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Name: _______________________ Grade & Section: _______________ Date: ___________

Topic #1: The Folding and Faulting of Rocks

Learning Competencies: Explain how the movement of plates leads to the formation of folds
and faults (S11/12ES-Id-22)
Objectives:
1. Define folds, faults, stress and strain.
2. Explain how the movement of plates leads to the formation of folds and faults.

Concept
The earth’s crust is divided into segments of land masses called plates. These plates are
constantly moving in different directions creating the three types of plate boundaries. The three
types of plate boundaries are convergent boundary where plates are moving towards each other,
divergent boundary where plates are moving away from each other and the transform-fault
boundary where plates are sliding past each other. These movements lead to the deformation
of the earth’s crust creating folds and faults in rocks.
What is a geologic fold? Fold is defined as a bend in rock due to compressional forces.
Folds are created when two pates that makes up the earth’s crust collide. Folds are most visible
in rocks that contain layering. Rocks deforming plastically under compressive stresses crumple
into folds depending on the rock materials. They do not return to their original shape.
Deformation happens slowly if the rocks experience more stress, they may undergo
more folding.

TYPES OF FOLD
1. Monocline is a simple bend in the rock layers so that they are no longer horizontal. It
looks like a single step. The older rocks are found at the bottom of the monocline and
the newer ones are on top.

2. Anticline is a fold that arches upward. The rocks dip away from the center of the fold.
The top of the arch is called crest. The oldest rocks are at the center of the anticline and
the youngest are drape over them. Sometimes these older rocks become expose. If is it
fairly round it is called a dome.

3. Syncline is a fold that bends downward. The center of the fold is called hinge. New
rocks are at the center and older rocks are at the outside. Folding of rocks due to
converging plate boundaries. As one plate subducts, or dives beneath the other, the
ocean basin closes. The continental crust, which is lighter than the oceanic crust, cannot
be subducted. Instead as the continents collide, the crust thickens and is forced up.

What is fault? Fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock. Faults
allow the blocks to move relative to each other. This movement occur quickly in the form of
an earthquake or may occur slowly in the form of a creep.

TYPES OF FAULT
1. Normal fault occurs when the crust is being pulled apart in which the overlying
(hanging-wall) block moves down with respect to the lower (foot wall) block.
2. Reverse fault occurs when the crust is being compressed in which the hanging-wall
block moves up over the footwall block.
3. Strike-slip fault refers to a dip-slip fault in which the dip of the fault plane is vertical.
Strike slip faults result from shear stresses.
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What cause folding and faulting are the natural forces that exist in the earth’s crust?
Stress and strain cause the folding and faulting. Stress refers to the force applied to an object.
Strain refers to the change in a solid’s shape caused by the application of a stress. Depending
on the solid, a given stress might cause a great or small strain. Rocks only strain when place
under stress.

Types of stress:
1. Compression refers to a force acting perpendicular to and towards a surface. It happens
when rocks squeeze together, causing rocks to fold or fracture or break. Compression
pushes rock together.
2. Tension refers to a force acting perpendicular to and away from a surface. When rocks
that are pulled apart, they are under tension. Rocks under tension lengthen or break apart.
Tension stretches rock.
3. Shearing happens when a force acting parallel to a surface. When forces are parallel but
moving in opposite directions. Shearing can cause masses of rock to slip.

KINDS OF ROCK DEFORMATION

1. Elastic deformation – this happens when the rocks return to its original shape when the stress
is removed.
2. Plastic deformation – this takes place when the rock does not return to its original shape
when the stress s removed.
3. Fracture – this happens when the rock breaks because of too much stress.

Activity 1. Don’t be faulty!

Statements below are the different characteristics of faults. Read each statement
carefully and identify the type of fault that is being described in each statement, whether it is a
Normal Fault , Reverse Fault or Strike-slip fault. Write the WORD on the space provided.

_______________1. A fault is observed where the hanging wall is displaced upward relative
to the footwall.

_______________2. A fault formed when rock is being squeezed due to compression force.

_______________3. The San Andreas fault is an example of this type of fault.

_______________4. A fault where the hanging wall is displaced downward relative to the
footwall.

_______________5. Rocks slide past each other in opposite direction.

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Topic #2: Stratification of Rocks

Learning Competencies: Describe how layers of rocks (stratified rocks) are formed.
S11/12ES-Ie-25
Objectives:
1. Define stratification.
2. Describe the process on how stratified rocks are formed.

Concept:
We can see layers of rocks anywhere. These layered rocks are arranged naturally in the
environment. The horizontal layers present in most sedimentary rocks are called strata. The
process of creating layers of rocks is called stratification. Aside from sedimentary, this process
also happens in igneous rocks. Rocks that hardened over time create layers that makes it a
stratified rock.

FORMATION OF STRATIFIED ROCKS

Weathering. This happens when large pieces of sedimentary rock are broken down
into smaller pieces. These pieces of rocks come together with other materials to form
sediments.
Erosion. Sediments being lightweight will then be transported over time. The process
of transporting rock particles and other materials from one place to another is called erosion.
This can be caused by wind, water and natural agents.
Deposition. The sediments together with fossils will then settle in a certain place after
being eroded. In most cases, in bodies of water like oceans where sediments are deposited
undisturbed at the bottom due to gravity.
Compaction. Deposited sediments will begin to stick to one another, cemented together
with clay, other minerals and fossils and compacted creating a layer of sedimentary rock. Over
time, another layer of sediments composed of other kind of materials filed up on top of the first
layer forming a stratified sedimentary rock.

This stratification process happens hundreds or years or more. Danish scientist, Nicolas
Steno, proposed the Law of original Horizontality which states that sediments are deposited
horizontally creating strata or layers.
Strata’s thickness may vary from millimeters to several meters. The strata reveal rock
composition and age that can be used to know the events, objects and earth’s history.

Activity 2: Which is which?

The following statements are the process on how stratified rocks formed. Carefully
analyze each statement and write True on the space provided if the statement is correct and
False if NOT.

_____1. The term 'rock strata' refers to layers of sedimentary rocks

_____2. Rock layers at surface are older strata.
_____3. Stratification is the process of layering sedimentary rocks.
_____4. Layers of stratified rocks are the same all throughout.
_____5. Crustal movement and displacement of soil causes stratification.
_____6. Earth is the only planet with sedimentary rocks.
_____7. Sediments formed as a result of rock weathering.
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Topic #3: Stratification of Rocks

Learning Competencies: Describe the different methods (relative and absolute dating) to
determine the age of stratified rocks. S11/12ES-Ie-26

Objectives:
1. Define relative and absolute dating.
2. Describe the different methods (relative and absolute dating) to determine the age of
stratified rocks

Concept
Geologists determine the relative ages of rocks and other structures by examining their
places during a sequence. If a layer of rock is offset by a fault, which may be a break in the
Earth’s surface, you recognize that the layers had to be there before a fault could cut through
them.
Relative dating is used to arrange geological events, and the rocks they leave behind,
in a sequence. The reading is called stratigraphy (layers of rock are called strata).
Absolute dating is the process of determining an age on a specified time scale. It
provides a numerical age or range in contrast with relative dating which places event in order
without any measure of the age between events.
• Absolute dating can be achieved using historical records and through the analysis of
biological and geological patterns resulting from annual climatic variations. It is also known as
numerical dating, to offer rocks an actual date, or date range, in number of years.

PRINCIPLES IN DETERMINING THE AGE ORDER OF THE ROCK

1. Principle of Superposition states that sedimentary rocks are normally laid down in
order, one on the top of another. That In a sequence, the youngest is at the top.
2. The Principle of Horizontality states that most sedimentary rocks laid down in flat
(horizontal) layers, although these can later tilt and fold.
3. The Principle of Lateral Continuity states that layers of sedimentary rock extend
sideways in the same order. A later event, like a river cutting, may form a gap, but
you can still connect the strata.

Activity 3: Summarize Me
There are processes that acted during Earth’s geologic time, geologists make
observations about the relationships of rocks to one another in the rock record, using a process
called Relative Dating and geologists also used Absolute Dating techniques to date the rocks
in determining their age.
Answer the following based on what you learned. Answer it briefly and concisely.

1. Explain the concept of absolute dating.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

2. Differentiate relative dating from absolute dating.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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Activity 4: What I Know?

Multiple Choice. Select the letter of the best answer from among the given choices.
1. It is another type of Earth movement that forms cracks or fractures on the rocks
A. Tension B. Folding C. Faulting D. Compression
2. It is a type of Earth movement resulting from the compression of rock
A. Tension B. Folding C. Faulting D. Compression
3. A one-sided slope connecting two horizontal or gently inclined strata
A. Syncline B. Monocline C. Overturned D. Anticline
4. It is an upward fold on the rock.
A. Syncline B. Overturned C. Monocline A Anticline
5. It happens when rock is being squeezed due to compression force. This type of fault generally
moves up.
A. Monocline C. Reverse (convergent) fault
B. Normal (divergent) fault D. Transform (strike-slip) fault
6. It is a process in which sedimentary rocks are arranged in layers due to crustal movement,
displacement of soils, and distortion of terrain.
A. Compression C. Stratification
B. Expansion D Tension
7. It is the process in which sedimentary rocks are arranged in layers.
A. Compression C. Stratification
B. Metamorphism D. Tension
8. It is a process in which rocks are continuously transformed between the three rock types
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
A. Compression C. Rock Cycle
B. Layers of rocks D. Stratification
9. It contains information about the relative ages of events and objects in Earth’s history.
A. Compression C. Rock Cycle
B. Layers of rocks D. Stratification10. It is an extreme type
of overturned fold in which the axial plain acquires an almost
horizontal altitude.
A. Anticline C. Recumbent
B. Monocline D. Syncline
11. It occurs when rock is being pulled apart due to tension force. In this type of fault, rock
generally moves down.
A. Monocline C. Reverse (convergent) fault
B. Normal (divergent) fault D. Transform (strike-slip) fault
12. It is a movement of the plates results in deformation (folding and faulting) of the Earth’s
crust.
A. Compression C. Folding
B. Faulting D. Plate Tectonics
13. Which of the following states that sediments are deposited horizontally creating strata or
layers?
A. Law of original Horizontality C. The Principle of Horizontality
B. Principle of Superposition D. The Principle of Lateral Continuity
14. Which of the following DO NOT describe the process on how stratified rocks are formed?
A. Compaction C. Folding
B. Deposition D. Weathering
15. What is referred to as the age compared with the ages of other rocks?
A. Absolute Age C. Intrusions
B. Extrusions D. Relative Age
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16. What do you call the number of years since the rock formed?
A. Absolute Age C. Intrusions
B. Extrusions D. Relative Age
17. Which of the following principles explains how layers of sedimentary rock extend sideways
in the same order?
A. Horizontality C. Superposition
B. Lateral Continuity D. Unconformity
18. Which of the following principles explains how sedimentary rocks are normally laid down
in order, one on the top of another?
A. Horizontality C. Superposition
B. Lateral Continuity D. Unconformity
19. Which of the following principles explains how sedimentary rocks are laid down in flat
(horizontal) layers, although these can later tilt and fold?
A. Horizontality C. Superposition
B. Lateral Continuity D. Unconformity
20. Who proposed the Law of original Horizontality?
A. Isaac Newton C. Nicolas Steno
B. Nicolas Cage D. Robert Brown

Reference:
Acledan, Michelle. 2016. Earth and Life Science for Senior High School. Philippines: Mutya
Publishing House Inc.
Ezez. 2021. . Scribd.com. https://www.scribd.com/document/370894536/Earth-and-Life-
Science.
Ezez. 2021. "!!HOT!! Physical Geology Exploring The Earth Pdf".
https://cartingtika.weebly.com/physical-geology-exploring-the-earth-pdf.html.

Prepared by:
JANICE S. ALQUIZAR
TEACHER III, DiCNHS