Lesson 1. What is Ethics? (Agapay, ETHICS as defined by Minkes et al.

2020) (2020) is a philosophical term originating

from Greek word “ethos” meaning custom or
The word “ETHICS” is derived from the
character. It is concerned with describing and
Greek word “ethos” which means
prescribing moral requirements and
“characteristic way of acting”, “habit”, or
behaviors, which suggests that there are
“custom”.
acceptable and unacceptable ways of
The Latin equivalent is mos, mores, from behaving that serve as a function of
which come the word moral and morality. philosophical principles This is the concept
Ethics studies the characteristics behavior of that ethics is associated with an individual’s
man as endowed with reason and freewill. character, as to how he acts in a particularly
convincing and courageous way, as well as
The study of Ethics started with the Greek to establish personal integrity. Also, there is
philosophers, notably Socrates, Plato and the distinction a person could make, mainly
Aristotle. between ethics and morals. This is important
Socrates is regarded as the FATHER OF because when giving emphasis to ethics, it
MORAL PHILOSOPHY. is almost as synonymous to the concept of
“morality”, which gives more confusion to
However, it is Aristotle who has greatly the idea.
influenced ethical thinking with three
important treaties Based on the given idea, we can give a clear
definition that ethics is a science that guides
 Nicomachean Ethics our judgment concerning the morality of
 Eudemian Ethics human acts. Furthermore, to clearly give a
 Magna Moralia (Great Ethics). broader idea on the concept of ethics,
Padilla (2020), points out that:
Human acts are actions done intentionally
and freely, like walking, reading, working, 1. Ethics is a natural science. It employs
playing, shopping, joining a contest, or the power of human reason, which is purely a
signing a contract. Human acts are natural process. It is not based on the
differentiated from acts of man which are teaching of the Catholic Church or any
instinctive, such as the physiological and system of belief, nor it is based on the Bible.
psychological movements like breathing, Being a branch of philosophy, it arrives at its
feeling happy, or falling in love. Ethics does conclusions using the human reason, which
not study the acts of man in themselves but is philosophy’s only tool.
as factors affecting man’s judgement and
violation. 2. Ethics is a practical science. It is not
studied for the love of learning. All are bound
ETHICS is the study of man as moral being, in conscience to apply its principles to their
one who is rationally able to distinguish conduct.
between right and wrong. It examines how
man is accountable for his actions and its 3. Ethics is not a physical science. It does
consequences. It proposes how man ought not deal with physical laws, such as “water
to live his life-meaningfully. It is concerned seeks its own level.” It is rather a moral
with morality, the quality which makes an science, dealing with the free acts of men.
act good or evil, correct or wrong. It also 4. Definition and purpose of ethics.
examines and explains the rational basis Ethics is the study of the moral behavior or
why actions are moral or immoral. In other conduct of man as viewed from ultimate
words, Ethics is concerned with the norms of principles insofar as these principles are
human behavior. known by human reason.

Lesson 2. The Nature of Ethics

Briefly, Ethics is a philosophical science cases to give those involved some clear
dealing with the morality of the human acts. choices. Some philosophers go further and
Other books dealing on this subject offer the say that all ethics can do is eliminate
following definitions: confusion and clarify the issues. After that,
it's up to each individual to come to their
a. Ethics is the science of human acts
own conclusions.
with reference to right and wrong.
b. Ethics is the study of the rectitude of
human conduct.
c. Ethics is the scientific inquiry into the
principles of morality.
d. Ethics is the practical science of the
4. Ethics can give several answers
morality of human actions.
Many people want there to be a single right
WHAT USE IS ETHICS?
answer to ethical questions. They find moral
BBC.com (2021) listed down in their website ambiguity hard to live with because they
the different uses of ethics as follows: genuinely want to do the 'right' thing, and
even if they can't work out what that right
1. Ethics can provide a moral map
thing is, they like the idea that 'somewhere'
Most moral issues get us pretty worked up - there is one right answer.
think of abortion and euthanasia for starters.
But often there isn't one right answer - there
Because these are such emotional issues, we
may be several right answers, or just some
often let our hearts do the arguing while our
least worst answers - and the individual must
brains just go with the flow. But there's
choose between them.
another way of tackling these issues, and
that's where philosophers can come in - they Division of Ethics
offer us ethical rules and principles that
According to Padilla (1999), Ethics has two
enable us to take a cooler view of moral
major parts – General and Special Ethics.
problems. So, ethics provides us with a moral
map, a framework that we can use to find General Ethics presents truth about human
our way through difficult issues. acts and from these truths deduce the
general principles of morality.
2. Ethics can pinpoint a disagreement
Special Ethics is applied ethics. It applies
Using the framework of ethics, two people
the principles of general ethics in different
who are arguing a moral issue can often find
departments of human activity, individual
that what they disagree about is just one
and social. It includes man’s relation within
particular part of the issue, and that they
the family, in the state and in the world. It is
broadly agree on everything else. That can
divided
take a lot of heat out of the argument, and
into the
sometimes even hint at a way for them to
resolve their problem. But sometimes ethics
doesn't provide people with the sort of help
that they really want.
3. Ethics doesn't give right answers
Ethics doesn't always show the right answer following:
to moral problems. Indeed, more and more
people think that for many ethical issues
there isn't a single right answer - just a set of
principles that can be applied to particular
 Lesson 3. Moral vs Non-moral standards
Ethics is divided into general and special In making moral decisions, what standards
ethics. The first part of this book is about are we supposed to follow? Who made these
General Ethics and the second part about standards? Will following these standards
Special Ethics. make us all ethically moral?
• General Ethics is about the principles of What is Moral Standards?
morality. It explains the norms with which the
MORAL STANDARDS as defined by Articulo
moral significance of the human act is
(2021) are bases for moral behavior and
determined. Special Ethics is the application
bases for determining whether a certain act
of the principles of General ethics to the
is moral or immoral and for someone to be
problems and issues confronting a person on
responsible or not. These are the guides of
account of his circumstances in life, for
human behavior and decision making. These
instance, as a citizen, neighbor, worker, wife,
standards are not only applied to individual
husband, or child.
persons but also to a group or corporation.
• Special Ethics includes the sub-branches
Something is unethical if it does not conform
of professional ethics, such as medical
to a particular standard of morality. They
ethics, business ethics, legal ethics,
may not be written but observed and they
biological and environmental ethics. This
are assumed norms of moral conduct.
book is divided into General and Special
Ethics. MORAL STANDARDS is associated with the
guidelines people follow about the actions
Ethics and Morality
they have confidence that are believe to be
Perle (2020) differentiate the two terms right and wrong. Also included are the values
where ethics comes from the Greek word they gave
ethos which means character or a
on the kinds of objects they believe are
characteristic way of acting while morality on
morally good and morally bad. Some
the other hand came from the Latin word
ethicists equate moral standards with moral
MORALIS which means customs or manners.
values and moral principles.
However, there are some differences
between the idea of the researchers as to the Manebog (2020) on the other hand explains
difference between the two. Ethics seems to that non-moral standards is defined as the
point out to the individual character of a rules that are distinct to moral or ethical
person while morality is connected to the thoughts. Either these standards are not
relationships and interaction among human necessarily linked to morality or by nature
beings. One school of thought states that lack ethical sense. Basic examples of non-
morality is integrally grounded on spiritual moral standards include rules of etiquette,
values – one’s accountability to a fashion standards, rules in games, and
supernatural being. Ethics, in contrast, relies various house rules.
on materialist and social consequences
based on a given situation, in order to weigh Merriam Webster (n.d.) gave the meaning of
what is ethical or not. MORES as the fixed morally binding customs
of a particular group. The term "MORES"
refers to the norms set by society, largely for
behavior and appearance. Individuals who do
not follow social mores are often considered
social deviants. It is the customs, values, and
behaviors that are accepted by a particular
group, culture etc. Norms on the other hand
is a principle of right action binding upon the
members of a group and serving to guide, e. Moral standards are based on impartial
control, or regulate proper and acceptable considerations. Moral standard does not
behavior. merriam-webster.com evaluate standards based on the interests of
a certain person or group, but one that goes
Mañebog (2020) further discussed the
beyond personal interests to a universal
characteristics of moral standards
standpoint in which each person’s interests
further differentiate them from non-
are impartially counted as equal. Impartiality
moral standards:
is usually depicted as being free of bias or
a. Moral standards involve serious wrongs prejudice. Impartiality in morality requires
or significant benefits. Moral standards deal that we give equal and/or adequate
with matters which can seriously impact, that consideration to the interests of all
is, injure or benefit human beings. It is not concerned parties.
the case with many non-moral standards. For
f. Moral standards are associated with
instance, following or violating some
special emotions and vocabulary. It indicates
basketball rules may matter in basketball
the practical or action-guiding nature of
games but does not necessarily affect one’s
moral standards. These moral standards are
life or wellbeing.
generally put forth as injunction or
b. Moral standards ought to be preferred imperatives (such as, ‘Do not kill,’ ‘Do no
to other values. Moral standards have unnecessary harm,’ and ‘Love your
overriding character or hegemonic authority. neighbor’). These principles are proposed for
If a moral standard state that a person has use, to advise, and to influence to action.
the moral obligation to do something, then Retroactively, this feature is used to evaluate
he/she is supposed to do that even if it behavior, to assign praise and blame, and to
conflicts with other non-moral standards, and produce feelings of satisfaction or of guilt. If
even with selfinterest. It may be prudent to a person violates a moral standard by telling
lie to save one’s dignity, but it probably is a lie even to fulfill a special purpose, it is not
morally wrong to do so. When a law surprising if he/she starts feeling guilty or
becomes seriously immoral, it may be being ashamed of his behavior afterwards.
people’s moral duty to exercise civil On the contrary, not much guilt is felt if one
disobedience (Mañebog, 2020). goes against the current fashion trend (e.g.
refusing to wear tattered jeans) (Mañebog,
c. Moral standards are not established by 2020).
authority figures. Moral standards are not
invented, formed, or generated by
authoritative bodies or persons such as
nations’ legislative bodies. Ideally instead,
these values ought to be considered in the
process of making laws. In principle
therefore, moral standards cannot be
changed nor nullified by the decisions of an
authoritative body. One thing about these
standards, nonetheless, is that its validity
lies on the soundness or adequacy of the
reasons that are considered to support and
justify them (Mañebog, 2013).
d. Moral standards have the trait of
universalizability. Simply put, it means that
everyone should live up to moral standards. Lesson 4. Moral Dilemma
To be more accurate, however, it entails that
moral principles must apply to all who are in A DILEMMA is a condition where there is no
the relevantly similar situation. clear “best choice” between two or more
alternatives. Dilemmas help us to focus our half the money, even after help from family
moral intuitions and test our moral theories. and friends. He explained to the chemist that
According to Cambridge Dictionary (2020), his wife was dying and asked if he could
dilemma is a situation in which a choice must have the drug cheaper or pay the rest of the
be made between possibilities that will all money later. The chemist refused, saying
have results you do not want. that he had discovered the drug and was
going to make money from it. The husband
Basically, every dilemma contains an ethical
was desperate to save his wife, so later that
dilemma i.e. whether the decision is
night he broke into the chemist’s and stole
good/bad, fair/unfair, moral/immoral.
the drug.
Judgments are made from the point of view
of those who make the decision (agents), Mcleod (2020) stated that Kohlberg
from the point of view of those who require listed three different levels of moral
decision (principals) and from the point of reasoning:
view of the most people who do not
PRECONVENTIONAL, CONVENTIONAL,
participate in decision-making but are
and POST-CONVENTIONAL.
affected by them (the common good or the
general interest). There are different types of Each level has two sub-stages and each new
the ethical dilemma of which the knowledge stage replaces the reasoning typical of the
is necessary because different types of the earlier stage.
ethical dilemma require different strategies
for their resolving. However, any attempt to The level focuses primarily on moral values
find the solution is a process, not a one-time such as fairness, justice, equity, and human
act, indicating the complexity and the dignity. It is also used in assessing
importance of the ethical dilemma (Figar and development level. Heinz dilemma was given
Dordevic, 2020). as a clear example as to how a person’s
moral reasoning changed as people grew
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral older as it is the reasoning of their
Development responses, not the answer itself.
Crain (2018) states that Lawrence Kohlberg’s Three Levels of Moral Dilemma
theory of moral development uses
storytelling technique to tell people stories Kvlanes (2019) explains that in a moral
involving moral dilemmas. In each case, he dilemma, it is impossible to live up to all of
presented a choice to be considered, for one’s moral convictions and beliefs
example, between the rights of some regarding how one should behave in that
authority and the needs of some deserving situation.
individual who is being unfairly treated. One INDIVIDUAL The dilemma here is when the
of the best known of Kohlberg’s employee’s ethical standards are in
stories of dilemma concerns a man called opposition to his or her employer, which
Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe. Read could lead to tensions in the workplace.
and analyze the narrative below: ORGANIZATIONAL Ethical Standards are
Heinz Dilemma seen in company procedures. Still, there is a
gap and tension amongst those who
Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type operates the business whose ethical
of cancer. Doctors said a new drug might standard depart from that of the
save her. The drug had been discovered by a
local chemist, and the Heinz tried organization. This causes ethical challenges
desperately to buy some, but the chemist and conflicts to those who are working in the
was charging ten times the money it cost to establishment.
make the drug, and this was much more than SYSTEMIC At systemic level, ethics is
the Heinz could afford. Heinz could only raise inclined by the bigger operating environment
of the establishment. Political pressures, individual as such keeps the moral law, and,
economic situations, societal behaviors and second, that a sane individual has reason for
other factors, can affect the operating viewing himself as free, Kant attempts to
standards and guidelines of the organization show that to the extent that we are normal,
where it might encounter moral dilemmas we will comply with the ethical law.
outside of the organization but within the
Different types of Freedom
macro-society where it fit in.
• Freedom to be alive
Lesson 5. Freedom as Foundation for
Moral Acts (Gammon, 2020) • Freedom of association
Morality as Freedom • Freedom of belief
Freedom, as defined by Gammon (2020), is • Freedom of speech
the power or right to act, speak, or think as
one wants without hindrance or restraint. • Freedom to express oneself
FREEDOM, in Kant’s theory, is not • Freedom to press
concerned with our capacity of a free choice;
rather it is the property of the will. As Kant • Freedom to choose one’s state in life
says, WILL is a kind of causality of living
• Freedom to talking each other
beings insofar as they are rational, and
freedom would be that property of such • Freedom of religion
causality that it can be efficient
independently of alien causes determining it, • Freedom from bondage and slavery
just as natural necessity is the property of What may be named the problem of morality
the causality of all non-rational beings to be concerns how opportunity confining
determined to activity by the influence of standards might be supported, given that we
alien causes. esteem our opportunity. Maybe an answer
Will, for Kant, is not simply given by human can be found in opportunity itself. For if the
beings’ biological structure. It is a kind of clearest explanation behind dismissing moral
causality that belongs to rational living requests is that they attack one's individual
beings. FREEDOM is the property of such flexibility, at that point the cost of
special kind of causality. The relation opportunity from obtrusive requests that
between will and freedom could be put in others would somehow or another make may
this way: will is a free will, and freedom is the well require everybody tolerating opportunity
freedom of will, not of a choice. The reason all in all as a worth that gives adequate
that will is free lies in the fact that it is about motivation to holding fast to rules that serve
a special kind of causality. The specialty of to expand, or possibly protect, opportunity
this kind of causality is shown in the contrast when all is said and done. In any case, at
with natural causality (Liang, 2021). that point it is definitely such a worth which
can be contended to ground a sufficient good
FREEDOM enters Kant's ethical way of framework.
thinking as the answer for an issue. The
downright basic isn't scientific, and ignoring Consequently, though the estimation of
its cases is not conflicting. However, it should opportunity shows up from the start sight to
give what we need to show that profound present issues for moral frameworks, it very
quality is certainly not a " mere phantom of well may be utilized to ground a specific
the mind", Kant tries to give a conclusion of assortment of them. Talbert (2019) further
the ethical law: he should interface being states that freedom is not doing whatever
normal to following up on the moral law. The you want but doing what you ought to be
thought through which the profound quality right. Freedom of indifference is selecting
are connected is the positive source of between opposites, usually good and evil.
opportunity. By appearing, first, that a free Freedom of excellence is the authority to act
in the pursuit of human perfection and Lesson 1. Culture and its Role in Moral
eternal joy. Love and fear of consequences Behavior
are correspondingly perfect and imperfect
CULTURE as defined by Merriam Webster
acceptable motivations for following the
(2020) is the customary beliefs, social forms,
moral law. Good moral activities make us
and material traits of a racial, religious, or
freer; bad moral actions make us a slave to
social group. It is also the characteristic
our immorality.
features of everyday existence such as
REASON AND IMPARTIALITY diversions or a way of life shared by people
in a place or time. Culture, as explained by
Impartiality according to Cottingham (2019),
Taylor (2020), “is the integrated pattern of
implies that we are making moral decisions
human knowledge, beliefs and behaviors.
(e.g. about how to allocate goods and
resources), we ought not to give any special This consists of language, ideas, customs,
weight to our own desires and interests; morals, laws, taboos, institutions, tools,
instead of giving preferential treatment to techniques, and works of art, rituals and
ourselves, or to member of our own other capacities and habits acquired by a
particular social group, we should try to person as a member of society.
adopt neutral standpoint, detaching
Schulman (2020) defines moral behavior as
ourselves as far as possible from our own
“acts intended to produce kind and/or fair
special desire and involvement.
outcomes. It is distinct to action or actions
Jollimore (2019) explains that moral that produce respectable results for the
judgments must be supported by moral people as part of a community. It can also be
reasons. applied to the entire global humanity. We can
say that it is the actions that determine
MORALITY needs the impartial
social reaction to the desires and benefits of
consideration of every individual’s benefits.
others.
One must not rely on his own feelings, no
matter how controlling and influential they MORAL DEVELOPMENT refers to the
might be. Feelings may be illogical and may “process through which a human person
be nothing but products of different factors gains his or her beliefs, skills and dispositions
such as bias, self-centeredness, or the that makes him or her morally mature
environment itself. Decisions must be person.” Yet this definition does not tell on
directed and guided as much as possible by what those beliefs, skills and dispositions
reason. The morally and equally right thing are. Nevertheless, it focuses on the
to do is always the thing best supported and acquisition, understanding and most
reinforced by arguments. Every individual’s probably of changing the principles of
interest are equally significant and morality of a person from infancy to
important, and no one should ever be treated adulthood. This moral development is
special. If there is no good reason for treating fundamentally rooted in the very experience
people otherwise, then discrimination follows of a person, in his or her relationship with
most likely which makes the matter even others in the community. (Academia.edu,
worse. 2020)
Morality is, at the very least, the effort and The Influence of Culture in Moral
challenge to direct one’s behavior by reason Development
– which is, to do what there are the reasons
Culture influences the person on what to do,
for doing based on giving impartial weight to
how to act on situations or conditions and
the benefits of each individual affected by
what are the factors that need to be
one’s choice.
considered as well as those things that
should be evaded.
MODULE 2
Culture marks the prevailing moral values – the way people think and the way they
into its members and forms the character of perceive the world and their relationship with
everyone as well. Truly, this is a development one another. Henceforth, a culture which
from early stages to adulthood, as presented characteristic is aggressive tends to be
by American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg aggressive in terms of its relationship with
in his theory on the stages of moral one another or with other cultures.
development.
The culture identifies the authorities or the
Baring (2018) explained the influences of governing individuals or groups. They are the
culture the moral development of the people. symbol of guidance and control. In many
cultures, men are always regarded as the
Culture is always social and communal by
leaders who oversee the order of the
which the relationship of the people towards
community and give guidance, which is true
one another and their experience as a people
in patriarchal societies. Through their roles
are the culture’s meadow. It is in this
and responsibilities in the community within
relationship and communal experience that
the given culture, may it be patriarchy,
culture influences the moral development of
matriarchy or whatever; people submit
its members. It is important to note that
themselves to their authorities.
morality as principle is promoted because
primarily of the relationship within LESSON 2. CULTURAL RELATIVISM
the community. Laws and rules and The Encyclopedia of World Problems and
standards of attitudes and behavior are set Human Potential defines cultural relativism
and promulgated by the community to as the idea that a person's beliefs, values,
promote that relationship that binds them and practices should be understood based on
together as a people. that person's own culture, rather than be
judged against the criteria of another.
The CULTURE defines the normative
Cultural relativism is also considered as basis
principles and behavior of the society. It
for moral judgments amid cultures.
defines which principle and behavior that
(Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2020)
should be kept that would serve the best
interest of the community. CULTURAL RELATIVISM refers to not
judging a culture to our own standards of
There would be a definition on what are the
what is right or wrong, strange or normal.
principles and behavioral of what should not
Instead, we should try to understand cultural
be promoted or rejected. This kind of
practices of other groups in its own cultural
influence of culture in moral development is
context. For example, instead of thinking,
best seen in terms of relational level.
“Fried crickets are disgusting!” one should
Culture, as best exemplified in the instead ask, “Why do some cultures eat fried
experience of the people, develops insects?”
restrictions and sets boundaries and
CULTURAL RELATIVISM is connected in
limitations as they live and relate with one
understanding a culture on its own identity
another. These restrictions and boundaries
and not to make decisions using the morals
serve as protection among themselves.
of one’s own culture. The objective of this is
These would create an atmosphere of
encourage consideration of cultural practices
promoting the welfare of the community.
and beliefs that are distinct to one’s culture.
Indeed, anyone who tries to step beyond
The viewpoint of cultural relativism directs to
these is subject to punishment or
the standpoint that no one culture is greater
consequences set by the community
than another culture when being associated
embedded in the culture.
to systems of morality, law and standards. It
Culture helps in generating the character and is a notion that customs, traditions and
identity of its people, it also includes their values originate their meaning in a detailed
moral character. Culture conditions the mind and precise social context. It is also
grounded on the knowledge that there is no Lesson 3. The Filipino Understanding of
complete standard of right or wrong, so Moral Behavior
every conclusion and decision of what is
Filipino’s understanding of moral behavior
good and bad is decided in each culture. The
and ethics is grounded on two notions in our
perception of cultural relativism also means
culture. According to Reyes (2020), the first
that any viewpoint on ethics depends in the
one is loób, which can easily be
perspective of each individual within their
misunderstood when literally translated into
specific culture. In an understanding of the
English as ‘inside’ but which is better
idea of cultural relativism, it simply wants to
translated as ‘relational will’, and the second
encourage the understanding of cultural
is kapwa, which is literally translated as
beliefs and practices that are unfamiliar to
‘other person’ but is better understood as
others such as family way of life, eating
‘together with the person’. These serve as
habits, feasts and festivals and a lot more.
pillars for a special collection of virtues
There are two types of cultural (kagandahang-loób, utang-na-loób,
relativism. pakikiramdam, hiya, lakas-ng-loób/bahala
na) which are not individualistic virtues in the
ABSOLUTE CULTURAL RELATIVISM is
same way as most of the cardinal virtues of
when everything that happens within a
the Western tradition (i.e. prudence, justice,
culture must and should not be questioned
temperance and fortitude) but are all
by outsiders. An example of absolute cultural
directed towards the preservation and
relativism would be the Nazi party’s point of
strengthening of human relationships. This
view justifying the Holocaust.
introduction to a Filipino virtue ethics is
CRITICAL CULTURAL RELATIVISM raises articulated and organized through a dialogue
questions about cultural practices in terms of with Aristotelian-Thomistic virtue ethics.
who is accepting and tolerating them and
Filipinos have been labeled as welcoming,
why. Critical cultural relativism also
friendly, outgoing, sensitive, easily insulted,
distinguishes power relationships. (Lumen
noisy, chatty, direct, hospitable, energetic,
Learning, 2020)
mocking, good natured, ingenious, witty,
Examples of cultural relativism in some generous, gracious, easy to befriend, casual,
households is when females are confined to fun loving, and many other adjectives to
the kitchen and are proud to play their roles describe a person. In short, being a Filipinos
in such a setting while in some homes, is having a mixed character trait. Perhaps the
women are engaged to management and reason for this is the many struggles in
involved in what is supposed to be the history that we have experienced. Under the
specialization or area of a man of the house. influence of different conquerors such as the
Spaniards, British, Americans and Japanese
CULTURAL RELATIVISM is also viewed in and with constant interaction and foreign
ways of life associated to religion. One relations with the Asian countries and the
example of this is where a country with Islam Arab Nations, Filipinos are said to be
as the major religion, a fuller covering of the cosmopolitan, a mixed of every nation in the
body is expected than in other religion. While world, a blend of East and West.
it might seem odd to eat fish soup or stewed
vegetables for breakfast in the United
States., in other places, such as the Asian
countries especially in the Philippines, this is
perfectly normal. Equally, our tendency
toward cereals and milk or preference would
seem rather strange to other cultures (Khan
Academy, 2020).
Hays (2015 further explains that Eastern and generosity, practice of hospitality, and
influence gave us the personal and family sensitive to other feelings and trust. We have
honor that we valued, as well as dignity and been known around the world to be the most
pride. Western influence gave us a hospitable people and will do everything to
systematic education and form of please our visitors. The lavish feast for the
government. But aside from that, we highly welcoming of visitors can be clearly seen
value families and kinship and make great during feast and welcoming guest in every
sacrifices to educate our children. Family, as programs.
a foundation of all relationship gave us hiya
2. FAMILY ORIENTATION is a genuine and
(shame) which is instilled in at an early age.
deep love for family. Commitment and
To be shamed is the greatest form of
responsibility, honor and respect, generosity
disgrace. Filipino culture developed over
and sacrifice and sense of trust and security
centuries and is still continuing to develop.
are the main focus of this strength. This
With regards to society, Filipinos have a
value is one of the constant in Eastern and
durable sense of family and community.
Oriental countries.
Filipinos are very sociable and like to talk and
hang out with family and friends. This is very 3. JOY AND HUMOR. Filipinos have a cheery
evident in the numerous feasts and festivals, and positive approach to life and its up and
different occasions, and moments to down, pleasant nature, a sense of humor and
celebrate. Filipinos love to fool around, make tendency for cheerfulness that contribute not
jokes and tease one another. Rumors spread only to the Filipino appeal but also to the
quickly. Some say Filipinos are happy-go- Filipino Spirit. We make fun at those we love
and hate. We are inclined to make joke about
our good and even misfortune, to smile even
in the most trying of times. Filipinos are very
resilient. We laugh amidst the face of every
challenge such as natural calamities. Social
media is a reflection as to how Filipinos turn
a negative thought into a light entertaining
one through memes and funny posts.
4. FLEXIBILITY, ADAPTABILITY AND
CREATIVITY. Filipinos are quick to adapt to
changes. We have proven to adjust at life as
mirrored in history where we are under
different oppressors.
5. HARD WORK AND INDUSTRY is also a
positive trait of the Filipinos which shows the
lucky people who are often pessimistic about
capacity for hard work given to raise one's
today but always optimistic that tomorrow
standard living of a decent life for one's
will be better.
family.
Santos (2020) further expounds these
6. FAITH AND RELIGIOSITY is a foundation
strengths and weaknesses as follows:
of the Filipino culture. Our Faith in God, is
STRENGTHS reflected in our mantra “Bahala Na” (si
Bathala Na) is accepting reality to
1. PAKIKIPAGKAPWA-TAO is opening comprehend which gives us a strong will or
yourself to others and feel one with others “Pampalakas-loob".
with dignity and respect deal with them as
fellow human beings. Part of this is the sense 7. ABILITY TO SURVIVE. Filipinos will do
of fairness and justice, concern for others, anything to survive. As part of being resilient
ability to empathize with others, helpfulness
and creative, Filipinos are quick to adapt to 6. KANYA-KANYA Syndrome is a self-
changes which is a big factor in surviving. serving arrogance that generates feeling of
jealousy, greed and competitiveness towards
others. Personal ambition matters a lot but
insensitive to common good. Also, the lack of
appreciation resulting unhealthy competition
is very evident.
7. LACK OF SELF ANALYSIS AND
WEAKNESSES REFLECTION of the Filipinos tend to make
them forget a misfortune very fast and thus
1. EXTREME PERSONALISM is always bound to commit them again. Being
trying to give personal interpretation to unprepared to disasters, voting a corrupt
actions. Thank you with "but" (compliment- politician are a good example of this
criticism-compliment) is a common Filipino weakness.
trait.
2. EXTREME FAMILY CENTEREDNESS is a
strong family protection for either good or LESSON 1. HOW IS A MORAL
bad condition. With the concept of blood is CHARACTER DEVELOPED?
thicker than water, Filipinos will sacrifice The development of moral character has
himself for his loved one no matter what the been the subject of philosophical and
situation is. The love of parents to children is psychological investigation since Aristotle
very strong. theorized three levels of moral character
3. LACK OF DISCIPLINE is the relaxed development: an ethics of fear, an ethics of
attitude but poor time management of the shame, an ethics of wisdom (Kraut, 2021)
Filipinos. Being impatient and unable to delay Damon (2018) recognized six patterns
gratification or reward and the love to take that social scientists have defined
short-cuts or 'palusot' system is rooted in our morality:
system. Carelessness is also very evident.
1) An evaluative orientation that
4. PASSIVITY AND LACK OF INITIATIVE is distinguishes good and bad and prescribes
a strong reliance to others fate which is a good;
Filipino trademark. It's all because of the race
(nationality/blood) not by persons attitude, 2) A sense of obligation toward standards of
hard-work, dream and perseverance etc. a social collective;
Filipinos are very relaxing and has a low
3) A sense of responsibility for acting out of
sense of urgency especially in beating the
concern for others;
deadline. Filipinos are too patient without
any plan or action) "Bahala na System" - No 4) A concern for the rights of others;
matter what, at least we tried.
5) A commitment to honesty in interpersonal
5. COLONIAL MENTALITY the internalized relationships; and
attitude of ethnic or cultural inferiority felt by
6) A state of mind that causes negative
Filipinos because of colonization, that is,
emotional reactions to immoral acts.
them being colonized by another group. It
corresponds with the belief that the cultural This definite system may not adapt all useful
values of the colonizer are inherently meanings, especially the more fundamental
superior to one's own. Being colonized by a and significant ones suggested by academics
lot of countries, Filipinos tend to assimilate and theologians, but they mirror the broad
the culture of the colonizers, thus, forgetting array of definitions and the necessity for a
their own identity. specific operational definition that can guide
research.
While most researchers back up a many 4. ETHICAL ACTION—the ego strength
faceted view of moral character, especially combined with the psychological and social
the advocacy of cognitive, affective, and skills necessary to carry out the selected
behavioral components, several researchers alternative.
support additional components. They
Berkowitz (2020) identified seven
propose that the set of skills of moral and
psychological components of the “moral
character development should be studied in
anatomy,” and urged scientists and
terms of four psychological components.
educators to begin reconstructing the
They say that the concentration should be on
“complete moral person.”
the internal practices and behavioral skills
that are needed for moral behavior and
recommend that compassion, reasoning, and
purpose occur from the interaction of both
cognitive and affective practices.

1. ETHICAL SENSITIVITY—the view of

moral and social circumstances, as well as
the capability toconsider probable actions
and their effects in terms of all the people
affected;
2. ETHICAL JUDGMENT—with regards to
probable option and the basis for decide on Vessel (2020), stated that one of the most
one or more as the most viable judgment; recently developed viewpoints on moral
character development that can be placed in
3. ETHICAL MOTIVATION—the choice of the interactional category is social cognition.
moral values most appropriate in the This method merges many of the statements
condition and the dedication to act on that of the blank slate, information processing,
choice; and affective methodologies. The main
difference is that it shifts its attention on
concentrating thoughts and values into characters certainly matter in moral
action. It suggests a relationship of shared development, hence, there appears the
determinism among the environment, apparent circular relationship between
apparent behavior, and personal factors such individual acts and moral character. Moral
as reasoning skills or level of empathy. For development should also be appreciated in
instance, not only do models, outcomes, and the idea of human flourishing. This
other environmental changes have an impact flourishing is reached by the persistent
on behavior, but behavior also has an impact practice of moral and intellectual merits or
on various characteristics of the virtues.
environment.
Virtuous characteristics must be balanced
Another emphasis of the social-cognitive and lasting and are not mere result of stroke
view is human agency or volition. Whereas of luck, but of learning, constant practice,
Kohlberg (2020) focus on enhanced levels of and development. We have to consider that
moral reasoning, which directs on a more virtuous traits are called excellences of an
self-regulation and self-efficacy. He suggests individual because they are the best exercise
that moral development occurs gradually of reason. In this sense, the Greek moralists
from dealings with environment, involving suppose that virtuous acts achieve a perfect
the application of outcomes, the observation human life. (Internet Encyclopedia of
of models, and acculturation by social Philosophy, 2019).
agents. Most relevantly it is the person’s
thinking on both external and internal
elements that offers the vital procedures
related to moral development. As such, the
social cognition methodology is more
concentrated on the processes of moral
development than on matter. Social-cognitive
theorists normally focus on personal agency
and the freedom to choose. They
recommend that with this freedom happens
from a responsibility to make good
judgments and act morally.

Lesson 2. The Stages of Moral

Development
North American psychologist Lawrence
Kohlberg authored that the moral growth of
an individual has six stages, but sadly, only a
minor proportion of individuals achieve the
highest stage. Using the idea of the Swiss
psychologist Jean Piaget, the first to make
methodical research of cognitive
development as a springboard and starting
point, Kohlberg classified the phases of
ethics as part of the psychological
development of children. As a matter of fact,
the six stages are valid for people of all ages,
for the most diverse ethnicities, and the
Not all acts help to build moral character, but numerous categories of social group in any
those acts which emanate from moral country. (Lumen Learning, 2020).
The six stages co-operate among them. imperfectly. The person has a sincere sense
Every individual has a variety of levels of of justice and reciprocity. The feeling of
reasons to act in appropriate ways and compassion is understood and – up to a
various interpretation of what is appropriate. certain point – experienced. A conformist
attitude may also occur; yet there is a true
In every individual or group, some degrees of
sense of ethical commitment.
ethical consciousness are more valuable than
the others. The levels are exceeded when 4) THE FOURTH STAGE is dominated by the
there are enough collected experience. idea of Law and Order. At this point, the
Behaviors that are still immature use to practice of respect for and obedience to the
disregard the higher stages of ethics. The leader, the boss, the teacher, as well as due
stage on which a person positions himself regulations, plays a key role. Discharging
depends on the quantity of understanding one’s duty is the priority. One must follow the
and level of goodness possessed by him. rules and obey authorities without cavil or
delay.
These are the stages of moral perception as
devised by Kohlberg which was cited by We then have the two final stages. Now the
Crain(2018). children and adults respect law and the
The two initial stages of morality are called codes of conduct. Yet at the same time they
“preconventional” because there is no code see beyond them and aim at improving
of conduct in them. Actions are isolated them.
events, and the wider context is hardly seen. 5) IN THE FIFTH STAGE OF ETHICAL
1) IN THE FIRST STAGE – LOWEST AND DEVELOPMENT, therefore, the individual
MOST BASIC – “right action is that action realizes that the laws and customs are
which is not punished”. The priority is to sometimes unfair. If necessary, he tries to
avoid condemnation: for this reason improve them. He does that through
obedience occurs. The wrong action is the legitimate means, in democratic, morally
action that provokes punishment. In the acceptable, ethically responsible ways.
absence of penalty, no wrongdoing is The higher levels of moral development
perceived or acknowledged. result from a thorough understanding of the
2) IN THE SECOND STAGE, right action is law of nature.
seen as that “which serves the interests of The Natural Law theory, as Kohlberg wrote,
each one”. The goal is obtaining a reward. “holds that there are universal or natural
Now the exchange and the deal between principles of justice that should guide all
individuals occur on the basis of immediate societies and that are known to us by reason
interests. Case-by-case decisions are independent of specific religious revelation
dominant. Mutual help takes place with a or faith”. Stages five and six are called
short-term view of things. postconventional because they go beyond
Stages three and four are called appearances. They question institutionalized
“conventional”, because in them the injustice and aim at the inner improvement
individual is sincerely loyal to the collective of both individual and society.
rules and norms. 6) IN THE SIXTH STAGE OF MORAL
3) IN THE THIRD STAGE, the child (or the DEVELOPMENT, the individual – or the
adult) demonstrates he has a good character. community – tries to live according to the
It is the stage of the “good-boy attitude”. The principles of universal ethics.
goal is obtaining social approval or the Today the human beings who live in this
sincere support of the elders and the more stage are not numerous. They are
powerful persons. Now the axiom “do unto forerunners and prepare the future. They
others as you would have them do unto you” pave the way for a lasting improvement in
is both understood and followed, even if human evolution.
Barger (2020) summarizes the impact of the
idea of Lawrence Kohlberg as very essential
in the study of ethics and moral
development. The philosophical importance
of his books might be important in the 21st
century because they help us explain the
mystery of how to achieve the highest level
conscience-based moral decisions. Kohlberg
encourages us to establish the foundations of
human contentment into motion and that
depends on us.