practices
brought to Ethiopia by the Dutch company HVA were gradually adapted to Metahara
and Finchaa sugar estates. Currently such operations are also being adapted to new
sugar projects but with slight modifications.

Nevertheless, these practices and operations are not sometimes properly/strictly

followed because of the fact that the practices are not properly documented and made
available for all end users. Moreover, the practices are not updated based on local
conditions of each project site.

Thus, there is a need to update the unit operations and cultural practices and to prepare
a document which could easily be understood and used by the agricultural staff of the
sugar project. To this end, this sugarcane production operational standard/manual
clearly states the unit operations and cultural practices to be applied for the successful
production of sugar cane at Kuraz condition. In addition to the existing practices, the
manual includes updates based on research findings both in Ethiopia and abroad,
professional experiences, and literature reviews.

To ensure proper field management in sugarcane production, the standard production

practices should be defined first. Establishing standards for field practices will with no
doubt define the required management clearly. Work standard can be defined as the
current single best way to complete an activity with the highest degrees of safety and
efficiency, which produces consistent and high quality outcomes. Some benefits of
standardized work are improved productivity, consistent quality, easier work procedure,
improved predictability (better decisions), and serving as foundation for making
improvements.

In recent years rapid decline in cane productivity is being observed in all existing sugar
estates. It is believed that this decline in yield and quality of sugarcane is caused largely

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due inconsistent and limited application of standard field management practices. These
inconsistent field management practices resulted from a number of factors such as
absence of standardized production manual, lack of updated practices based on research
findings and foreign experiences, etc. Hence, the importance of a standardized manual
for cane production practices is not questionable even though the ultimate result
depends on quality of the standards and how well the standards are implemented.

Thus this manual is prepared with the objective of improving sugarcane productivity
through well organized and updated production standards. It is believed that as long as
the sugar project strictly follows the standards described in this manual, sugarcane
productivity will be improved. The manual is subjected to continual improvements
based on research findings and experiences gained from local and abroad sugar
industries.

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2 Land Preparation

2.1 New land ddevelopment

In our new sugar projects, soil and vegetation exist in varying proportion. There are
extremes where practically no vegetation exists. On the other hand there are extremes
which are characterized by a mixture of hard and soft wood with or without dense
under bush.

Land development for cane production involves clearing the land of all bushes and
trees in order to make use of equipment for other land preparation operations.

Reconnaissance and planning

The types of trees, vegetation, soil, and terrain encountered while clearing the land
must be determined as accurately as possible from climatic and geological maps,
intelligence reports, the surface, trees and aerial and ground reconnaissance.

After such information has been verified, estimate the quantity of work, select the
available equipment, determine the number of personnel needed, and plan a sequence
of operations to complete the clearing rapidly and efficiently. In all clearing operations,
the decisive factors controlling the method of clearing are the type and amount of
equipment and the time available for completion.

There are a number of factors that influence the methods used to clear agricultural land
and the type of equipment which might be deployed. Some of them are:

Tree size and density – after identifying the size and density of the existing tree, the
capacity and type of machinery requirement can be determined.

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Soil conditions – trees on lighter soil such as sandy loam have lighter roots than those
on hard clays in which the roots have to be dug out before releasing the tree. Machinery
type can also be affected with the presence of rocks and stumps.

Topography – type of slope, swamps, ditches and other type of the topography has
influential effect on the machinery to be deployed.

Rainfall – the amount of rainfall has influence on the water table particularly during
clearing operation. Since these conditions limit the movement of the machinery care
must be taken on selecting which machine to use.

Land clearing mmethods

Usually, there are four types of land clearing. The choice of the methods depends on
the purpose to which land is required to be cleared. These are:
1. Complete removal of trees – physically uprooting all the existing trees and
moving them to another place.
2. Cutting the vegetation at ground and collecting the same for burning –The roots
are left to decay or to be removed at later date.
3. Knocking over and crushing down the vegetation
4. Ploughing and mixing in the vegetation to a depth of about 20 cm of soil –
Finally, the vegetation mixed and decaying process is taking place.
The first two methods involve physical knocking down of the vegetation and removing
for burning. The latter two methods involve piling the vegetations which have been
removed but do involve leaving it on the land to be burnt or left to decay.

Land clearing cconsiderations

A. Safety

Careful consideration must be given to the safety of personnel and equipment during
clearing operations. Protective, tractor-mounted cabs should be used when extensive
clearing operations are anticipated. Protective cabs permit greater flexibility in clearing

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operations and increase operator efficiency. With this protection, damage to the dozer is
reduced and continuous production results.

Proper supervision and planning can help prevent accidents caused by falling trees,
uprooted stumps, stump holes, and rough or broken terrain during the clearing
operation. All equipment used in clearing should, if practicable, be equipped with
heavy steel plating for protection of the undercarriages. This will prevent stumps, logs,
and boulders from damaging vulnerable equipment parts.

B. Temporary drainage
Phased development of the drainage system in the early stages of clearing, grubbing,
and stripping is essential to ensure uninterrupted operation. Delays caused by flooding,
sub-grade failures, heavy mud conditions, and the subsequent immobilization of
construction equipment can be eliminated by careful development of the drainage
system before or concurrent with other construction. Using the original drainage
features as much as possible without disturbing natural grades is advisable.

Fill holes left by uprooted trees and stumps with acceptable soil, and compact the
ground to prevent the accumulation of surface water. Use dozers and graders for this
work. Slope the ground toward drainage ditches to prevent pending on the surface.
Backfill existing ditches at the latest possible time to permit the best use of the original
natural drainage.
C. Disposal
Use waste areas or burning to dispose of cleared materials. The choice of method
depends on the type of construction, environmental concerns, the location, the threat,
and the time available. Generally, the material is pushed and skidded off the site and
into the surrounding timber to speed disposal and keep the area cleared for equipment
operation. To dispose of material as rapidly as possible, assign specific units of
equipment to accomplish this concurrently with the clearing and grubbing. The disposal
method should be consistent with the methods of drainage used for clearing.

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A. Burning
Do not use fire for clearing land unless suitable equipment and sufficient personnel are
not available for other methods of clearing. When burning is required, closely follow
recommended procedures.

Fire Control - strip the area around any debris to be burned before fires are started to
provide a firebreak. If large areas are to be burned, establish firebreaks on all sides as a
precaution against shifting winds. Maintain a fire guard over the fires as an additional
safety measure. In dry weather, hand shovels, water buckets, and other expedient fire-
fighting equipment should be available to extinguish fires caused by flying sparks.

Burning Pits - the most satisfactory method for burning large quantities of brush and
timber is to burn them in a pit or trench dug by a bulldozer or scraper. The sides of the
pit will reflect the heat back into the fire, producing a very hot fire. Burning will be
rapid and complete. Push the material into the pit with a bulldozer. Start the fire with
limbs and small brush to get a good bed of coals. Gradually increase the size of the
material as the intensity of the fire increases. Get as little dirt as possible in the pit
because it tends to smother the fire and fill the pit.

Log Piles – if it is not desirable to construct burning pits, burn piles of logs by loosely
piling them so that the heat and flames can pass through. It is always best to start the
fire with brush. After a large bed of coals is formed, add a few logs at a time to obtain a
good blaze.

To burn piles of green, wet logs, it may be necessary to use fuel oil to furnish enough
heat to dry out the logs and start the burning process. Pile the logs parallel, one on top
of the other. The fuel oil is carried to the center of the pile by a pipe in which holes

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have been drilled or cut. Once the pile is burning well, the fuel can be cut off and the
pipe removed. Care must be taken to avoid ground contamination.

Fuel oil is also a quick and convenient means of starting brush fires, particularly if the
brush is green and wet. If material is to be pushed onto the pile while the pipe is being
used, it is best to bury the portion of the pipe outside the pile to protect it from damage
from tractor grousers and bulldozer blades.

Clearing and Piling Stumps - in preparing stumps for burning, remove as much dirt as
possible from the roots. Dirt on the roots will retard combustion and smother the fire.
When the stumps are pushed out, leave them with the roots exposed to sun and wind so
the dirt will dry quickly. Scrubbing with the side of the bulldozer blade will knock off
much of the dry dirt. Pile the stumps as close together as possible with the trunks
pointing toward the center of the pile. Keep the stumps together after they start to burn.
This procedure will speed up the burning.

Note: Burning could lead to environmental contamination and is not recommended to

be used.

Land clearing eequipments

There are various equipments used to clear land. These include bulldozers, cane
pushers, rakes, loaders, root ploughs etc. Although front end loaders are used to some
extent in our sugar estates to remove stones and light materials from land clearing sites,
by far the most widely used land clearing equipment is the bulldozer.

When clearing an area in dry or temperate forests, the bulldozer is the most efficient
mechanical equipment for removing small brush, trees, and stumps up to 6 inches
(15.24cm) in diameter. Although more time and effort are required, bulldozers can also
remove trees up to 30 inches (76.2cm) in diameter when tractor-mounted clearing units
and power saws are not available. Because of its ability to push, move, and skid felled
trees and brush, the bulldozer is used extensively as the primary unit of equipment in all
clearing operations.

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When clearing with bulldozers, the sequence of operations depends on the type of trees,
the terrain, and planned construction. After establishing the boundaries of the clearing,
select spoil areas for disposal of all cleared material based on the shortest haul, a
downgrade slope, and general accessibility.

Start clearing at the disposal area and move in each direction away from it. Use one or
two dozers to clear the small trees and brush only. Another pair of dozers will remove
the larger trees and stumps bypassed by the previous units. If necessary, add more
dozers for a third cycle of operation to take care of the heaviest removals.

Move the cleared material to the spoil area by skidding, pushing, or pulling. Disposal
should be done with uprooting and removing. It is best to have a separate crew assigned
for disposal.

Multiple operations are possible when other types of equipment are available, using
each type where it is most effective. Use power saws, for example, to fell large trees;
use clearing units to uproot large stumps and work in areas inaccessible to dozers. Use
bulldozers to clear, stockpile, and dispose of light material. The operational methods
used by bulldozers in clearing depend on the size of the trees.

Small Trees, 6 Inches or Less in Diameter, and Brush – in clearing small trees and
brush, operate the bulldozer with the blade straight and digging slightly. It may be
necessary to back up occasionally to clear the blade. The cleared material can either be
pushed into windrows for later removal or pushed off to one side of the area to be
cleared.

Medium Trees, 6 to 12 Inches in Diameter – to push over trees that range from 6 to 12
inches in diameter, set the blade of the bulldozer as high as possible to gain added
leverage. As the tree falls, the bulldozer is backed up quickly to clear the roots. With

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the blade lowered, the dozer travels forward again and digs the roots free by lifting the
blade. The felled tree is then ready for removal to the spoil areas.

Large Trees – removing large trees (over 12 inches in diameter) is much slower and
more difficult than clearing brush and small trees. First, gently and cautiously probe the
tree for dead limbs that could fall and injure you. Then, position the blade high and
center it for maximum leverage. Determine the direction of fall before pushing the tree
over; the direction of lean, if any, is usually the direction of fall. If possible, push the
tree over the same as you would a medium tree.

However, if the tree has a large, deeply embedded root system, first, opposite the
direction of fall, make a cut deep enough to cut some of the large roots. Use a V-ditch
cut around the tree, tilted downward laterally toward the tree roots; next cut the
remaining sides. Then, to obtain greater pushing leverage, build an earth ramp on the
same side as the original cut. Finally, push the tree over. As the tree starts to fall,
reverse the tractor quickly to get away from the rising root mass. After felling the tree,
fill the stump hole so that water will not collect in it.

Land forming
Land forming operation begins after the land is cleared from trees, brushes stones etc.
Land forming is an operation that is necessary to keep the soil in production. It includes
rough levelling of the cleared land, provision of drainage, and other necessary
structures.

The establishment of correct grades (slopes) to meet irrigation and drainage

requirements depends on the soil type, rainfall and cropping pattern. Plantations with
furrow irrigation critically require land forming as a means to remove excess water
from the field.

Machines like bulldozers, graders and loaders are used for rough leveling of the field
and to set it to acceptable and economical level for the next precision leveling
operation. For precision leveling scrapers, and graders operated by skilled operators
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and aided by ground surveying facilities can be used. Since precision leveling involves
high cost it is done on furrow irrigated fields. For sprinkler irrigated fields rough
leveling done at good standard is enough.

Note: the newly developed field should be ripped by using heavy duty machinery before
further operations are carried out.

2.2 Seedbed preparation

Although currently land preparation at Omo Kuraz sugar estate starts from land
clearing, gradually cane after cane land preparation practice will takeover. The land
preparation unit operations are similar in both cases if ripping is considered to be
similar to subsoiling. The current sequence followed by the estate is: land clearing –
rough leveling – precision leveling – ripping – ploughing – harrowing – planning –
furrowing.

The cane after cane cycle of the estate should follow the following sequence: uprooting
– subsoiling – ploughing – harrowing – planning – furrowing. Each of these unit
operations are discussed below.

Uprooting
Uprooting is carried out with the objective of removing or eliminating the old cane
stubbles and hence avoids the occurrence of volunteer crops. It also helps in easing the
consecutive operations by preventing the formation of big clods.
 It is done immediately after harvesting with heavy duty wheel tractors and disc
plough harrows.
 The operation is done along the furrow direction to minimize machinery damage
and to keep operator safety and comfort.
 Working depth should be 20 -25 cm.
 Speed of operation should be at least 7 km/hr.
 The implements currently in use at Omo Kuraz sugar estate is a 3.71 m wide disc
plough harrow. When using this implement, a work rate of at least 2.21 ha/h should

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be achieved. The tractor required to operate these implements should have a power
of about 256 hp.

Sub-soiling
Sub soiling is done with the objective of breaking hard pans created due to repeated
machinery traffic, reducing soil compaction and hence making the root zone loose and
conducive for cane. It is an optional operation in and the decision whether to subsoil a
given field or not is made by collective agreement between the land preparation and
cultivation department staff and the concerned plantation staff. Different techniques
could be used to decide whether to carryout subsoiling or not. These include field
history, using penetrometer or using bulk density analysis to determine the existence
and depth of hard pans or compacted soil layers. If it is decided to carry out the
operation, the following points are considered:
 Decide whether the sub-soiling should be done depending upon field history such as
cutting cycles and harvesting periods and also by checking the status of soil
compaction with the help of penetrometer device.
 Subsoiling is carried out 5 days after uprooting in cane after cane field or about 15
days after precision leveling in new land development.
 Depth of operation should be about 60 cm.
 Direction of travel should be at an angle of 45 – 60 degrees to the furrow direction.
 The speed of operation should be at least 8 km/h.
 Subsoilers currently used at Omo Kuraz sugar estate have 2 m and 2.24 m width.
 When using the 2 m wide subsoiler, the work rate should be at least 1.36 ha/h and a
tractor of about 254 hp is used.
 When using the 2.24 m wide subsoiler, the work rate should be at least 1.52 ha/h
and a tractor of about 284 hp is used.

Remarks: To know exactly the depth at which the compaction is found, it is

recommended to use Penetrometer or bulk density analysis methods to avoid
unnecessary subsoiling operation in cane after cane fields.

Ploughing

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The objective of ploughing is to open up the land to a higher depth and bring about the
desirable physical changes to the soil. Ploughing forms bigger clods which will later be
further pulverized by the consecutive operations such as harrowing.
 Time gap is about 3 – 5 days after sub-soiling
 Optimum soil moisture content (about 25%) is desired. The soil should crumble
when squeezed between hands and it should not be sticky.
 The disc angles should be checked in the field and adjusted to attain optimum
pulverization.
 Ploughing operation should be controlled not leave gaps between each pass.
 Working speed should be at about 7 km/h.
 Depth of operation should be at least 35 cm.
 Omo Kuraz sugar estate uses 3.71 m disc plough harrow for ploughing operation.
When using this implement, a work rate of at least 2 ha/h should be achieved. The
tractor required to operate these implements should have a power of about 260 hp.
Remarks: The plough depth should be varied every time this operation is executed to
avoid plough pan which could cause serious soil compaction related problems.

Harrowing
Harrowing is done to break and mix soil clods, crop residues, and smooth out
irregularities for subsequent activities. It also roughly levels the soil and kills weeds
that sprout after primary tillage.
 Offset or tandem harrows pulled by heavy duty wheeled tractors are used.
 Disc angle to be used depends on the type of harrow as shown in Table 1 below.

Table 1. Disc angle for different types of harrow

Type of harrow Front axle Rear axle
Offset harrow 15-200 25-300
Tandem harrow 10-250 10-250

 Recommended working depth is 25 cm.

 Harrowing is done 15 – 20 days after ploughing.
 The operation should be controlled not to leave gaps between passes.

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 The operation should be carried out with a working speed of at least 10 km/h.
 Omo Kuraz sugar estate uses a 5.32 m wide disc harrow for harrowing operation.
When using this implement, a work rate of at least 4 ha/h should be achieved. The
tractor power required to operate the implement is about 290 hp.

Planning
This operation is carried out to smooth or level minor irregularities and create smooth
the field surface for furrowing operation and create favorable condition for irrigation.
 The ploughed land is first planned across the furrow and then in the furrow
direction.
 The operation should be done within 3 days after harrowing.
 The operation should be carried out with a working speed of about 10 km/h.
 Omo Kuraz sugar estate uses a 4 m wide planner.
 If the planning is done both across the furrow and along the furrow direction, a
work rate of at least 1.55 ha/h should be attained.

Furrowing
Furrowing is the last operation before cane is planted. It is the opening of parallel
ditches in which seed canes are planted. Cane setts should be planted at sufficient depth
for proper cane stand and irrigation purpose.
 Furrowing should be done within a maximum of 3 days after planning is done.
 The field should be surveyed to decide on the best furrow direction.
 The working speed should be at least 8 km/hr.
 Furrow depth should be about 25 to 30 cm.
 Direction of travel depends on the field surveying result.
 The spacing between adjacent furrows should be 1.45 m.
 Markers should be used to avoid erroneous spacing especially during turns.
 Omo Kuraz sugar estate uses 4 bottom furrowers.
 When using the 4 bottom furrower, a work rate of at least 2.7 ha/h should be
achieved and a tractor of about 160 hp should be used.

Note: Over all time required to prepare a CAC field for replanting is about 29-36 days
from the start of uprooting.
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3 Seed cane Management and Planting Material Preparation

3.1 Conventional Seed cane nursery management

Seed cane management is a method by which adequate planting material of high quality
is produced at reasonable cost on sustainable basis and successfully undertakes planting
operation at the recommended planting time in order to attain the targeted production at
minimum cost. The following are important points to consider during seed cane nursery
management:
- Seed cane plants must be raised from properly treated and well-nourished canes
stalks.
- Initial seed cane fields should be a source for planting materials for raising seed
cane fields, and seed cane fields should be a source for commercial cane,
- Seed cane with age of about 7-9 months should be used.
- Selection of well-drained soil for raising seed cane
- Proper land preparation procedures
- Pre-plant Irrigation should be done 5-7 days ahead of planting;
- Careful planting, frequent light irrigation throughout the growth season and
withdraw of irrigation 15 days prior to cutting important.
- Optimum dose and timing of balanced fertilizer application (not less than the
rate recommended for plant cane)
- Implementation of special plant protection measures

3.2 Tissue Culture based seed cane nursery management

 Site selection:
 Field should have good soil physical properties with good drainage.
 The field needs to be isolated from crops propagated by the convention method,
infected crops and fields

 Pre-plant Irrigation
 it should be done 2-3 days ahead of planting in order to
 helps to settle down the silt
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 for firmly pressing the soil to the plantlets at planting

 Improve the plantlets survival rate

 Planting
 During transport from acclimatization to planting field:
o Plantlets should be with coco pit
o The plantlets should be transported with air conditioned vehicle in
carton with bottom lined with newspaper for moisture conservation
 Standard plantlets for field planting should have;
o At least three leaf per plant/shoot
o Length of seedling (to dewlap) at least 10cm
o Well formed (firm) stem (not spongy)
o Root with coco pit and well developed
o No disease and pest
 Avoid mechanical damage and delayed planting
 It is suggested to plant in fields with reliable source of irrigation water
 The optimum time for planting is early in the morning and late in the afternoon
 For maximum seed production 30-40 cm spacing between plantlets are
recommended
 Remove the plastic bag and plant the plantlets with intact soil ball for
polyethylene bag grown plantlets.
 Avoid root bending and firm handling of the stem and press the soil around the
root zone firmly.
 Plant the seedlings at the center of the furrow
 Press the soil around the plant after planting to avoid air pocket and dry off
roots
 Immediate irrigation just after planting is needed.
 The subsequent irrigation requirement is based on visual observation of the
plantlets water requirement (needs frequent and light irrigation until it
established well)

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 Frequent field inspection shall be made at early ages so as to inspect irrigation,

weed, off types, disease and insect pests.
 Fertilization:
 As starting point, the same rate of fertilizer used for initial seedcane is
suggested. However, in cases where the girth of the plantlets is very thin, 25%
more fertilizer dose is suggested.
 Moulding
 Earthling up operation should be done when the plants height reaches 60-70 cm;
delay in this operation result in the production of profuse tillering ultimately
resulting in thinner canes with poor growth
 Seed cane age:
 At age of 7-9 month, the plants harvested, cut in to three bud setts and planted
as seed cane.

3.3 Procedures of seed cane preparation for planting commercial cane fields

The procedure for conventional and tissue culture based seed cane preparation are
similar which will be discussed as follows:

 Defoliating standing cane

 Dried leaves adhering to the stalks, green leaves, and the uppermost tender
joints are removed.
 Cutting and carrying to the road side
Bare cane stalks are cut, carried to the road side for chopping, and carefully placed on
the ground to avoid bud damage. During this process, disease and insect affected as
well as deformed and lodged stalks with curved internodes should not be included.

 Chopping seedcane stalks into seed pieces/setts

 If more than one variety is being harvested from fields that are close to each other
the choppers must work with adequate distance between them (at least 20 m) to
avoid varietal mix up.
 The stalks are chopped from bottom to top, placing the bud on the stalk sidewise.
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 Use sharp knife designed for this purpose.

 The stalk is chopped into seed pieces (setts) with three buds (eye) with 5 cm length
at both ends after the node.
 Before and after chopping each stalk into setts, the cane knife in use should be
immersed into a chemical disinfectant (for details refer section 8.1).
 Select only healthy setts and discard setts with the following conditions:
 Setts from top most tender portion of the stalks that are too soft (delicate) and
those from the old bottom hard end parts as well as setts with old and exposed
buds should be rejected.
 Very thin and disease affected setts (the cut ends of the stalk should be examined
to see if the interior portion of the setts is infected).
 Pithy (setts with dried/chalky central portion).
 Bored (borer affected) setts.
 Deformed / curved setts.
 Setts with abnormal bud appearance.
 Chopping areas should be kept clean from any trash, and cane remnants have to be
timely collected.

 Sett treatment
 The prepared cane setts are chemically treated before being stacked into bags to
get transported to the fields for planting (for details refer disease management
section 8.1).

 Bagging seedcane setts

 The prepared and chemically treated seedcane setts should as soon as possible be
stacked in to polyethylene bags to reduce dehydration.
 If bagging is to be delayed for some reasons, the seedcane setts should be
covered with empty bags or cane trash to reduce dehydration.
 Filling the seedcane setts in to the bags and emptying them should be done with
maximum care to avoid cane sett bud damage.

 Transporting to planting site

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 The seed setts prepared should be sent to planting site within 8 hrs to ensure
supply of fresh planting material (Table 2).

Table 2. Seed rate and soil types for sugarcane varieties grown

SN Variety Seed rate (Bags)

1 NCo334 95
2 B41227 100
3 C132/81 95-100
4 SP70/1284 95-100
5 B52298 95
6 Mex54/245 95-100
7 C86/12 95-100

 Loading and unloading seedcane setts

 The seedcane setts are transported by trucks or tractor trailers in bulk. Loading
and unloading cane setts to and from the trucks / tractor trailers should be done
carefully to reduce bud damage.

3.4 Seedcane preparation for planting initial seedcane material

 Planting materials for raising initial seedcane should only be sourced from
seedcane fields.
 The setts have to be chopped with the sheaths of the cane stalks so that the buds
will not be injured during hot water treatment.
 All the activities stated for commercial seedcane preparation also apply for initial
seedcane preparation except that fungicide treatment that will be done soon after
hot water treatment.
 The setts should be subjected to hot water treatment (for details refer disease
management section 8.1).
 Seedcane nursery should:

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 be free of open spots, fertile, having homogeneous soil characteristics, well

drained and not subjected to flood hazard.
 not affected by water shortage.
 be located in the central area of the plantation not in the remote and
peripheral areas parts.
 not be vulnerable to damage by wild and stray animals.
 be easily accessible for frequent supervision and to perform management
activities.
Planting material for planting nurseries must be of high quality obtained from healthy
and succulent seedcane from young cane plants, free of pests and disease and grown
under optimum management practices. Therefore, avoid using old and lodged seedcane
or unhealthy stalk.

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4 Planting and Gap Filling Practices

Planting is an important operation in sugarcane production where efforts are made to

produce seedcane and cane for milling. It is the start of the production cycle where
multiple ratooning is practiced.

4.1 Planting procedures

 In sugar Estates detail plan of the area to be planted or harvested should be

prepared each year and the area of seed cane fields to be planted or cut should also
be planned simultaneously. Therefore, having a complete planting scheme is
mandatory.
 The annual planting scheme should be known before the start of the campaign
indicating the field area, cycle and cane variety to be planted in different months of
the year.
 During planting scheme preparation, a single cane variety, regardless of its merit,
should not occupy beyond 25-27% share of the plantation area. The remaining area
could be covered by other varieties in order to avoid risks such as disease outbreak
that specifically affect a given variety.
 Seed cane request should be made based on planting scheme and recommended
rate,
 Planting furrows (a shallow trench) have to be dug straight and exactly in the
middle of furrow bottom.
 Placing of the setts should be with their buds facing sideward.
 Planting depth: the setts should be covered with only at thin layer of soil, which
should not exceed 2.5 - 5cm.
 The planting season at kuraz should be between June and December.
 Planting spacing:
 In initial seed cane field, very sensitive varieties to damage, can be planted in
double row with overlapping arrangement, while other varieties can be

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planted double and end to end on every other row; then the intermediate row
can be planted single and over lapping.
 In seedcane and commercial fields, setts must be placed at the furrow bottom
with end-to-end sett arrangement, but it could be planted at 10cm sett spacing,
based on quality of seed cane material of the variety to be planted and field
condition. NB: planting at 10cm intra row spacing was recommended for
variety B52 298 and NCo 334, and it is best on well drained and light textured
soil.

 Care to be taken during planting

 After cutting, setts should be planted as soon as possible (a maximum of
32 hour),
 If delaying in planting is inevitable, cover the setts or bags with cane
trash or place the bags containing setts under shade and frequently
sprinkle them with water,
 At planting, setts with defects must be discarded,
 Ensure that the soil and the setts are contacted firmly,
 Irrigation must be performed just after planting or at least in the same
day,
 Three to four days after first irrigation, planted fields must be thoroughly
inspected and exposed setts should be covered with thin layer of soil,
 Until the full development of the root and shoot system is attained,
frequent light irrigation water is applied and routine irrigation practice
proceeds based on the program set for the soil type until the crop is ready
for harvest. For details refer to water application practices.
 Insecticide should be applied just before irrigation for the control of
black beetle. For details refer to insect management section.

Note: Before engaging laborers on actual planting activity it is useful to give proper
orientation to attain desired quality planting and complete the activity on time.

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4.2 Filling gaps

This is the most important operation for successful ratooning in sugarcane. Gaps in
ratoon rise due to poor sprouting, mechanical damage to stubbles roots and from pests
and diseases. Experience gained in several countries has shown that nearly 25-30% of
the area needs to be gap filled. Recruiting gaps in ratoons depends on the length of the
crop cycle, availability of labor and irrigation, and level of gaps. If the cane cycle
consists of six or more ratoons, it may be cost-effective to recruit gaps in young
ratoons. This will depend on the cost of labor and availability or recruiting material.

4.2.1 Gap filling in plant cane

Three to four weeks after planting all the planted setts are expected to sprout. In places
where sprouting has failed, gap filling should be done judiciously. For filling gaps,
shoots from neighboring stools or setts may be used depending on the availability of
material and environmental factors. Too late replanting must be avoided because this
will result in uneven stand of the crop, which may create problems during the
subsequent moulding and mechanical tillage activities. Gap filling is done by seedcane
setts or by using sprouts / seedlings from densely grown sprouts from double planted
cane rows. The holes in which the sprouts are to be planted should be prepared in
advance in order to aerate the soil. Always replanting should be done ahead of an
irrigation turn but not more than one day in advance.

In addition, sprouts should be uprooted with their roots adhering to the soil. To remove
the sprouts, use mattocks or hand tools as needed.
 Forty-five days after planting, all the planted setts are expected to sprout. If not,
filling gaps should be done judiciously.
 A significant decrease in cane yield may result if the number of gaps is between
12% and 16%.
 For filling gaps, shoots from neighboring stools or setts may be used depending on
the availability of material and environmental factors.
 Done when the gap between two canes is more than 50cm apart.

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 Too late replanting must be avoided because this will result in uneven stand of the
crop, which may create problems during the subsequent mechanical tillage i.e.
moulding and mechanical tillage.
 The holes in which the sprouts are to be planted should be prepared in advance in
order to aerate the soil.
 Always replanting should be done ahead of an irrigation turn but not more than one
day in advance.
 Done from seed cane or densely grown sprouts or from sprouts obtained from
double planted cane rows.
 Part of the leaves of the replanted sprout should be cut with a disinfected knife so
as to avoid high evaporation and possible spread of diseases.
 Sprouts should be removed together with the roots and the adhering soil. For
removal, use of mattock or hand tools is needed.
 Holes should be made deep enough to facilitate that enough water can always
reach to replanted materials.
 Depth of planting has to be somewhat deeper than the original cane setts so as to
avoid unnecessary exposure of the root to the sun and open air.
 Soil should be pressed firmly after planting and irrigation should follow filling
gaps immediately.
 Transplanted setts should be given extra attention after wards such as timely
irrigation etc, over irrigation is not allowed.
 In exceptional cases, for instance in field parts with water logged sub soil, it is to
consider water application by means of watering can.
 If need be filling gaps should be done once more to obtain a fully occupied cane
rows in plant fields.
 Filling gaps should be completed before fertilizing
 Depth of planting has to be somewhat deeper than the original cane setts so as to
avoid unnecessary exposure of the root to the sun and open air.
 Soil should be pressed firmly after planting and irrigation should follow filling
gaps immediately.

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 Transplanted sprouts should be given extra attention after wards such as timely
irrigation and so on.
 If needed filling gaps could be done again to obtain a fully occupied cane rows.
 Filling gaps should be completed before fertilizer application.

4.2.2 Gap filling in ratoon cane fields

 Only large empty places have to be replanted in ratoons of up to 3rd cutting.
 In ratoon significant decrease in cane result if the extent of gaps exceeds 20%. It is
worth replanting if the gaps 50%.
 Replanting should be done with healthy and well rooted material from the field
itself,
 Material for planting should be collected from part of the field close to the place
where filling gaps is needed, and where cane grow in abundance.
 In case of seriously damaged furrows, the old ridge will be dug out manually till
30-40 cm deep, and should be kept for about a week so as to aerate the soil and to
crumble the completed soil. There after the soil should be placed back to the open
ridges, and furrows should be reshaped. Finally planting will be done with
seedcane, transplanted rooted setts or with rooted ratoons sprouts.
 Other gap filling practices for ratoons should be done in the same way as for plant
cane fields.

5 Growth Mmeasurement and Cane Pushing

5.1 Growth measurement

5.1.1 Plant height measurement

Growth measurement is done to enable us to follow closely the cane performance from
time to time. This helps in the preparation of annual cane estimation and to determine
the cane status at field condition. The growth measurements are done at monthly
interval is rated against the standard set. For plant cane growth measurement at Finchaa
shall be started at an age of 4 months and for ratoons at the age of 3 months (after final
mechanical cultivation). The decision where to start a growth measurement must be

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based on the percentage of area occupied by the major varieties, and within each main
variety a subdivision is made according the % of area occupied by the various cutting.

5.1.2 Population and stalk counting

Stalk counting is done in the uneven number rows of the growth measurement, and
indicated by the same registration number as that of Growth Measurement. Stalks of 10
rows will be counted at 4-month interval; the average number of stalks per row and
hectare will be calculated and converted to a hectare basis. The counting must be
executed in the week before growth measurement. Counting will be started at Finchaa
for plant cane at an age of 6 months and for ratoon at an age of 5 months.

5.2 Cane Pushing

 Cane pushing is executed to keep fields accessible for work inspection and
supervision, regular control of irrigation, and fire protection (fire break),

 Time of pushing cane should be at the age of 7 to 9 months depending on

growth condition (prior to lodging and care is required to avoid stalk breakage),

 Done along side of feeder ditch, harvest road, drainage, sub lateral & hectare
path,

 For the cane that will be harvested in one rainy season (14-16 months) pushing
is not a must unless cane tends to lodge,

 Pushing cane should be done immediately after irrigation or after heavy rainfall
to minimize loss of cane by breakage,

 Pushing seed cane and test fields without consulting the concerned body is
strictly forbidden,

6 Irrigation and Drainage System Management

6.1 Irrigation water mmanagement

6.1.1 Water ddiversion system

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Kuraz sugarcane sugarcane plantations irrigation system diverts water from Omo River
by means of Weir then irrigation water is carried from the Dam by means of supply
canal to the main canal. Conveyance, water distribution system and hydraulic structures
those carry water from diversion point to crop field need proper regulation, inspection
and maintenance.
The operation procedures are indicated below:
 Determine the discharge from readings of water meter
 Operation at the main canals intake should be controlled.
 Flow of water, harmful quantum of sediment and floating debris in the reservoir
have to be removed at the head works and appurtenant works, before the diverted
flow enters the main canal system.
 The water supply through the canal should be managed by operation of outlet Gate.
 Weekly irrigation water request of each month should be prepared and submitted

6.1.2 Irrigation water cconveyance system

Main canals, primary canals, and secondary canal conveys the required amount of
water to the water distribution system. The following points should be noted while
carrying out the inspection:
 Water flow level in the canal should be controlled by number of downstream irrigable
land size.
 Accordingly, water control structures (gates) along the conveyance systems should be
adjusted to supply required amount of water.
 Whenever canal is closed for periodical inspection and repairs, the lining, its-
auxiliaries and special design features should be carefully inspected.
 Whether any cavities or pockets have been formed behind the lining. At places where
considered necessary these may be checked by sounding the lining tiles inspection of
wet patches on outside slopes on regular basis should be done.
 Development of any cracks or displacement or damage to lining;
 Silt deposits and weed growth
 Bench marks, Boundary pillars, full supply water levels gauge at suitable intervals be
pointed or fixed to know about hydraulic efficiency of the canal.
 Carefully examined every year canal head regulator
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 Visual inspection of upstream floor should also be carried out once in three to five
years by isolating the area. All necessary repairs shall be carried out in time.
 Discharge observations on main canal and branches shall be carried out at least once a
month during non-rainy seasons.
 During rainy seasons discharges should be observed more frequently for major canals.
 Percentage to normal discharge should be revised from time to time for purposes of
regulation and distribution of water.
 In case of high seepage losses in the main canal suitable remedial measures should be
taken to reduce it.
 Current meters should be used for observation of discharges. Where such facility is
not available or where depth of water in the channel is insufficient, floats may be used.
 Discharge measuring sites should be fixed at suitable points and may preferably be in
the form of flumes, falls or straight runs of lined section. All discharge observations
should conform to relevant Standards.
 Gauges at the head and tail of all the channels and at important points in between on
long channels should be observed and recorded daily.
 Weekly irrigation water request of each month should prepared and submitted

6.1.3 Irrigation water distribution system

Tertiary canals, Flexi Gated Pipe (FGP), feeder ditch, and /or Siphons are in use to supply
water to sugarcane field through furrow irrigation method. Operations and management
should be according to their respective operation and maintenance manual.

 All lift gates should be operated at suitable intervals to free the mechanism and wash
out extraneous material.
 In low supplies when openings are not desirable, raising of gates by 150 mm for a
few minutes should suffice.
 If the gates have not been moved for a sufficiently long time, they should not be
forcibly raised all at once but should be lifted by about 30 mm or so and left at that
position for about 10 to 15 minutes till the silt deposited against the gates gets
softened and water begins to ooze out. This is essential to avoid heavy strain on the
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mechanical items.
 The speed of operation of the gates should be limited to the maximum speed indicated
by the manufacturer.
 The operation shall be so done that the safety of the structure is not jeopardized at any
time and the permissible difference in static head on either side of the divide walls is
not exceeded beyond the safe limit, which shall be clearly specified.
 Weekly irrigation water request of each month should prepared and submitted

6.1.4 Infield irrigation water mmanagement

 Depending on drill test result, fields to be irrigated is decided and daily water
request is made per tertiary unit.
 The number of turn outs/hydro-flume/ to be supplied with required discharge at
time shall not exceed the design delivery capacity of the sub lateral: capacity,
duration, and frequency of water supply.
 While making request for water to be supplied in a given irrigation command
area, the number of sub laterals and the corresponding number of turn outs in each
sub laterals canal shall be indicated in daily basis.
 Based on the request water is diverted and distributed to the field properly.
 Diversion to be made at intake will be estimated in daily basis from design overall
efficiency of the remaining canals by considering the number of tertiary, flow
rate, and period of irrigation indicated in the request for each and every sub lateral
and allowance for other uses of the irrigation water.

+ Allowance ------------ 1

Where: Q = Daily diversion at intake (m3/sec)

N=number of tertiary canals to be supplied at same day in the estate
ni= the number of turnouts to be operated at same time/day in ith tertiary
qi= the inflow rate in to each turnout/hydro flume/ ,100 lit/sec in the i th
tertiary
µo= overall project design efficiency excluding application efficiency.
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Irrigation using feeder ditch-siphon distribution system

Feeder ditches are designed to carry irrigation water with a continuous discharge of
100lit/sec and to irrigate around 76ha of sugarcane fields. To minimize and control
collapsing of feeder ditches and to keep banks of feeder ditches from serious
deterioration, the following design, construction and management precaution must be
taken.
 Construct feeder ditches with recommended shape and dimensions.
 Dimensions of several feeder ditches can vary depending on the slopes of fields.
However, in most fields, feeder ditches are designed with longitudinal slope of
0.04%.
 The shape of feeder ditch is rectangular with 60cm width and 65cm depth.
 To construct banks of feeder ditch, do not use poor materials.
 After constructing, compact soils of the banks firmly.
 Don’t allow overtopping of water over the ditches.
 Keep the ditches free of vegetations, stones and other materials.
 While cleaning the beds, care must be taken that the original shape of the cross-
section is kept. For this, a wooden frame, or template, with the exact dimensions of
the designed cross-section of the canal being cleaned, can be of great help.
 Eroded sections should be rebuilt to the original shape.
 In order to minimize water losses and leakages, avoid illegal offtakes from feeder
ditches.
Without controlling as well as measuring water, an irrigation scheme cannot be
efficient and profitable. Therefore:
 In order to know how much water is diverted for fields, measuring devices should
be installed on the feeder ditches.
 As soon as possible, all water controlling structures of the irrigation must be
repaired for their proper functioning.
 Providing proper training and assigning of skilled man power is important.
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In order to maintain the irrigation system as efficient as possible and to take immediate
measures, feeder ditches should be checked at intervals and minor repairs should be
carried out before major work is required. Otherwise, lack of proper maintenance
results in low system performance and production fails.
Things to inspect are:
 Any areas of seepage through the banks of feeder ditches.
 Any low points in the banks, which could be overtopped and over flown.
 Existence of erosion of canal banks by heavy rainfall.
 Missing, broken, damaged nonfunctional gates. Whether there is any vegetation
growth and floating weeds on the bed and side banks.
 Before opening water one bisonyl sheet (other check structures can be used) is laid
in the tertiary around a few meters downstream of the feeder ditch gate. Two other
bisonyl sheets will be laid in the feeder ditch at a distance of 10 or 20 furrows (if
both sides are irrigated 10 furrows and if single side is irrigated 20 furrows) to pond
the water to the required depth.
 The depth of the water in the feeder ditch (around 26cm) should be calibrated for
the required discharge and should be marked with some color on the inlet box
installed at the entrance of feeder ditch.
 The water level in the feeder ditch should always be above the level of the siphon
inlets and outlets.
 The siphons will be laid on the banks of the feeder ditch and in front of each
furrow.
 As soon as the water has reached the first compartment and attained sufficient head
in the feeder ditch, the siphons are primed and the water is discharged into the
furrows.
 Siphon is primed by putting its one end in the water and then filled with water
(through suction by hand) to take out air. It is then laid over the canal bank while a
hand placed over the end of the pipe to prevent air re-entering the pipe. After
putting the siphon end at the entrance of a furrow, the hand will be removed to let
the water flow.

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Irrigation using gated pipes distribution

Flexible gated pipe (FGP) is an improvement on furrow irrigation, in which the
conventional feeder ditch ditches and siphons are replaced by an aboveground "lay-flat"
plastic pipe. Furrow irrigation system using flexible gated pipe has attained an
application efficiency of 90% for a recycling system and also 35 to 60 percent
reduction in water and labor costs can be attained. Adjustable gated outlets minimize
the effect of pressure head differences on discharge rate. Irrigation water flows from
pipe outlets, which are regularly spaced along the pipeline with an interval equal to
furrow spacing.

For a given pipe size, the greater the flow, the greater the velocity will be so that the
greater the energy loss by friction. This energy loss cannot be recovered. As energy in a
gravity system is fixed by the elevation difference present, lost energy due to friction is
usually an important design factor. Therefore, pipe size is selected to ‘match’ pipe
friction loss to the available head to achieve the desired water flow rate.
Management and operation of FGP for irrigating a field
For efficient management of gated pipe, the whole system should be installed with
desired recommendation. A three men irrigators’ team is handling the 200lit/sec water
for 40 furrows at a time. Once the pipe is properly installed on the field, the irrigators
are expected to open and close inlet boxes and outlet openings of the pipe.
 By opening the gate of the inlet box, water from tertiary canal will be allowed to fill
the pipe.
 Try to maintain the 35cm head at the inlet.
 Whenever water level in the tertiary canal fluctuates, it can be corrected by
adjusting gates of inlet box.
 When irrigating both sides simultaneously, fully open 40 outlets, 20 from each side
of the pipe.
 On average, discharge from each outlet should be 5lit/sec.
 Check whether discharges or head difference of the first and last outlets is within
the acceptable range or not.
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 Discharge variation should be below 10%. If the variation is large, try to adjust the
gate openings accordingly.
 By fitting a rigid and transparent tube having equal diameter on the pipe outlets,
vertical height of the water raise in the tube can be measured.
 Discharge from outlet can be measured by filling known volume of container for a
specific time.
 When one side of a field is irrigated the number of outlets to be opened should be
decided after evaluating head or discharge variation of the first and last outlets.
 To avoid erosion of furrow inlets, compact firmly or use stable materials.
 To reduce discharge variability among outlets by compensating frictional losses, the
required field slopes for the pipe varies from pipe to pipe. For GTP pipe at
Tendaho, bed slope should be below 0.08%.
 With the same procedure being done for siphon, in order to the desired amount of
water for the crop one furrow will be irrigated for a specific period of time.
Irrigation water application practices
(a) Irrigation before planting (1st irrigation)
Pre-plant irrigation is applied to the newly prepared seedbeds before planting with
regardless of irrigation method used with purposes of:

 To test the newly constructed furrows on their capacity for water

conveyance
 Field observation will be done to identify furrow defects (high and low
spots) and slope followed by necessary correction.
 To regulate soil temperature for optimum cane germination.
 To enable existing smut spores to germinate and eventually die out before
they find the sugarcane plant.
 To induce germination of weed seeds so that the weeds die out during
mechanical herbicide application.
 To provide more stable/settled soil condition for planting

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The cane planting furrows should be spaced at 1.45m interval and with longitudinal
slope of 0.05% and 0.06% in 100m furrows and 200m furrows, respectively. The
furrow cross sectional area should be trapezoidal in shape with dimensions: 90, 15, 25-
30 cm top width, bottom width, and depth respectively.

Pre-plant irrigation is applied to check smooth flow of water to the end. If the water
flow is not smooth manual furrow correction will be carried out.
Once the pre-plant irrigation is applied and furrow correction is made if necessary, the
actual cane planting should wait 3days for coarse textured (light) soils and 6 days for
fine and medium textured soil.

The pre-plant irrigation should be should be confined in top 30cm soil Possibly at high
but non- erosive discharge at furrows for faster advances can be used. The inflow to
each furrow should be be cut off immediately when the advancing water front strikes
the end of the furrow in case of smooth flow. If the flow is obstructed due to slope
irregularity, furrow correction is practiced.
(b Early irrigation
After planting, optimum soil temperature and aeration is crucial. Thus, irrigation is
done mainly to regulate soil temperature without causing water logging. Whereas after
startup of germination, irrigation is mainly aimed at satisfying the consumptive use of
the crop but at this stage the crop is sensitive to soil suffocation (water logging).

Early irrigation includes all irrigation after planting till completion of germination. The
amount of application should be be should beow. Irrigation intervals should be be made
optimum to avoid high soil temperature which could be caused by longer irrigation
intervals; and suffocation which could be caused by very short intervals.
(c) Normal irrigation practices
It includes all irrigation except pre-planting irrigation, early irrigation, irrigation in
problematic fields, and irrigation after harvesting, molding and fertilization. It is
practiced aiming at satisfying consumptive demand and acceptable losses. To achieve
desired irrigation interval and application depth at field level, canals must be able to
carry the amount of water as per the design capacity and the flows must be measured
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and maintained. Main canals, branches, laterals, reservoir outlets and sub laterals must
be managed very well for proper shape, dimension and gradient; and these structures
should be equipped with appropriate flow measuring devices.

Depths of application
 The hydroflume/flexiflume should be operated at designed hydraulic head at
inlet and with flow rate of 200 lit/sec, 40 furrows are irrigated at a time.
 Irrigation interval varying with cane growth stages, soil types and irrigation
months should be followed as given in Table 1 given below.

Table 3. Irrigation interval for respective months, soils and cane growth stages
Irrigation interval (Days)
Growth Ja Fe Mar Ap May June Jul Au Se Oc No De Ave.
stages n b r y g p t v c
(Month)
Clay
0-1 12 11 12 12 13 13 13 13 12 12 13 13 12
1-4 12 12 15 22 16 15 16 15 14 15 15 14 15
4-10 14 13 16 22 18 17 17 17 15 16 16 15 16
>10 24 23 30 - - - - - 27 30 - 27 27
Silty clay
0-1 11 10 11 11 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 12 11
1-4 11 11 14 20 15 14 14 14 13 13 14 13 14
4-10 13 12 15 20 16 15 16 15 14 15 15 14 15
>10 22 21 28 - - 28 29 29 25 27 28 25 26
Sandy loam
0-1 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
1-4 9 8 11 15 12 11 11 11 10 10 11 10 11
4-10 10 9 11 15 13 12 12 12 11 11 12 11 12
>10 17 16 22 - 25 22 22 22 19 21 22 19 21
Sandy clay
0-1 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 7 7 7 7
1-4 7 6 8 11 9 8 8 8 7 8 8 7 8
4-10 7 7 9 12 9 9 9 9 8 9 9 8 9
>10 13 12 16 29 19 17 17 17 15 16 16 14 17
NB. Sign (-) in table indicate no irrigation or a maximum of single irrigation in the
month is enough.

 While depth of each application shall be controlled by cutting off time

the inflow while the water front strike the end of the furrow and bounced

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back to 5, 15 and 30% of the length of the furrow for clay, silty clay and
sandy loam, and sandy clay, respectively if the furrow slopes are less
than 0.1%.

Soil moisture monitoring

 Soil samples are taken with auger from a depth of 30 cm and 60 cm and soil test
should be done three days before the theoretical irrigation interval date.
 Soil moisture should be determined or estimated using instrumentation, or feel
method depending on estate decision. If feel method is to be used, the tests should
be carried out by well trained laborer. Soil sampling intensity shown in Table 2
below can also be used.

Table 2: Sample intensity for soil moisture test

S.N Area per field No. of sampling site
1 1– 5ha 2 places
2 5.1 – 10ha 3 “
3 10.1 – 16ha 5 “
4 16.1– 20ha 8 “

Sampling places should be be selected carefully to represent the field. The selected
sampling sites should be in comparable state as compared to the majority of the field.
They should not be exceptionally water logged, compacted, depressed spots, and at the
field boundaries.
Soil moisture sample at each place includes three spots along the length of the furrow
(at 30, 60, and 90m length from gated pipe line) and at each spots one sample is taken
from two soil layers (0-30cm and 30-60cm).

Once the places and spots are selected carefully, they can be used for subsequent
drilling test to be conducted. This facilitates data consistency and easier supervision.
This culture is also important in case moisture measuring instruments are to be
deployed in the estate.

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In determining the drilling date take the last irrigation date of each field as the base and
consider the theoretical interval as a guideline. Drilling should be carried out 3-4 days
before the probable date of irrigation.

Drilling is done at depths of 30 and 60 cm usually in furrow bottom but in case of

young ratoon in the ridge also. Drilling at 30 and 60 cm depth is not mandatory from
planting up to three leaves stage of the cane. Rather, irrigation will be commenced by
observing and feeling the moisture content of the soil at the depth of not more than 10
cm.
Decision regarding the estimation of soil moisture can be assisted by the guideline in
annex 1.The result of drilling is designated by:
 “O” Neutral = critical moisture
 “-” Soil = below critical moisture
 “+” Plus = soil above critical moisture
In using the moisture estimation annex 1, the interpretation can be as follows:
If percentage depletion is within 50-75, it can be considered that the soil is in optimal
soil moisture range thus it refers “O” Neutral, If percentage depletion is within 75-100,
it can be considered that the soil is in dry soil moisture condition; thus, it refers to
“negative” soil, and if percentage depletion is within 0-50, it can be considered that the
soil is in wet soil moisture condition; thus, it refers to “positive” soil. Also refer to the
end of this manual for pictorial interpretation of the above values. However, whether to
irrigate or not is determined by looking at the results of soil samples and the general
appearance of the sugarcane plant. Soil moisture monitoring through drill test is not
applicable to irrigation after, furrowing, planting, molding and fertilizer application and
harvesting

Flow measurement
The canals and reservoirs should be well kept to convey and carry at their respective
design capacities. The overall losses of irrigation water should be minimized and flow
measurement should be conducted to ensure desired flow in irrigation units, i.e., the
design hydraulic head and 200 lit/sec at the hydro flume/flexi flume inlet.

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A. Application in the field

Establish an irrigation crew
One irrigation crew consisting of three members should work at a time in a tertiary unit
(with delivery capacity of 200 lit/sec for 64ha). Thus, the crew is handling the
200lit/sec water for 40 furrows at a time.

Prepare the field network

At the beginning of irrigation do the following:
 Check for missing and damaged gates and other components of FGP
 Check for worn-out or torn flexi/Hydro flume pipe line
 Check the furrows for blockage in the middle
 Check for furrow ends for any open ends
 Check the intake box and its upstream in sub laterals canals, for blockage, leakage
and damage of slide gates etc
 Check silt deposit in FGP line before fasting the guide and remove the silt by
splashing, this should be preferably be done immediately after each irrigation to
avoid difficulty in splashing dry silt deposit.
 Tied guiders to after 40+5th furrows in case of one way and after 20+5th furrows in
case of two-way FGP irrigation. Make two compartments at a time.

B. Divert, apply and drain excess water

 Sub lateral gate should be opened early in the morning (6am) and water should be
allowed to flow to flexible gated pipe.
 Irrigate each group of 40 furrows in the first compartment until adequate water
entered the furrows as per the specification.(refer the specification part)
 Remove the first guider and fast it after second compartment to continue irrigation
to downstream side of the field
 In such a way continue irrigating downstream of the field.
 Before stopping irrigation, sub lateral gates should be closed. Just before closing the
volume of water in the pipeline should be estimated to be able to cover the

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remaining field without being too small or excess. Thus, the water that comes after
closing will be allowed to enter the furrows
 After irrigation is carried out, FGP ends have to be opened and excess water has to
be drained and silt that may be deposited should be splash out to drains.

Soil moisture distribution test by soil penetration

Monitoring of water movement in the soil is very important. Penetration of irrigation
water must be checked by walking stick or augur three days after irrigation.

In order to examine water infiltration depths, two to three days after irrigation,
penetration test should be carried out using a 1.5cm diameter iron bar with a length of
150cm. The length of the bar enters into the soil is measured and considered as the
penetration depth of the irrigation water.

Two spots per hectare will be investigated, one spot 10m from the feeder ditch and the
other spot 10m from harvest road.
 Penetration in a field is determined by the averages of penetration at the feeder
ditch side and the same at the harvested road.
 For sugar cane at stage of closed canopy, penetration must be at least to 40cm
depth.
 If 40cm depth is not attained, the location to be marked as “hard to penetrate”
representing insufficiently irrigated spot. In such cases, additional number of
irrigation may be needed before the next irrigation

Preparation of irrigation diagram

Irrigation diagram is a tabulated format on a single paper which is used to record
irrigation activities of a given field on daily basis. The diagram consists of columns for
tertiary unit, field number, field size, soil class, and date. Each form is used for some
fields under a tertiary for a month. Within the table the following information are
recorded numbers of days since last irrigation, duration of irrigation, and irrigation
speed. Asterisks sign will be used at drill test date.

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The first date of starting irrigation in the field will be marked as a point with interval of
irrigation written in front and the end date of irrigation is also marked as a point with
duration of irrigation written, the two points are connected by a red line over which
calculated irrigation speed will be written. The irrigation speed is a number of hectares
irrigated per unit time.

To convert an irrigation speed to 9 hour basis we can use the following equation

Each tertiary canal has a delivery capacity of 200 lit/sec. This enables irrigating the
tertiary unit of 64 ha every 15 days for an irrigation depth of 113 mm if irrigation is
done 9 hours per day. If daily irrigation duration is 9 hours, an irrigation speed of 5.1 ha
per day per tertiary unit can be achieved. Irrigation speed can be used as a tool of
management in finding out our quality of conveyance, performance of irrigation crew,
and in verifying the proper quantity has been applied in a given area.

 In waterlogged, wet fields or in should below ground water conditions, irrigating

every other furrow (alternate furrows) or should be lower irrigation than the normal
can be practiced to reduce further build up of the problems. When alternate furrow
irrigation application is selected, amount and interval of irrigation may depend on
the irrigation type needed (1st irrigation, early Irrigation, or normal
irrigation).When should be low irrigation application is selected, amount and
interval of irrigation may depend on the irrigation type needed (1st irrigation, early
Irrigation, or normal irrigation) and the respective selected percentage reduction of
volume of application.
Stopping and resuming irrigation

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Irrigation should be stopped or suspended for two main conditions, for drying off and
during main rainy seasons or even when adequate rain fall is believed to have fallen in
irrigation seasons itself.

a) Drying off before harvesting

Refer maturity and ripening section 9.1.

b) Main rainy season

As a general rule, interruption to irrigation during the rainy season is recommended.
The rainy season is considered to include months with negative net irrigation
requirement.

c) Temporary suspension of irrigation within the irrigation season

Irrigation should be started or suspended based on result of field moisture test by

hand feel method (Appendix 1).

Irrigation can be stopped when RF exceeds 20-25mm for over 3 days. However this
depends on the age and height of the cane. For younger plant canes (1-3 month old)
irrigation can be stopped even with a lesser rainfall of 15mm.

d) Resuming irrigation
On harvested fields irrigation should be resumed immediately after the cane is removed
from the field. On existing cane fields, it should be be resumed as soon as the canals
overhaul is completed.

6.2 Drainage management

Land scape design is one of the important aspect of any design that lead to
successfulness the project.

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6.2.1 Surface drainage

 The drainage requirement of a crop is expressed in terms of drainage tolerance of
crop and the corresponding depth of soil that needs to be free of water-logging and
excessive salt.
 Sugarcane plant itself is a very effective drainage tool, being able to transpire at
peak canopy some 7 mm depth of water per day, which in a soil medium translates
to a much greater depth of soil moisture.
 However, cane roots will not tolerate anaerobic root conditions under ponded water
for more than a couple of days before there is a significant reduction in yield.
Consequently, detailed attention to drainage is essential.

 Do not leave water in furrow for more than 2 days as it would result in lack of
aeration in the soil. So in such cases it is desired to open the furrows and drain
out the water.
 For young plants of 3 to 4 weeks old, the water should not stay longer than 1
day

6.2.2 Subsurface drainage

Subsurface drainage is constructed to mitigate the problem of subsurface flow and
ground water rise not interface plant biological activities like oxygen uptake. Therefore;
 In sugarcane the water table needs to be maintained at least 0.6 m below the soil
surface to provide optimum soil moisture conditions within the root zone.
 The Sugarcane oxygen deficiency is reported to suppress root growth both in terms
of elongation and lateral spread of fibrous root. Similarly, water logging causes a
higher rate of mortality, retarded growth, and poor juice quality.

6.2.3 Flooding protection

Regular inspections of cross drainage works on major rivers and drains are necessary every
year before the floods to ascertain/examine their state of condition and after the floods to
ascertain actual functioning and damage: if any, during the floods. Certain inspections are
to be carried out during the canal closure. All inspections shall be directed to the following
aspects

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 See that the cross drainage and appurtenant works are in good operating conditions
and to make them operable if they are not so.
 Determine after the floods the repairs or remodeling measures required;
 See if any leakage from the canal is taking place at vulnerable locations;
 Investigate for presence of any unusual phenomenon in respect of boils, piping,
sweating of bank or saturation of substratum etc or cracks in the structure;
 Check any changes in the design features in the field, and to restore it to the
original design and to redesign the hydraulic structures after the floods, if so
warranted;
 Study the behavior of pressure relief valves, weep-holes, and filters, if any,
installed in the floors/retaining walls of cross drainage works;
 Study the water levels recorded and the quantum of flood discharge passed through
the cross drainage work for evaluating its performance.
 In case of excessive rise of levels, investigations have to be carried out and
remedial action
 Improve the conditions, if necessary, also during canal closure.
 Study the longitudinal section of drainage to see whether aggradations and
degradation are taking place, endangering the safety of the structure.
 Investigate if any meandering of the drainage channel in the vicinity of the
structure or change of flow pattern has occurred during the previous monsoon
period;

6.3 System mmaintenance

6.3.1 Maintenance inspections and reporting

Inspection of irrigation and drainage works for maintenance can be carried out by
engineers, operation and maintenance (O and M) staff or field staff.
Forms of maintenance inspection:
1. Inspections as part of the day-to-day work;
2. Annual or seasonal inspections.

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Inspection of irrigation system

 Major inspection should be carried out at the end of irrigation season

 The system should be inspected regularly during operation

 Potential problems should be checked at intervals

 Minor repairs should be carried out before major work is required

 Inspection should start at the top of the canal

Things to inspect in Canals:

 Check any areas of seepage

 Check any low points in the banks, which could be overtopped

 Check erosion of canal banks by heavy rainfall

 Check that any previous repairs to the banks are sound

 Inspect cracking, damaged joints and weeds in lining

 Inspect uphill drainage water entering the canal, risk of overtopping

damaging the canal banks

 Check Reasonable access along the canal banks

 Inspect floating weeds

6.4 Routine maintenance

Routine or day-to-day maintenance is small maintenance work that is carried out on a

regular basis. Routine maintenance work is usually done by a gatekeeper, maintenance
labourer or by farmers working individually or in groups

 Make minor repairs to earth embankments – small gullies from rainfall runoff,
animal damage, machinery damage, cracks and small seepage holes;

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 Clear silt in canals and drains near structures, especially near gates, measuring
structures and siphons;
 Clear floating rubbish from canals and structures, rubbish screens and gate
wells;
 Remove and cutting back of vegetation from within canals and drains, from
embankments (trees and bushes) and from around structures;
 Gates should be properly grease and oiled

6.5 Periodic and preventive maintenance

Periodic maintenance is small-scale, often preventative, maintenance work that does

not pose any immediate threat to the functioning of the system. Such work may require
skilled labour or machinery and should be carried out at intervals during the irrigation
season, as required. This work includes but is not limited to the following:

 repair concrete canal lining and structures;

 repair and maintain wood and metal works ( in particular gates)

 repair measuring structures, and installation of gauges;

 repair canal embankments if there is leakage or overtopping;

 Checking for seepage around or under structures, especially if there

is a high pressure head across the structure;

 Grading of embankments and canal/drain inspection/access roads to

avoid ponding of water and gullying;

 Closing river intake gates before high flood levels in the river, both
to avoid excessive discharges in the canal and intake of water with
high sediment loads

 Paint metal and woodwork;

 Repair machinery such as pumps;

 Upkeep access roads.

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6.6 Annual maintenance

Annual maintenance is work that is planned as a result of maintenance inspections,

which is too large or too wide a scale for periodic maintenance work. It could also
include work related to the improvement of the system rather than maintenance. The
maintenance work is carried out when the canals or drains are not in use, either at the
end or the beginning of the irrigation season.
 Canals should remain closed for some periods and hence maintenance
can be done during closure periods and as the canals are small sized,

 Perform major desilting work in main canals and drains;

 The soil or silt should be brought on the bank or road and is moved
further with the regular blade in a following pass

 The side slopes of the embankment of canals and drains have to be kept
smooth to prevent erosion and to allow mechanized weed control

 Repair of canal lining; night storages

 Repair of head works and canal/drain structures;

 Maintenance of canal embankments, service roads and flood bunds;

 Repair or replace equipments, gates, pumps, motors, etc

 Study the longitudinal section of drainage to see whether aggradations

and degradation are taking place, endangering the safety of the
structure.

 Investigate if any meandering of the drainage channel in the vicinity of

the structure or change of flow pattern has occurred during the previous
monsoon period;

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7 Cultivation Practices

Ridge flatting and moulding are done in plant cane fields whereas ratoon reshaping is
done in ratoons. Moulding or earthing up is performed mechanically when the height of
the cane shoots reaches 60 – 70 cm. This helps to avoid breakage of taller shoots or
burying of short shoots by the implements used for this operation. During this operation
the soil should be dry enough and easily workable.

7.1 Ridge flattening

The objective of this operation is to provide stable tractor movement space for
moulding operation and to reduce the ridge height so that moulding would result the
required furrow depth. When ridge flattening is performed, the furrow in which the
cane row is present is partially filled-up with the soil displaced from both sides of the
cane rows. During this operation the soil should be dry enough and easily workable.
During final earthing-up operation the soil from the ridge in between is fully removed
and placed on either side of the cane rows filling up the old furrow.
 Ridge flattening is done 2-3 days before moulding so as to give sunlight and air
to the top layer of the ridges to dry fast.
 To get the required work quality and avoid compaction, the operation must be
done at optimum soil moisture.
 Ridge flattening is done using a 2-row flattener and a tractor of about 130 hp.
 Care should be taken not to damage the cane plants.
 Working speed should be about 8 km/h.
 Work rate should be about 1.97 ha/h.

7.2 Moulding (Earthing up)

Moulding (earthing up) is an activity carried out to change the ridge to furrow and
making new furrows for irrigation.
 The operation is done when the cane reaches 60 - 70 cm height in order to avoid
cane damage.
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 The tractor and implement combination used for the operation are 4WD tractor
with about 130 hp and a 2 bottom moulder (ridger).
 Care should be taken not to damage the cane plants.
 Working speed should be about 8 km/h.
 Work rate should be about 1.97 ha/h.
 After moulding, a good standard of furrow depth, width and slope should be
maintained similar to the quality attained during initial furrowing operation.
 Damaged sprouts should not be left withering, but must be cut off soonest so as
to boost up growth.
 In moist area along laterals, sub-laterals, supplies, artificial lakes, and low spots
or replanted places generally characterized by less sprouting and shorter shoots,
operators should be warned in advance to lift the moulding equipment to a
certain extent to prevent the covering of shorter cane by soil/clods.
 Since it is hardly possible to prevent covering of the cane, arrangements have to
be made with plantation section so that plantation laborer check the cane fields
immediately after moulding to remove excess soil or clods dumped on the cane.
Besides, clods should not be returned in the furrow, but placed against the ridge
profile.
 After moulding, the field should be inspected closely and if the required furrow
and ridge profile may not be achieved the following measures should be taken,
o If the area is too small, correction forking should be done manually by
plantation laborers.
o If the area is too large enough, second moulding should be requested in
time so as to escape the rainy season.
o For one or another reason some areas may not be moulded. Such areas
should also be moulded manually by plantation laborers.
 Low spots in the field which have retarded cane growth should be hilled up
manually later on.

7.3 Ratoon re-shaping (furrow reshaping) / RR+F

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In ratoon fields, fertilizer application is usually carried out in combination with ratoon
reshaping (furrow reshaping) in one pass. The two operations are combined to
incorporate fertilizer into the sides of cane rows while reshaping the furrows and
covering the fertilizer with soil. Thus, the fertilizer is protected from volatilization and
losses by surface runoff water. This operation also facilitates irrigation water movement
in the furrows.
 Fertilizer is mechanically applied to ratoon cane after first irrigation when the soil
is appropriate for the operation.
 Fertilizer should be applied uniformly along cane furrows and properly covered
with soil in order to prevent volatilization effect.
 Reshaping of the furrow should provide the original depth and shape made during
furrowing operation.
 A tractor having a power of about 130 hp is usually used for the operation.
 Even though the RR+F operation is executed under the supervision of LPCD, it is
worthwhile that the section supervisors check whether the work is performed as per
the standard.
 Care should be taken not to damage the cane stools.
 Working speed should be about 8 km/h.
 Work rate should be about 1.6 ha/h.
For detail information refer to Section

8 Fertilizer Application Practices

At Kuraz Sugar Development Project two types of fertilizers (Urea and NPS) are
recommended to be used for sugarcane production.

8.1 Storage and handling of Urea and NPS fertilizers

 Store the fertilizers in a dry place.

 Inspect the bags frequently during rainy season and take precautions to separate the
bags that are moist.
 Keep it away from open flames.

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 Urea particles are generally soft and abrasion can break the granules. Load and
unload gently to avoid breakage of granules during transport.
 Do not open urea fertilizer bags before use since urea is volatile and also absorbs
moisture.
 Avoid foreign matters that contaminate the fertilizer.
 Sweep up and dispose all contaminated materials from storage site. Always keep
the storage site clean.
 Keep urea fertilizer separately from other materials stored in the same warehouse;
especially from combustible organic materials and ammonium nitrate.
 Cover the bags with canvas during transport and in the field before application.
 Follow rule of first in first out procedure.

8.2 Requesting and transporting fertilizer

Steps to be followed during fertilizer request and transport:

 Request the required amount of fertilizer as per the recommended rate using
equation 1.

…. Equation 1
 Request mechanical fertilizer applicator for ratoon fertilization.
 Communicate the arrival time of fertilizer with Land Preparation and Cultivation
Department (LPCD) to arrange laborers for unloading.
 Transport the requested amount of fertilizer to the field.
 While unloading, count delivered fertilizer bags and report to section manager or
unit head for verification.
 Cover the fertilizer bags with bisonyl sheet after unloading.
 Remove obstacles (dykes in the furrows) and open furrow ends before starting
mechanical fertilizer application.
 If there are fertilizer clods, break down the clods gently as much as possible without
breaking the fertilizer granules to avoid clogging.

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 Assign sufficient number of laborers to fill the fertilizer in to the hoppers and follow
the tractor in the fields to check uniform application of fertilizer.
Remarks: Check the operation during fertilizer application, whether it is carried out to
the standard; and if there is a problem stop the operation and correct the problem.

8.3 Field application of urea and NPS fertilizers

8.3.1 Plant cane

Rate
 NPS
 Apply at rate of 180 kg ha-1 regardless of soil types.
 Urea
 Apply at rate 135kg ha-1 regardless of soil types.

Time of application
 Apply NPS at planting.
 Apply urea fertilizer 2.0-2.5 months after planting.

Method of application
 NPS
 Apply NPS manually immediately after planting cane setts and cover it with soil.
 Urea
 Apply urea fertilizer for plant cane manually.
 Divide the furrow length in 10 m with a string.
 Make 24 holes within every 10 m furrow length.
 Assign a crew of 3 laborers for one furrow and give specific activity for each
laborer.
 The first laborer should dig holes on the ridge side of a furrow (approximately 8-
10cm deep) at a distance of 41.6 cm (which is 24 holes per 10m furrow length); the
second laborer should hold fertilizer and apply 8.2gm per hole with a spoon; and the

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third laborer should cover the holes with soil immediately after application by his
foot.
 No of crews will depend on the size of the area to be treated with fertilizer.
 This practice should be repeated until the target area is covered.
 Give light irrigation immediately after fertilizer application.
 Apply urea fertilizer at moist soil condition; not at dry or wet soil conditions (ie, if
soil is dry the field should be given light irrigation before fertilizer application).
 Do not apply fertilizer when the soil is saturated or there is rainfall.
 Apply urea fertilizer when air and soil temperature is too low to reduce loss due to
ammonia volatilization.

8.3.2 Ratoon cane

Rate
 Apply 235 kg urea ha-1 and 180kg NPS ha-1 to all ratoon crops regardless of the soil
types.
Time of application
 Apply both fertilizer types (urea and NPS, after mixing) to all ratoon crops
immediately after completing field cleaning and trash burning activities.

Method of application

 Mix the two fertilizers, Urea and NPS, before applying to the target field.
 Apply the mixed fertilizers mechanically.
 Apply manually if there is no fertilizer applicator and/or the soil is wet due to
rainfall.
 Give light irrigation immediately after fertilizer application.
 Apply fertilizer when a soil is at moist condition but not wet.
 Do not apply fertilizer when the soil is saturated or there is rainfall.
Mechanical fertilizer application

Mechanical fertilizer applicators are used to apply fertilizer on cane fields. The rate at
which the fertilizer is applied, the type of fertilizer and time of application are
determined by research.
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Fertilizer applicators should be precisely calibrated to apply the fertilizer uniformly at

the recommended rate. There are different types of fertilizer applicator calibration
methods. The most widely used method to calibrate PTO operated or hydraulic motor
operated fertilizer applicator is described below:

Calibration Procedures:

Step 1. Measure the distance between the fertilizer tubes and determine the width of
the machine.

Step 2. Determine the length of the calibration course (it should not be less than 100
meters).

Step 3. Measure out the length of the calibration course.

Step 4. Determine the amount of time required to cover the calibration course by using
tractor speed to be used during fertilizer application.

Step 5. Add fertilizer in the hopper. While the fertilizer applicator is stationary put
buckets under each fertilizer tube and operate the fertilizer applicator at the
operating setting to be used in the field for the amount of time required to
cover the calibration course. Collect the fertilizer coming out of all tubes for
the length of time that was required to cover calibration course.

Step 6. Measure the weight of fertilizer caught under each tube. Compare the fertilizer
obtained under each tube with each other. The amount of fertilizer from different
tubes should be within 5 percent of each other. If a value deviation of more than
5% is obtained, the deviating tube should be checked and cleaned (if clogged) or
replaced.

Step 7. The total obtained fertilizer is equivalent to application rate of area equal to
(width of applicator X calibration course). Convert the obtained figure to per
hectare basis and compare with the required rate of application.

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Step 8. Adjust the speed, or adjust the metering system to achieve the desired fertilizer
amount is applied. Repeat the procedure until you are close to the desired
application rate.

 The tractor used for the operation should have a power of about 130 hp.
 Working speed should be about 8 km/h.
 If a two bottom machine is used the work rate should be about 1.6 ha/h.
 The quality of fertilizer application should be closely monitored by foremen and
supervisors.

8.4 Ferrous Sulphate (FeSO4. 7H2O) application

 Ferrous sulphate is commonly applied to ratoon crops when chlorotic symptom is

observed.
A. Rate of application
 Apply ferrous sulphate at the rate of 30 kg ha-1.
B. Time of application
 Apply/spray ferrous sulphate when symptom of chlorosis is observed (mostly
within 2 to 3 weeks after harvesting).
C. Method of application
 Apply ferrous sulphate (FeSO4.7H2O) through foliar application.
 Application can be made manually using knapsack sprayer or mechanically.

i) Manual application of iron sulphate

 Prepare ferrous sulphate solution in a half drum by mixing 8kg of ferrous sulphate
in 80 liters of water and 120 ml of surfactant (Teepol). Use clean water free of
sediments to prepare the solution. Do not use drainage water.
 Stir the solution well before filling to knapsack sprayer.
 Calibrate the walking speed of knapsack sprayers to complete the recommended
amount of ferrous sulphate solution within the specified furrow length.

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 During calibration using water, complete spraying 43.43 ml water per 1m or 434.3
ml per 10 m furrow length.
 Wet chlorotic leaves sufficiently by the ferrous sulphate solution.
 Apply second and third applications after the first spray in weekly interval until
chlorotic symptom disappear.
 Spraying should be made after irrigation when the field becomes accessible.
 Spraying should be made with wind direction.
 Used knapsack sprayers should be cleaned every day.

ii) Mechanical application of ferrous sulphate

 Dissolve 30kg ferrous sulphate in 300liter water and add 450ml surfactant (Teepol)
into the solution to spray on one hectare.
 Stir the solution well before filling to the container of the mechanical applicator.
 Spray the solution 2 to 3 weeks after harvesting when chlorosis is evident.
 Apply second and third applications after the first spray in weekly interval until
chlorotic symptom disappears.
 Do spraying when the field is accessible after irrigation.
 Spraying should be made with wind direction.
 Clean mechanical sprayers every day after use.
During application, give priority to severely affected fields and spray chlorotic patches
manually.

9 Sugarcane Pest Management

9.1 Sugarcane ddisease management

In the Ethiopian sugar estates, 18 sugarcane diseases caused by bacteria, fungi and
environmental disorders have been recorded. Among the diseases recorded at Kuraz
sugarcane plantation, smut and ratoon stunting diseases are the main ones and
management is thus made for these two diseases. However, specific management
practice is done only for smut and ratoon stunting in the commercial fields. Moreover,

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fields planted with tissue cultured plantlets, diseases like damping off and smut were
also observed. Smut management practices for tissue cultured plantlets should be
applied similar to the cultural practices (Rouging practice) mentioned for the nursery
field and special attention should be given for damping off disease as indicated below
(section 8.1.3.)

9.1.1 Smut (Sporosarium scitaminea) management

Sugarcane smut accounted for 19 to 43% cane yield loss in Ethiopia. Besides, due to
the disease some sugarcane varieties in the sugarcane plantations of Ethiopia (NCo 310,
Co 419, M 38/165 and NCo 376) were put out of production.

 Symptom
 Production of a black whip-like structure from the central core of the meristematic
tissue.
 Smut infection may cause some degree of "grassiness" and at its worst; this
symptom takes the form of extreme dwarfing and death of part or the whole stool.
 About 7 to 10 days before whip emergence, the leaves become stiff and erect, and
the upper internodes lengthen.

Table 4. Degree of smut resistance of some sugarcane varieties

Reaction Group Sugarcane varieties
Very highly resistant B80-250, C86-56
B41-227, Co449, Co680, Co678,C90-501, C86-165,C132-81,C1051-73,
Highly Resistant SP70-1284
Resistant B52-298,
Moderately resistant Mex54/245, D141/46, DB377/60, Co740, C86/12, C120-78, B78-505
Susceptible N14, NCo334,N6
Very highly susceptible M165/38, Co421, NCo310, NCo376, D 42/58, NCo376

 Control measures for smut

1) Roguing: rouging frequency may vary for nursery and commercial cane fields.
 Nursery fields: the initial seed cane and seed cane nurseries have to be
inspected at 10 - day intervals as of 30 days after planting until the cane reaches
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inaccessible stage. But once the cane reached inaccessible stage, smut
inspection should be continued at the border of the field until it is cut for
planting.

 Commercial cane fields: due attention should be given to fields planted with
susceptible varieties. Thus, field inspection interval should be fortnightly for
susceptible varieties starting from 30 days after planting or harvesting. But,
fields planted with resistant varieties could be inspected at monthly interval
starting from two months after planting or harvesting. In both cases inspection
is continued until the cane reaches inaccessible stage.

Note: It should be done carefully to avoid scattering of spores. Thus, affected plants
should be removed before the whip emergence at incipient/pregnant stage.

 Procedures to follow in rouging of infected stalks

 In case where whips have already emerged, avoid scattering of spores by
inserting the whip in a polythene bag.
 And cut the whip with a sickle,
 Dug out the remaining infected plant part with appropriate hand tools (fork,
gesso, jamba, etc.) and place it in a wet sack
 Then, the whips and other infected plant parts should be carefully buried in the
pit dug at the edge of the field.

2) Hot water treatment (HWT): The temperature and time combination level
indicated for ratoon stunting disease control is also used for smut control (for
detail, see the procedures indicated under RSD management). After HWT, setts
should be treated with fungicides before planting.

3) Chemical control: fungicides eradicate smut from the planting material or

prevent re-infection when they are used as a pre-plant treatment of setts.

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Table 6. List of recommended fungicide for sugarcane smut diseases

Fungicide Rate Cane immersion time
Bayfidan (Triadimenol) 25 WP 1 g l-1 of water
Bayleton (Triadimefon) 25 EC 1 ml l-1 of water
Bumper (Propiconazole) 25 EC 1 ml l-1 of water
Noble (Triadimefon) 25 WP 1 g l-1 of water
3 to 5 minutes
Tilt (Propiconazole) 250 EC 1 ml l-1 of water
Topzole (Propiconazole) 25 EC 1 ml l-1 of water
Vincit (flutriafol/thiabendazole) 50 1 g l-1 of water
WP

 Procedures of sett treatment with fungicide solution:

 Prepare fungicide solution in a half drum, i.e. 80 ml or g of one of the above
listed fungicides in 80 liter water.
 Place setts in a perforated iron basket and immerse it in the fungicide solution
for three to five minutes.
 Laborers who are handling this work should wear appropriate protective
clothes.
Note: Setts should be fully immersed in the solution for 3 to 5 minutes.

9.1.2 Ratoon stunting disease (Leifsonia xyli subsp. xyli) management

In the Ethiopian sugar estates, RSD causes yield loss of 11- 28% in cane tonnage and
13-29% in sugar yield. The disease is more pronounced where the crop is exposed to
stresses such as water logging, moisture deficit, poor cultural practices, etc.
 Symptom
External symptoms: there are no external symptoms, except the stunting and the
general poor growth of the cane stool. But the general poor growth does not necessarily
mean that the plants are infected by RSD.

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Internal symptom: the two types of internal symptoms are the presence of
 A pink color near the apical meristem in very young shoots, and
 Red dots and commas at the nodes of near-mature stalks.

Diagnosis of RSD based upon the external and internal symptoms alone is difficult.
Thus, the only dependable diagnosis is the positive identification of the causal
bacterium.

 Control measures
a. Hot water treatment (HWT): HWT is applied for the initial seed cane nursery.

 Procedures of sett treatment with hot water:

 Two-budded setts with their leaf sheath on are cut from 7 to 9-month- old
nursery.
 The setts are placed dipped in the hot water for the recommended temperature
(50 oC) and time (2 hrs) combination
 Since the hot water treated setts become vulnerable to soil-borne pathogens, the
setts following the hot water treatment are immersed in the fungicide solution
(the one listed in smut management), for three to five minutes.
 Then the treated setts should be planted immediately

b. Use of cane knife disinfectant: sanitation of cane knife with chemical

disinfectants is important in preventing healthy cane from becoming infected by
the bacterium. Lysol, Ethanol and Dettol can be used for disinfecting cane knife.

Table 7. List of recommended disinfectant chemicals

Disinfectant Rate Knife immersion time
Lysol (Cresylic acid) 120 ml l-1 of water 5 minutes
Dettol 10 ml l-1 of water
Ethanol (50 %) 1000 ml l-1 of

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water

 Procedures of cane knife disinfection:

 Prepare solution of either of the above listed disinfectants.
 Immerse cane knife in the solution at least for five minutes before use.
 Cane knives should fully be immersed in the disinfectant solution
 During seed cane preparation, in average a single person can chop a single stalk
within 45seconds, therefore, in order to immerse the chopping knives for five
minutes, individual cane choppers during seed cane preparation should at least
have 15 cane knives.
Note: To avoid possibilities of transmitting RSD bacterium from one ratoon field to
other fields, cane cutters should treat their knives for at least five minutes just before
starting and at completing harvesting of one field.

9.1.3 Damping off disease (Pythium spp.)

The disease affects tissue cultured plantlets both at lath house condition and after field
transplanting. Severity of the disease is proportional to the amount of soil moisture and
is greatest near the saturation point or wet soils.
Disease symptom
 Wilting of settlings and decaying/rotting on the underground part which further
extended up to the root-stalk junction and a little bit above.
Control measures
 Avoid excess irrigation water that aggravate the disease severity and
practicing light but frequent application of irrigation water

 Use the standard media (proper mixture of sand; clay/forest soils) for
growing healthy and vigorous plantlets ( it can be at 50: 50 or 60: 40 ratio
depending on visual observation of the materials quality).

 Use perforated polyethylene bag in order to improve soil aeration problem

via releasing out the excess water

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 Irrigation application time should be in the morning (until 9:00am) and in

the afternoon (after 4:00pm) in order to avoid stress that may contribute to
disease severity.

9.2 Weed management

Weeds cause 64 -74 and 60 to 80 % cane and sugar yield loss, respectively in the
sugarcane plantations of Ethiopia. Management of weeds is an essential aspect of
maintaining crop productivity within an economically viable and ecologically
sustainable agricultural system.

There are three weed types:

 Grass weeds: true grasses have hollow, rounded stems and nodes (joints) that
are closed and hard. The leaf blades are alternate on each side of the stem, have
parallel veins, and are much longer than they are wide.
 Broadleaf weeds: broadleaf weeds are a highly variable group of plants, but
most have showy flowers and net-like veins in their leaves.
 Sedges: are "grass-like" weeds; however, they are not true grasses and are
characterized by a solid, triangular-shaped stem with leaves extending in three
directions.

9.2.1 Critical weed free period

The period during the first 10, 12 and 14 WAP were found to be critical for crop-weed
competition for the sprawling, intermediate and erect type of sugarcane varieties,
respectively. Hence, weed management practice in the site should be made during this
period to ensure economical control of weeds.

9.2.2 Weed management methods

In sugarcane plantations of Ethiopia, weed control practice seems to be an integrated
one. In the plantations, there is a little variation in weed control practice between plant
cane and ratoon crops, which is resulted from the difference in canopy formation. For
instance, the weed control practices in plant cane are: hand weeding (hand
pulling/hoeing); pre-emergence herbicide application followed by hand weeding; or

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pre-emergence herbicide application followed by post-emergence application and hand

weeding. Whereas, for ratoon crops, the common weed control practices are hand
weeding or post emergence herbicide application followed by hand weeding. On the
other hand, fields planted with tissue cultured plantlets, the weed management practice
should be made only using hand weeding practices, since the plantlets are succulent
enough and unable to tolerate any herbicide applied during early growth stages.

a. Manual method

Hand weeding: it is practiced using hand or hand hoe and particularly practiced in the
row of cane, but also over the whole soil surface. Hand hoeing and pulling is effective
and economical for "rouging" the few individual weeds that escape other control
measures or that infest a field for the first time.
b. Chemical method
Herbicides can be applied using knapsack sprayers and tractor- mounted sprayer.
Chemical control, irrespective of the weed species present, is not only efficient than
hand weeding but also promotes crop yields to a greater extent because weed growth
can be prevented, not merely destroyed after its development.

Table 5. Herbicides tested to be used as pre-emergence at Tendaho sugar estate

Herbicide Rate* Target weeds
AtrametCombi 50 SC (Ametryne+Atrazine) 6/8 l ha-1 Complex weeds
Gesapax Combi 500 FW (Ametryne+Atrazine) 6/8 l ha-1 Complex weeds
Ametrazine 50 SC (Ametryne+Atrazine) 6/8 l ha-1 Complex weeds
Ametra 50 SC (Ametryne+Atrazine) 6/8 l ha-1 Complex weeds
Sugarcane Hoe 50 SC (Ametryne+Atrazine) 6/8 l ha-1 Complex weeds
Albatrose 500 SC (Ametryne+Atrazine) 6/8 l ha-1 Complex weeds
Lumax 535 SC (Mesotrione) 4 l ha-1 Complex weeds
Extreme Plus 750 WP + Dinamic 70 WG (1.2/1.8 + Complex weeds
([Metribuzine + Chlorimuron] + Amicarbazone) 1.5/2.25) kg ha-

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Extreme Plus 750 WP + Volacet 900 EC 1.2/1.8 kg ha-1 + Complex weeds

([Metribuzine + Chlorimuron] + Ametryne) 3.5/5.25 l ha-1
Kirsmat 75 WG + Dinamic 70 WG (2.75 + Complex weeds
([Trifloxysulfuron + Ametryne] + 1.5/2.25) kg ha-1
Amicarbazone)
**Volazinone 75 DF (Hexazinone) 0.8 kg ha-1 Complex weeds
**Velpar 75 DF (Hexazinone) 0.8 kg ha-1 Complex weeds
Primagram Gold 660 SC (Alfa-Metolachlor 4/6 l ha-1 Complex weeds
Atrazine)
* The highest and lowest rates are for the heavy and light soil types, respectively.
** Velpar and Volazinone used only for ratoon crops; whereas, the remaining
herbicides can be used for both plantcane and ratoon crops.

Table 6. Herbicides tested to be used as post-emergence at Tendaho sugar estate

Herbicide Rate* Target weeds
Atramet Combi 50 SC (Ametryne+Atrazine) + 6/8 + 3 l ha-1 Complex weeds
2,4-D
Gesapax Combi 500 FW (Ametryne+Atrazine) 6/8 + 3 l ha-1 Complex weeds
+ 2,4-D
Ametrazine 50 SC (Ametryne+Atrazine) + 2,4- 6/8 + 3 l ha-1 Complex weeds
D 6/8 + 3 l ha-1 Complex weeds
Ametra 50 SC (Ametryne+Atrazine) + 2,4-D
Sugarcane Hoe 50 SC (Ametryne+Atrazine) + 6/8 + 3 l ha-1 Complex weeds
2,4-D
Albatrose 500 SC (Ametryne+Atrazine) 6/8 l ha-1 Complex weeds
Kirsmat 75 WG (Trifloxysulfuron + Ametryne) 2.75 kg ha-1 Complex weeds
Lumax 535 SC (Mesotrione) 4 l ha-1 Complex weeds
Aterbutex 50 SC (Atrazine Terbutryn) 9 l ha-1 Complex weeds
Extreme Plus 750 WP + Dinamic 70 WG (1.2/1.8 + Complex weeds

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([Metribuzine + Chlorimuron] + Amicarbazone) 1.5/2.25) kg

ha-1
Extreme Plus 750 WP + Volacet 900 EC 1.2/1.8 kg Complex weeds
([Metribuzine + Chlorimuron] + Ametryne) ha-1 +
3.5/5.25) l
ha-1
Kirsmat 75 WG + Dinamic 70 WG (2.75 + Complex weeds
([Trifloxysulfuron + Ametryne] + 1.5/2.25) kg
Amicarbazone) ha-1
Boral 48 SC (Sulfentrazole) 2/3 l ha-1 Complex weeds
Primagram Gold 660 SC (Alfa-Metolachlor 4/6 l ha-1 Complex weeds
Atrazine)
Staller star 210 SL (Topramezone + Dicampa) 1.5 l ha-1 Complex weeds
Master 480 SC (Metribuzin) 1.5 ha-1 Complex weeds
Herbalem 72 SL (2,4-D Amine salt) 3 l ha-1 Broad leaf weeds
Delphi 720 SL (2,4-D Amine salt) 3 l ha-1 Broad leaf weeds
Litamine 72 SL (2,4-D Amine salt) 3 l ha-1 Broad leaf weeds
ChoB Amine 720 SL (2,4-D Amine salt) 3 l ha-1 Broad leaf weeds
Sanaphen 720 SL (2,4-D Amine salt) 3 l ha-1 Broad leaf weeds
Dicopur 720 SL (2,4-D Amine salt) 3 l ha-1 Broad leaf weeds
Ethio 2,4-D 72 SL (2,4-D Amine salt) 3.5 l ha-1 Broad leaf weeds
* The highest and lowest rates are for the heavy and light soil types, respectively.

 Time of herbicide application(s):

Table 7. Time of herbicide application

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Stage Grasses Sedge Broad leaf

Pre-planting No emergence No emergence No emergence
Pre-emergence 1 to 2 leaves 1 to 3 leaves < 3 leaves/ 0 to 30 mm height
Early post-emergence 3 to 4 leaves/pre-tillering 3 to 5 leaves 3 to 5 leaves/< 100 mm height
Late post-emergence Tillering Flowered > 5 leaves/ > 100 mm height

Pre-emergence: it usually refers to application that is made after the crop is planted but
before it emerges. These pre-emergence applications are usually applied to the soil
surface and require rainfall or irrigation to move the herbicide into the soil.

Pre-emergence application based on sugarcane growth stage:

 It should be applied within 5 to 8 days after planting for plant cane.
 For ratoon crop, if ratoon reshaping and fertilization operation couldn’t be
undertaken within a month after harvest, such application should be made within
10 to13 days.
 The list of herbicides (in table 9) at their specified rates can be used for this
application.
 During herbicide application, the soil condition should be moist.
 Mechanical spraying is recommendable as compared to manual application.
 Such application can control weeds for about 25 to 35 days after planting. Hence,
it should be supported by post-emergence application or manual weeding (for
varieties that do not tolerate overleaf spray of herbicides) to control weeds that
emerge afterwards.
Post-emergence: it is applied following emergence; however, as with pre-emergence it
should be specified as to post-emergence to the crop or weed. If the crop has emerged
but no weeds are present, then the application is post emergence to the crop but pre-
emergence to the weeds and would be applied to the soil surface. If the crop as well as
the weeds has emerged, then the application is post-emergence to both weed and crop
and would be applied to the foliage of the weeds.

Post-emergence application based on sugarcane growth stage:

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 It should be applied within 25 to 35 days after planting for plant cane and within
40 to 55 days after harvesting for ratoon crop.
 It should be applied within 35 to 55 days after pre-emergence application for
fields that receive pre-emergence application.
 The list of herbicides (in table 10) with their specified rates should be used with
the addition of adjuvant (see table 12) for this application.

Table 8. List of adjuvant to be used with herbicides as post-emergence application

Adjuvant Rate
Teepol 450 ml ha-1
Volcano blend 600 ml ha-1
Liliprosynergy 600 ml ha-1

 Such application result to be valuable, the soil condition should be moist.

 Certain sugarcane varieties don’t tolerate an overleaf spray of such application.
Hence, refrain from such application for these varieties (e.g.: Mex 54/165,
B41227).
 Such application can control the weeds for about 25 to 35 days after planting.
However, since there is moulding/cultivation practice after this period, it is not
necessary to apply herbicides. But, if this cultural practice is delayed, manual
weeding may be done as required.

C. Chemical spraying (Refer section 9.5)

9.3 Insect management

In Ethiopian sugar estates, there are 20 insect pests are recorded and only few are
important. Of the insect pests recorded at Kuraz Sugar Project, termite, borers and
army worm are the only economically important ones as a result specific control option
should be made to alleviate the problem. Moreover, sporadic insects like army worm
and locust are also becoming an important pest and control practices should be taken

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timely, in case of outbreak condition. For tissue cultured plantlets, insect management
should be applied similar to the commercial fields mentioned below.

9.3.1 Termite management

Termites are one of the most economically important soil dwelling insect pest in the
sugarcane plantation fields. They can be categorized into two major groups as
macroterms and microterms. Cane damage by termites can occur from planting till
harvest. However, the most damage occurs soon after planting by termite workers when
they completely devour the interior part of the seed sett. Study at Finchaa indicated that
termite causes 17, 13 and 10 % of dead setts, chopped shoots and chopped stalk,
respectively.

Symptoms
 Termites can attack sett, young shoots and stalks of sugarcane.
 At the shoot stage, the termites attack the young shoots by feeding the base of
the plant just below the soil surface producing a wilting symptom.
 On stand cane, termite attack can be identified by stalk damage through internal
galleries made with partial or fully covered the external part of the stalk with
soil/mud.
 Seed sett damage identified as the pest entered through cut ends as well as nodal
regions of the setts and destroyed the soft internodal tissues to excavate tunnels
which were then filled with soil galleries within the thin covering of epidermis.
 The macro-terms produce mound both in plant cane as well as ratoon fields.

Control measures

A) Cultural practice

 Pre-planting tillage should be made to the standard in order destroy the tunnels
built by termites and restricts their foraging activities and associated damage to
the cane.
 Removal of the queen and/or destruction of the nest are recommended for the
control of mound-forming termites. Mounds are physically destroyed using

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machinery or manually and kill the colony including the queen. These activities
should be undertaken both in the cane fields and within 150 m surroundings of
the fields.
 After every queen removal operation, it is necessary to apply insecticide with
sufficient water in order to achieve better result.
 Crop residues and other debris removal should be made properly from fields in
order to reduce potential termite food supplies which leads to a reduction in
termite population and subsequent attack.
 Avoid water stress condition through effective irrigation scheduling in order to
impede the pest movement and its consecutive attack.

B. Chemical control

 The sugar estate should apply the following lists of insecticides for the control
of termite.

Table 9. Type of insecticide and rate of application

Type of insecticide Rate, liter per ha
Ethiozinon 60% EC 4.5
Basudin 600 EW 4.5
Confidor 200 SL 0.75
Pyrinex 48 EC 3.0
Regent 500 SF 0.25
Talstar 100 EC 2
Regent 5% EC 2
 On plant cane: it should be applied at the time of planting before covering the
seed sett and immediately irrigation should be followed.
 On ratoon fields: just after harvest through the support of pest infestation level,
it should be applied within the furrow and immediately irrigation should be
followed.
 On termite mound: Application of insecticide also be made on termite mounds
(two fold of the above recommended insecticides based on the topical area of

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the mound) after excavating the mound and apply within the galleries with
sufficient water.
 Application of insecticide (two fold of the above recommended insecticides
based on the topical area of the mound) in combination with queen removal
operation should be made in order achieve maximum control of mound forming
termite groups.

Procedures of insecticide application

Plantcane

 Add 43 ml of Dursban 48 EC in a watering-can of 10 liters capacity.

 Spray this solution at the bottom of a furrow over 100 m length with a uniform
walking speed.
 Irrigation should follow immediately after application in order to have uniform
vertical and horizontal distribution of the insecticide through the soil.
Ratoon

 After destructing the mound, apply 50 - 80 ml of Dursban 48 EC within 5 to 10 m

surrounding area of the mound with a uniform walking speed.
 Immediately after insecticide application irrigation should be followed to have
uniform vertical and horizontal distribution of the insecticide through the soil.
Mound
 Opening the mound and measuring the area (topical area) in order to estimate
insecticide rate per mound
 Two fold of the recommended insecticide based on the area calculated will be
diluted with sufficient amount of water and apply in the entire area of the mound
via the openings/ galleries
 Evaluate the control potential via observation of the mound activity after two-three
months

9.3.2 Borer management

In Kuraz sugar project, different borer species are attacking sugarcane and causing cane
and sugar yield losses. Study in the sugarcane plantations of Ethiopia indicated that

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sugarcane borer complex has inflicted a loss of 24.86 % and 34.34 % in cane and sugar
yield, respectively.
Symptoms:
Shoot borers:
 Attack of the first three instar stages of the larvae has producing a pinhole or
windowing symptom of young and succulent top leaf.
 At early young stage of the crop (1 to 4 months old), larvae feed the shoots
at the base of the plant just above the soil surface producing a dead heart
symptom.
 The larval entrance or point of attack on young shoot is typically circular
hole and while picking the central shoot of the attacked cane, it can be
simply pull out and it has a pungent smell.

Stalk borers:
 symptom of damage by stalk borers are distinguished by the circular
entrance hole of the stalk and their tunneling within the stalk
 Sometimes profuse side shooting of the young as well as old cane can be a
symptom of borer attack and it is the result of topical dominance removal
and it is observed below the point of attack.
 At the early stage stalk borer infestation can be detected by symptoms of
pinhole on the leaves, tiny hole on the midribs and larvae frass on the stalk
and stalks of sugarcane.

Control measures
Cultural control:
a. Use of borer free planting materials:
 It is mandatory to plant borer free planting material in order to reduce the
spread of the pest.

b. Field sanitation:

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 Removal of crop residues should be made to reduce the pest infestation

through eradicating the over-wintering site of the pest.
c. Rouging out the dead shoot:
 Removal of dead shoot should be made in order to reduce the pest attack at
the early young stages of the crop by removing borer larvae within the
damaged shoot. Then after, proper drying and burning should be made
outside the field.

d. Alternate host management:

 Remove and destruct wild grasses mainly cypress species, Sorghum species
and Rottbeollia from sugarcane fields that serve as an alternate hosts for the
pest growth and reproduction.

e. Proper crop husbandry:

 Proper crop husbandry should be made in order to improve crop tolerance to
pest damage. It is necessary to avoid any stress to the crop like water-
logging, water deficit and improper fertilization.

f. Chemical control:
 It is advisable to apply insecticide (Ethiozinon 60 EC @ 2 liter per ha and
Helerate 5% EC @ 325 ml/ha) for shoot borer management.
 For plant cane: The plantations should implement twice application of
Helerate 5 % EC @ 350 ml/ha and/or Ethiozinon 60 % EC @ 2 liter /ha at
11th and 14th weeks after planting.
 For Ratoon Crop: Twice application of Helerate 5 % EC @ 350 ml/ha
and/or Ethiozinon 60 % EC @ 2 liter /ha at 8th and 11th weeks after harvest
for the control of sugarcane shoot borer complex.

Note: Before insecticide application, it is mandatory to undertake strict periodic

monitoring of the pest infestation level during hot season and application should be

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made if and only if the infestation levels reach above 15% dead shoot. Moreover, based
on the onset of the pest attack time of application will be flexible.

9.3.3 Army worm (Spodoptera sp) management

It is a pest of occasional importance in sugarcane plantations of Ethiopia and sporadic
outbreaks of army worm often develop rapidly in young cane and can result in severe
defoliation. The pest is more common in every 2-3 years period in the sugarcane
plantation fields. During outbreak years, the pest density reaches up to and occasionally
exceeding 1000 larvae per square meter of area. However, it has a significant impact on
the cane production system during its occurrence.

Symptom:
 Infestation of the cane is evident from the `windowing' or skeletonizing of younger
leaves caused by rasping of the epidermis by young larvae, or gross feeding by
older larvae.
 The horizontal middle leaves of the plant, where photosynthetic activity is greatest,
are particularly affected, but the growing points, other leaves, and the stems of
younger plants are also affected.

Control measures:
a. Cultural control:
 Field sanitation
 Fields should be free of weeds
b. Chemical control:
 Use of a wide range of insecticides such as Malathion 50 EC, Ethiozinon
60 EC and Dursban 48 EC at a rate of 1-2 lt ha-1 found to be effective in
controlling the pest.
 For application use 300 to 400 liters of water per hectare and application
should be made manually using Knapsack sprayer.

9.3.4 Locust management

Locusts are known as defoliators. They are generalized plant feeders and are migratory
pests with very occasional occurrence. In the sugarcane plantations of Ethiopia, African
migratory locust (locusta migratoria) and African desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria
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(Forskal)) are the two identified species and recorded in recent years. Locusts are
members of the grasshopper family Acrididae, which includes most of the short-horned
grasshoppers. Locusts differ from grasshoppers because they have the ability to change
their behaviour and physiology, in particular their colour and shape (morphology) in
response to changes in density. Adult locusts can form swarms which may contain
thousands of millions of individuals and which behave as a unit. The non-flying
nymphal or hopper stage can form bands. A band is a cohesive mass of hoppers that
persists and moves as a unit. Under severe condition they can kill growing points of
cane. In solitary locusts cause no harm.

Symptom
 Chew the leaves of sugarcane so that only the mid-rib is left.
Control Measures
 Use of a wide range of insecticides
o Chlorpyrifos ETHIL 24% ULV or Chlorpyrifos ETHIL 48% EC at 2-3
liters per hectares
o Fentrathion 96% ULV or Fentrathion 50% EC at
o Ethiozinon 60 EC and Dursban 48 EC at a rate of 2-3 lt hectare
 For application use 300 to 400 liters of water per hectare and application should be
made manually using Knapsack sprayer.

9.4 Guidelines for safe use of a pesticide

 Before applying pesticide,

 READ THE LABEL, including the small print.

 Make sure the appropriate protective clothing is available and is used, and that all
concerned with the application also understand the recommendations, and are fully
trained in how to apply pesticides.
 Check application equipment for leaks, calibrate with water and ensure it is in
proper working order.
 Take only sufficient pesticide for the day’s.
 Application from the store to the site of application.
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 While mixing pesticides and during application

 Wear appropriate protective clothing.
 Recheck the instructions on the label.
 Never eat, drink or smoke when mixing or applying pesticides.
 Make sure that pesticides are mixed in the correct quantities.
 Avoid inhalation of chemical dust or fumes.
 Start spraying near the downwind edge of the field.

 After application,

 RETURN unused pesticide to the store;

 Safely dispose of all empty containers.
 NEVER leave pesticides in application equipment.
 Remove and clean protective clothing
 Wash well and put on clean clothing
 Keep a record of the use of pesticides

9.5 Chemical spraying

There are two methods of chemical spray: knapsack sprayer (manual) and tractor
mounted (mechanical).

a. Spraying procedures of knapsack sprayer (manual)

 The standard spray tank has 10 to 16 liters capacities and it should be filled with
one liter less than the capacity.
 After filling the spray tank, the sprayer is fixed on the back of the operator with the
help of straps.
 Volume of water to be used for spraying using knapsack sprayer would be 300 -
400 l ha-1.
 Water (15 liters) and herbicide (depending herbicide rates) in a knapsack sprayer
can be sprayed on:
 12 furrows of 24 m length or
 9 furrows of 32 m length or
 6 furrows of 48 m length or
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 4.5 furrows of 64 m length.

For example, a 16 liters capacity knapsack sprayer could be filled with 15 liters of
water and either of the following herbicides and sprayed on the above number of
furrows:
 251/334 ml of the herbicides with 6/8 l ha -1 rate for light and heavy soils,
respectively (e.g. Atramet Combi 50 SC) or
 167 ml of Lumax 535 SC or
 (50/75 + 63/94) mg of [Extreme Plus 750 WP + Dinamic 70 WG] for light and
heavy soils, respectively or
 (50/75 + 146/219) mg of [Extreme Plus 750 WP + Volacet 900 EC] for light and
heavy soils, respectively or
 (115 + 63/94) mg of [Kirsmat 75 WG + Dinamic 70 WG] for light and heavy soils,
respectively or
 33 mg of Volazinone 75 DF or Velpar 75 DF as pre-emergence on ratoon crop for
light and heavy soils, respectively or
 167/251 ml of Primagram Gold 660 SC for the light and heavy soils, respectively
or
 125 ml of the herbicides with 3 l ha-1 rate (e.g. Herbalem 72 SL)
 The operator pumps the liquid continuously in to the lance by stroking the handle
with his left hand. He holds the lance with his right hand and release the solution at
the required pressure indicated on the pressure regulator fixed on the lance.
 The operator should walk forward in the center of the row and cover the entire row
space as far as possible with one sweep itself.
 During spraying, constant agitation of the tank is essential to prevent the herbicide
settling at the bottom.
 The nozzle should be checked after each filling. A blocked nozzle should be
cleaned with water and a brush. Regularly check and replace nozzles.
b. Cleaning the sprayer
At the end of each spraying day, the sprayer should be filled with water overnight to
prevent the herbicide from drying out and forming flakes that could block the filters or
nozzles.
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 Some of the water should be sprayed out to clean the nozzle and hose.
 Next, the water should be sprayed out completely and the sprayer can be used
for applying the same herbicide.
 If the sprayer is to be used for applying another herbicide, it should be
scrupulously cleaned out, first by rinsing with water, then washing thoroughly
with a detergent, and then rinsing again with water until no trace of detergent is
left.
c. Spray calibration
Accurate calibration of spray equipment is essential if herbicides are to be used safely
and effectively.
Knapsack sprayer calibration procedures: It begins with calibrating the walking
speed of the operator.
To determine walking speed of the spray man:
 Make starting point with a stake in a field planted with sugarcane
 Carry the sprayer on the back and operate by pumping while directing lance and
nozzle at the target. Walk at normal and constant speed exactly for one minute,
while someone else reads the time on watch.
 When one minute has elapsed, mark stopping point with another stake and measure
the distance between the first and second stake in meters.
 Repeat this action three times to obtain average walking speed.

Then calculate the area covered per hour as shown under:

To determine swath width of spray:

 Measure the swath width sprayed in meter while keeping the distance between
nozzle and ground level constant.

The effect of any pesticides/chemicals at a particular rate of application depends largely

upon mixing the correct quantities of pesticides/chemicals and water. Therefore, one
must determine the quantity of water required per unit area and calibrating the actual
quantity required. This is done as follows:
 Assemble the sprayer

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 Add water and check for leaks and proper operation

 Add a measured amount of water (2 – 4 liters) to the checked (completely empty)
sprayer
 At a comfortable walking speed and pumping rhythm, spray a measured area
 Measure the water remaining in the sprayer
 Determine the volume of water required per hectare using the following formula:

Then, determine the number of sprayers required per hectare (X): i.e., to spray a hectare
of land at a time:

d. Boom sprayers (tractor mounted)

Boom sprayers are used to make broadcast applications of pesticides and fertilizers to
large areas. Boom sprayers can be precisely calibrated to apply products uniformly at a
recommended rate. As with other sprayers, operating pressure, nozzle size and spacing,
and operating speed determine the volume of water applied.

Calibration Procedures

Step 1. Measure the distance in centimeters between the nozzles on the boom.
Step 2. Determine the length of the calibration course, using the distance determined in
Step 1.
Step 3. Measure out the length of the calibration course.
Step 4. Determine the amount of time required to drive or walk the length of the
calibration course.
Step 5. While the sprayer is stationary and at the operating pressure to be used for the
application, collect the water from one nozzle for the length of time that was
required to drive or walk the calibration course. The sprayer must be maintained
at the operating pressure to be used for the application.
Step 6. Measure the volume of water caught. The number of ounces equals the gallons
of water applied per hectare.
Step 7. Adjust the pressure, speed, or nozzle size to achieve the desired volume. Repeat
the procedure until you are close to the desired volume.
Step 8. Check the volume of several nozzles. The volumes from different nozzles
should be within 10 percent of each other.
The following formula is used to regulate the rate:
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Where: Q: Quantity to be applied per hectare (lit/ha)

W: Width of boom (m)
S: Speed of tractor (km/hr)

e. Types of machineries used for all mechanical spraying are:

 The tractor used to spray this operation should have 85-90 hp.
 The implement, which is mounted to the tractor, has 15 m length with 30 nozzles
spaced at 0.5 m apart and the container have a capacity of at least 300 liters.

f. Mechanical chemical spraying operations

If spraying is decided, the cultivation staff determines:
 Time and fields to be sprayed.
 Spray types (herbicide- per or post emergency/Insecticide/Fungicide).
 Calibrate the rate (Litters/ ha) and set tractor speed, engine and PTO RPM.
 Adjust ground spacing of the implement.

Procedures
 First check sprayer 800 liters capacity boom sprayer for proper functioning.
 Calculate run width (number of nozzles x distance between the nozzles in meters).
 Select suitable gear and RPM setting for expected filed conditions and measure
distance covered in 1 minute. Repeat three or four replications.
 Calculate average distance covered per minute i.e. Speed in meter per minute.
 Determine the required volume (Liters) per hectare to be used.
 Pressure and flow rate should be adjusted according to the following formula:

Where: P = Pressure
F = Flow rate

Where: Q=L / Ha
V= Km/hr
L= Swath, meter

Calculation of flow rate per nozzle:

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Calculate volume of liters per hectare:

10 Harvesting Practices

Sugarcane harvesting management is the key tasks for all sugarcane producers as high
loss can be accounted if maximum care is not taken at this stage. Sugarcane harvesting
involves the separation of the stalk from the soil and removing the top immature parts
before placing the canes in the best position to make easy the next operation.

Before the beginning of the campaign (during the mill off period) estimation of cane
yield should be done using regression model, meter-weight method, destructive
sampling technique or visual estimation method; or a combination of them. The first
two methods need at least seven years recorded data, whereas if there is no data like the
newly developed sugar projects destructive sampling technique should be used. Visual
estimation method should be done by experienced personnel (it is advisable to do with
a group of experienced plantation experts). Based on the estimated yield considering
crop cycle (where crop cycle is well established), crop type (plant cane or ratoon), soil
type and variety, harvesting scheme should be prepared.

10.1 Harvesting scheme preparation

Sugarcane harvesting management is the key tasks for all sugarcane producers as high
loss can be accounted if maximum care is not taken at this stage. Thus harvesting
scheme (plan) preparation is one of the essential activities undertaken to properly run
harvesting operation each year and ensure steady factory milling. It is a document
comprising list of all fields to be harvested in the year with relevant information like
area in hectare, crop cycle (where crop cycle is well established), crop type (plant cane
or ratoon), soil type and variety; these variables are the basic input for yield (cane and

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sugar) estimation and each year, before the beginning of the campaign (during the mill
off period) and predicted yield. Yield estimation is used to plan the amount of sugar
produced at each factory.

Yield estimation methods

 The methods to be used could be: regression model, meter-weight method,
destructive sampling technique or visual estimation method; or a combination of
them. The first two methods need at least seven years recorded data, whereas if
there is no data like the newly developed sugar projects destructive sampling
technique should be used.
 Visual estimation methodshould be done by experienced personnel (it is advisable
to do with a group of experienced plantation experts and latter discuss in the office
to reach on consensus).

10.2 Harvesting season and age

 Harvesting should be carried out from December to February and June to August
 Harvesting age should be 14 – 16 months for plant cane fields while 12 – 14
months for ratoon cane fields.

10.3 Drying off

 Drying off should be done by withholding water prior to harvest for about 6-9
weeks after withholding irrigation. However, dry off period should be adjusted
based on weather condition (rainy periods), field condition (fields with high ground
water table and seepage) and variety. Extending the drying off period is necessary
if the field is not dry enough for harvesting; soil moisture testing should continue
until the desired drying level is attained (See Annex Table for detail)
 Cane- after- cane fields should get priority.
 Area and quantity of cane stalks to be dried should be based on the weekly set
crashing capacity of the factory.

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 The following cane drying parameters should be maintained to have a proper cane
supply for the factory:
 Mixing varieties proportionally.
 Mixing plant cane and ratoon cane field (i.e. mixing cuttings).
 Having three cutting sites and balancing canes stalk among them.
 Drilling request should be made for cane fields listed on the dry list to check the
soil moisture 7-10 days before deciding the field for harvesting.
 Cane fields having a negative soil drill result and sufficiently dry cane leaves
should be earmarked for harvesting.
 Re-drilling should be done for cane fields with positive drill result and neutral soil
test result.

10.4 Preparations for harvest

 Visually selected fields should be seen for their last irrigation date and average last
three irrigation intervals to evaluate the drying period.
 The selected field should be checked for the following condition; to ensure the
actual drying conditions and accessibility of the cane fields.
 Harvest road free of pits, mounds, stones etc.
 Harvest road free from any water seepage and/or overflow.
 In fields not wet due to any water seepage and/or overflow.
 Cane fields decided for harvest should be registered on the weekly cutting
sequence format in the order of fields to be cut per cutting group.
 Cane pushing should be done along harvest roads and hector paths of to be burnt
cane fields one day ahead of burning based on the daily cutting requirement to
avoid cane fire accident on adjacent cane fields.
 Harvesting should be conducted when the following ripeness indicators
(symptoms) are observed in the cane:
 The stalk should give metallic sound up on tapping.
 Bright shining cross section should be observed when the cane stalk is cut
across near nodal portion.

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 Majority of the leaves should be dried from bottom upwards fairly close to top
internode.
 Additionally, hand refractometer should be used to measure the brix of standing
cane. The cane should be harvested when the ratio of top to bottom brix value is
about 1.0.

10.5 Cane burning

 Fields to be burnt should be mapped; sensitive areas should be identified in the

neighborhoods, e.g. public roads, houses power lines, etc.
 Wind direction and speed should be checked; burning in strong winds should be
avoided,
 Burning should be initiated on the leeward side.
 Burning is best carried out in the early morning (4:00A.M - 6: 00A.M) when wind
speeds are usually the lowest and the risk of fires spreading out of control are
minimized.
 Burning should be conducted at three cutting sites.

10.6 Cane cutting

 Cane knife to be used for cutting should have the weight concentrated at the blade
end.
 The stem is cut to the ground as much as possible.
 The cane should be topped to remove the white tip.
 Burnt cane field at each cutting site should all be cut and stalked in windrows on
that day.
 Cane stalks must not be chopped into pieces unless there are very special reasons.
 Dead or infected canes as well as late season tiller (bull shoots) should be
discarded
 There should be an effective communication system to coordinate the harvest
management activities.

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 The cane arriving in the mill yard should ideally exclude the white immature cane
top, green leaves, trash, and any other extraneous material (stones, soil etc.).
 The cane quality parameters that should be considered are:
 Detrashing - Complete removal of cane leaves.
 Topping - Zero cutting.
 Bottoming - Ground level cutting.
 Sheathing - Removing sheathes.
 Selection - Removing dry and dead leaves.
 Cleaning - Removing soil, stones etc.
 Windrowing - Stacking cut cane perpendicular to the furrows.
 Cane sizing - Length of cane (1.5-2.5 m).

10.7 Field cleaning after harvesting

Field cleaning is the first activity after harvesting fields. It is performed immediately
after the harvested cane is completely removed from the field.
 Trash left unburnt during preharvest burning, such as leaves and dead stalks, are
collected in the furrow and burnt.
o If the trash is wet and difficult to burn, it is left in the field for about three days
for drying.
 Trash burning is essential especially under the following conditions:
o Plant crop infected by pests and diseases like scales, mealy bugs etc.
o In areas prone to heavy termite attack
o Areas prone to rodent attack
o Excess moisture affecting sprouting
o In soils where sub soil drainage is poor
o In areas where fire hazards exists
 Trash burning is performed in the furrow (not on the ridge) since the heat intensity
could harm the stools and affect shoot emergence from the stubble.

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11 Cane Loading and Transporting

11.1 Mechanical cane loading

A grab loader of 100-120 HP with a lifting capacity of 22.93 Qts, grabbing capacity of
14.9 Qts and swinging capacity of 180 0 are the most preferable machine to be used for
loading. During cane loading the following parameters have to be maintained properly.
 Dense stalking / tight cane loading with no free in cane carts as much as possible.
 Proper collection and reloading of dropped cane in the field should be made
 Average grab loading capacity: 60-70 ton/hr
 Average cart load depends on the type of cane haulage vehicle.

11.2 Cane collection

Cane is dropped during cane loading by grab loaders and while being transport by cane
haulage vehicles especially when they are being maneuvered in the fields. Cane
dropped in the fields and on the cane haulage roads could reach a significant amount of
the total cane grown. Thus, maximum effort should be made to recollect the dropped
cane and make them available to be reloaded again.

This activity is done by the help of cane collectors. Enough number of cane collectors
is supposed to be assigned with every cane loader. Normally shorter stalked and
irregularly wind rowed cane require more cane collection labour than longer stalked
and uniformly windrowed cane. The considerations made during cane collection
include the following.
 Enough number of cane collectors should be assigned with every cane loader.
Although this number may vary based on weather conditions, absenteeism, etc. it
should not be less than 12 cane collection laborers per grab loader.
 The selected cane collection laborers should be fit for the job. They should be
healthy enough for the job. Very young, very old laborers and pregnant women
should not be assigned as cane collectors.

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 Divide the available cane collectors in such a way that some do the pick up and
put at one spot while the other do windrowing the cane. This helps in accelerating
the cane collection activities.
 Assign the collectors to collect the droppings cane not only behind the grab but
also on the sides of the tractor cart and across the fields.
 Cane fields from where cane loading is carried out during night shifts should be
thoroughly collected in the next morning.
 Before finishing cane loading operation and move the grab loaders to other fields,
it should be made sure that all the dropped cane in the field is properly collected
and loaded. In other words, cane collection in any cane field should be completed
before the cane lading grab loaders are moved to other fields.

11.3 Cane haulage/Transport

 Main road and feeder roads leading to the fields to be harvested should be graded
or maintained as necessary.
 Sufficient number of haulage machineries and equipments should be operational
for field activities to carry out the daily required loading and transporting of cane.
 The following activities should be performed before starting cane haulage activities
in the field.
 Opening furrow ends to ease the entrance & exit of cane haulage vehicles
to the field
 Closing smut holes etc
 Breaking mounds
 Breaking extra dikes
 Removing any obstacle that might hinder the movement of haulage
machinery.

The haulage system comprises 4WD wheeled tractors pulling specially built cane
haulage trailers. The number of tractors required per day and per loading sites depends
on the daily crushing capacity of the factory and distance from the factory. Harvesting

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rate, transporting rate and crushing rate should be synchronized and should match one
another.
 The waiting time for haulage machinery in the factory should not be more than 2
hours.
 If the loaded cane carts are broken and stopped while enroute to the factory, the
cane should be unloaded from the trailers and transferred to empty trailers before it
deteriorates.
 Haulage machineries need to be maintained for work through regular follow up of
their operation.
 Optimum economic distance of cane transport may be worked out so that transport
of cane does not become uneconomical.
 Computerized weighing machines would be highly useful.
 The cane need to arrive at the mill within permissible time limit; the maximum
interval between cutting and milling whole, green cane (e.g. seed cane) should be
48 hrs, and that of whole stalk burned cane should be 24 hrs and for canes that has
been burned and chopped should not be more than 12 hrs.
 In cases of delay in crushing or cane transport, it would be advisable to keep the
harvested cane under shade, cover it with trash, and sprinkle with water.

The cane haulage machinery fleet should achieve the following per shift (table 13).

Table 10. Expected per shift minimum number of trips for cane haulage fleet
Expected average Expected minimum number of trips per shift per
travel speed field distance in kilometer
Machine
(average of loaded
type 1- 6- 11- 16- 21- 26– 36– >
and unloaded
5 10 15 20 25 35 45 46
trips) (km/h)
High bed
30 9 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
truck
Expected minimum number of trips per shift per
field distance in kilometer
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1- 6- 11- 19- 28-

>35
5 10 18 27 35
4WD tractor 20 8 6 4 3 2 1

11.4 Post-harvest deterioration and measures of loss minimization

Post-harvest deterioration of cane occurs mainly due to delay in crushing of the

harvested canes. The delay could be either in transporting or may even be in the cane
yard. The time between cane burning (the ‘burning to weighing’ or BTW) is the major
period where deterioration of the cane occurs.

The maximum allowable time interval between cutting and milling of burned cane
should not be more than 26 hrs. These periods could be further detected by variety,
weather, fiber content and degree of maturity.

To minimize cane deterioration, take the following actions:

- Avoid excess cane harvesting especially cane harvested in excess of factory
capacity
- Proper factory maintenance to avoid erratic factory operation. If factory
operation interrupted, contact harvesting team as soon as possible to avoid
excess cane harvesting; generally, timely and close communication between
factory operation and harvesting department is very essential
- Make sure that loading and transport machinery are available before harvesting
cane
- Care must be taken while harvesting cane rainy and
- Hot weather, is the most favorable conditions for cane deterioration, therefore,
carefully plan harvesting to avoid extended KTM
- Avoid harvesting immature cane and cane from wet field which are not properly
dried off

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Appendix 1.Estimation of soil moisture using feel method, Modified and taken from (USDA,1998)
Percen Coarse Texture-Fine Sand and Moderately Coarse Texture Medium Texture -Sandy Clay Fine Texture Clay, Clay Loam,
t loamy fine sand Sandy Loam and Fine Sandy Loam, Loam, and Silt Loam or Silty Clay Loam
depleti Loam
on Available Water Capacity (mm/m)
50-100 108-142 125-176 133-201
75-100 Dry, loose, will hold together if Dry, forms a very weak ball, Dry, Soil aggregations break away Dry, soil aggregations easily
not disturbed, loose sand grains aggregated soil grains break easily. No moisture staining on separate, clods are hard to
on fingers with applied pressure. away easily from ball. SMD fingers, clods crumble with applied crumble with applied pressure
SMD 100-42 142 -84 pressure. SMD 176-92 SMD 200-101
50 -75 Slightly moist, forms a very Slightly moist, forms a weak Slightly moist, forms a weak ball Slightly moist, forms a weak
weak ball with well-defined ball with defined finger marks, with rough surfaces, no water ball, very few soil aggregations
finger marks, light coating of darkened color, no water staining on fingers, few aggregated break away, no water stains,
loose and aggregated sand grains staining on fingers, grains soil grains break away. SMD 134-67 clods flatten with applied
remain on fingers. SMD 75-25 break away. SMD 109-59 pressure .SMD 150-67
25-50 Moist, forms a weak ball with Moist, forms a ball with Moist, forms a ball, very light water Moist, forms a smooth ball with
loose and aggregated sand grains defined finger marks. Very staining on fingers, darkened color, defined finger marks, light
on fingers, darkened color, light soil/water staining on pliable, forms a weak ribbon soil/water staining on fingers,
moderate water staining on fingers. Darkened color, will between thumb and forefinger. SMD ribbons between thumb and

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 Standards Operating Procedures for Sugarcane Production at Kuraz Sugar Development Project

fingers, will not ribbon.SMD 50- not slick.SMD 75-25 91-34 forefinger.SMD 100-34
17
0-25 Wet, forms a weak ball, loose Wet, forms a ball with wet Wet, forms a ball with well defined Wet, forms a ball, uneven
and aggregated sand grains outline left on hand, light to finger marks, light to heavy medium to heavy soil/water
remain on fingers, darkened medium water staining on soil/water coating on fingers, coating on fingers, ribbons
color, heavy water staining on fingers, makes a weak ribbon ribbons between, thumb and easily between thumb and
fingers, will not ribbon.SMD 25- between thumb and forefinger.SMD 41-0 forefinger.SMD 50-0
0 forefinger.SMD 34-0
0 Wet, forms a weak ball, Wet, forms a soft ball, free Wet, forms a soft ball, free water Wet, forms a soft ball, free
moderate to heavy soil/water water appears briefly on soil appears briefly on soil surface after water appears on soil surface
coating on fingers, wet outline of surface after squeezing or squeezing or shaking, medium to after squeezing or shaking,
soft ball remains on hand.SMD shaking, medium to heavy heavy soil/water coating on fingers. thick soil/water coating on
0.0 soil/water coating on SMD 0.0 fingers, slick and sticky.SMD
fingers.SMD 0.0 0.0
Saturat Free water appears when soil is Free water is released with Free water can be squeezed out. Puddle, free water forms on
ion bounded in hand. kneading. surface

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 Standards Operating Procedures for Sugarcane Production at Kuraz Sugar Development Project

Annex 2 Irrigation Diagram

Company name ____________________ Month________________ section____________
Soil class
Field

Date
Unit

HA

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

93 Revised by Research and Development Center Sept. 2016