Essence of Indian Traditional Knowledge

Unit-2

Syllabus :-Evolution of script and languages in India: Harappan Script and Brahmi
Script, The Vedas, the Upanishads, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, Puranas,
Buddhist and Jain Literature in Pali, Prakrit and Sanskrit, Kautilya’s Arthashastra,
Famous Sanskrit Authors, Telugu Literature, Kannada Literature, Malayalam
Literature, Sangama Literature, Northern Indian Languages & Literature, Persian
and Urdu, Hindi Literature.

Different language of India.

Language
 A language usually refers spoken language, methods of communication
 Language is a medium through which we express our thoughts. To know any
particular culture and its tradition it is very important that we understand the
evolution of its language.

Script

Scrips refers to collection of characters used to write one or more languages, Sripts are
writing systems that that allow the transcriptions (write)via alphabets sets.

Harappan Script: An Overview

The Harappan script, associated with the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) (Sindu ghati
sabhatya ) (c. 2600–1900 BCE), remains one of the greatest unsolved mysteries in
archaeology. Despite numerous attempts, it has not yet been fully deciphered. (to understand
the written message on metal, whether it is under stable or not.)

The script was first discovered in the 19th and early 20th centuries during excavations at
Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, two major Indus Valley Civilization sites.
Key Features of the Harappan Script

1. Pictographic in Nature – The script consists of symbols that resemble pictures or

abstract signs.
2. Written in Short Sequences – Most inscriptions contain fewer than 26 characters,
suggesting it may have been a logo-syllabic or ideographic script.
3. Mostly Found on Seals and Pottery – The script is inscribed on seals, pottery,
amulets, and other artifacts.
4. Right to Left Writing – Scholars believe the script was written from right to left,
with some instances of boustrophedon (alternate direction writing left to right &right
).
5. No Bilingual(able to speak two language equally) Inscriptions records) – Unlike
the Rosetta Stone, which helped decipher Egyptian hieroglyphs, there are no bilingual
texts to compare and decode the Harappan script.

Challenges in Decipherment(to understand the meaning-matlab)

 No Known Connections – The language behind the script is unknown, and there are
no clear links to other ancient languages.
 Lack of Long Texts – Most inscriptions are too short to provide enough context for
analysis.
 Civilization’s Decline – The fall of the Indus Valley Civilization around 1900 BCE
meant the script was lost, with no later cultures preserving or adapting it.

Possible Theories About the Script

 Some scholars suggest it may represent a Dravidian language, similar to Tamil.

 Others argue it could be an early form of Indo-Aryan or Munda languages.
 A few researchers even question whether it was a full writing system or just symbols
for trade and religious purposes.

Direction of Writing

 Most inscriptions are written from right to left (proved by analyzing the decreasing
size of characters at the end).

Mediums Used for Writing

The Harappans wrote their script on various objects, including:

 Seals (made of steatite, a soft stone)

 Pottery (engraved or painted)
 Copper tablets
 Ivory and bone objects
  Clay tags and amulets

Structure of Symbols

 The script consists of 400–500 distinct signs (suggesting it was not a simple alphabet
but a more complex system like syllabic or logographic scripts).
 Symbols are often arranged in horizontal lines and sometimes with pictorial motifs
(e.g., animals, deities, or humans).
 The inscriptions are usually short, with the longest containing about 26 characters.

Tools Used

 The Harappans likely used sharp styluses made of metal or bone to inscribe on seals
and tablets.
 For pottery, they may have used brushes or carved patterns before firing.

Brahmi script in India

1. Ancient Origin

 The Brahmi script is one of the earliest writing systems in the Indian subcontinent.
 It is believed to have developed between the 4th (301 CE to 400 CE) to 3rd century
BCE.
 Some scholars suggest that it was influenced by the Aramaic script, while others argue
for an independent origin.

2. Use in Ashokan Inscriptions

 Emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE) (AD 201 to AD 300) used Brahmi to engrave
(carts) his edicts on rocks and pillars across his empire.
 These inscriptions(record) were meant to spread messages of Dharma (righteousness)
and governance.
 They have been found in India, Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan.

3. Parent of Many Scripts

 Brahmi evolved into multiple modern scripts across India and Southeast Asia.
 The scripts derived from Brahmi include:
o Devanagari (used for Hindi, Sanskrit, Marathi, etc.)
o Tamil and Grantha (for Tamil and Sanskrit texts)
o Bengali, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam scripts
o Tibetan, Khmer, Thai, and Burmese scripts
4. Direction of Writing

 The earliest forms of Brahmi were written from left to right.

5. Syllabic System (Abugida- it is a script in which swar & vyanjan written)

 Brahmi follows the abugida system, where each character represents a consonant with
an inherent vowel (‘a’).
 Vowels could be changed using diacritical marks, unlike alphabets that use separate
letters for each sound.
 This system continues in modern Indian scripts like Devanagari.

6. Regional Variants (a change in form, position or condition) and Evolution

 As it spread across India, Brahmi developed regional variations.

 Some major variants include:
o Gupta script (4th–6th century CE) – precursor to Devanagari.
o Siddham script (used in Buddhist texts and later influenced Japanese writing).
o Tamil-Brahmi (a variant adapted for Dravidian languages).

7. Deciphered(to get the meaning) by James Prinsep

 The script was lost for centuries and remained undeciphered.

 In 1837, James Prinsep, a British scholar, successfully decoded Brahmi inscriptions
using Ashokan edicts.
 This discovery helped historians understand ancient Indian history.

8. Influence on Other Scripts

 Brahmi spread to Southeast Asia through Indian traders and Buddhist monks.
 It influenced the development of scripts like:
o Khmer (Cambodia)
o Thai (Thailand)
o Burmese (Myanmar)
o Javanese (Indonesia)

9. Decline and Transformation

 Brahmi was widely used until around the 5th century CE.
 Over time, it transformed into distinct regional scripts, including Nagari (precursor to
Devanagari) and Grantha (used in South India).
 Eventually, the original Brahmi script disappeared, but its legacy continues in modern
Indian scripts.
 Vedic literature

1. The Vedas are the earliest known literature in India. The Vedas were written in
Sanskrit and were handed down orally from one generation to the other.
2. The word 'Veda' literally means knowledge. In Hindu culture, Vedas are considered as
eternal and divine revelations.
3. They treat the whole world as one human family Vasudev Kutumbakam.
4. There are four Vedas, namely, the - Rig-Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda and
Atharva-Veda. Each Veda consists of the Brahmanas, the Upanishads

Rig-Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda and Atharva-Veda.

Rigveda

 The Rigveda is the oldest of the four Vedas and one of the oldest known religious
texts in the world.
 It dates back to around 1500–1200 BCE, belonging to the early Vedic period

1. Oldest Hindu Scripture – Composed around 1500–1200 BCE, oldest of the four
Vedas.
2. Structure – Contains 1,028 hymns in 10 Mandalas, written in Vedic Sanskrit.
3. Oral Tradition – Passed down orally for centuries before being written.
4. Main Deities – Indra, Agni, Varuna, Soma, Surya are frequently mentioned.
5. Themes – Hymns cover creation, rituals, prayers, and cosmic order.
6. Philosophy – Discusses Karma, Dharma, and Brahman (universal consciousness).
7. Social Aspects – Mentions society, caste divisions (Purusha Sukta), and rituals.
8. Influence – Basis of Hinduism, Upanishads, and later scriptures.
9. Preservation – Written in Devanagari, studied by scholars like Yaska, Sayana.
10.Comparison – Rigveda (hymns), Yajurveda (rituals), Samaveda (chants),
Atharvaveda (spells).

 Rigveda – Primarily hymns and praises.

 Yajurveda – Ritual instructions.
 Samaveda – Musical chants for rituals.
 Atharvaveda – Magic spells and folk traditions
 Sama-Veda Samhita :
This is the second Veda. It contains some 1549 mantras of which only 72 are new,
while the rest have all been derived from the Rigveda.

1. Veda of Melodies – Known as the "Veda of Chants(bhajan)", mainly consists of

hymns sung during rituals.
2. Composition – Contains 1,549 verses, mostly borrowed from the Rigveda.
3. Musical Significance – Forms the basis of Indian classical music and chanting
traditions.
4. Usage – Sung by priests (Udgatar) during Yajnas (sacrificial rituals).
5. Divisions – Divided into two main parts – Gāna (melodies) and Ārcika (hymns).
6. Main Deities – Dedicated to Agni (fire), Indra (war), and Soma (sacred drink).
7. Influence on Hinduism – Central to Vedic rituals and temple chanting traditions.
8. Textual Branches – Has different recensions (Kauthuma, Jaiminiya, Ranayaniya).
9. Preservation – Originally memorized orally, later written in Devanagari and other
scripts.
10.Comparison – Unlike Rigveda (prayers), Samaveda focuses on melodic
recitation(sasvar paath)

Yajur Veda

 One of the third Vedas in Hinduism, primarily focused on rituals and sacrifices.
 A compilation of hymns and prose formulas for performing Yajnas (sacrificial
ceremonies).
 Guides priests on the proper execution of Vedic rituals.

Key Features

 Focuses on rituals, sacrifices, and religious ceremonies.

 Contains mantras and chants(bhajan) for offerings to deities like Agni, Indra, and
Vishnu.
 Explains the symbolism and significance of rituals in Vedic tradition.

Divisions of Yajur Veda

 Shukla Yajur Veda (White Yajur Veda) – Organized and systematic, contains only
hymns and mantras.
 Krishna Yajur Veda (Black Yajur Veda) – A mix of hymns and explanatory prose,
less structured.
Importance

 Forms the basis of Hindu sacrificial rituals and temple worship.

 Linked to major Upanishads, like the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, offering deep
spiritual insights.
 Influenced later Hindu practices, including pujas, homas, and temple ceremonies.

Atharva-Veda.

Fourth Veda – One of the four Vedas, alongside Rigveda, Yajurveda, and Samaveda.

Content & Themes – Contains hymns, spells, and incantations (special words that
have a magic effect when spoken sung or chanted the act of speaking, singing or
chanting these words) related to everyday life, health, protection, and prosperity.

Practical Knowledge – Focuses on medicine, healing, magic, rituals, and social

practices rather than just spiritual knowledge.

Divine & Folk Traditions – Blends religious chants(sing) with folk beliefs,
including charms for success, protection, and well-being.

Ayurveda Connection – Considered a foundation of Ayurveda (ancient Indian

medicine), with references to diseases and healing methods.

Spiritual & Material Aspects – Covers both metaphysical ideas and practical aspects
like agriculture, governance, and family life.

Influence on Hindu Rituals – Many modern Hindu customs and traditions trace their
roots to the Atharva-Veda.

Philosophy– Includes philosophical discussions, early ideas of creation, and mystical

concepts.

Structure – Comprises 20 books (Kandas) with over 700 hymns, many in poetic
form.

Distinct from Other Vedas – While the other three Vedas focus on rituals and
sacrifices, Atharva-Veda is more concerned with human welfare and daily life
 Story of Ramayana

1. Introduction

 Written by Sage Valmiki.

 The story revolves around Lord Rama, the prince of Ayodhya, an incarnation of Lord
Vishnu.

2. Birth of Rama & His Brothers

 King Dasharatha of Ayodhya performs a yagna to have children.

 He is blessed with four sons: Rama, Lakshmana, Bharata, and Shatrughna.

3. Rama's Marriage

 Rama wins Sita’s hand by breaking Lord Shiva’s bow at King Janaka’s swayamvara.
 They get married, and Lakshmana weds Urmila.

4. Exile to the Forest

 Kaikeyi, manipulated by Manthara, demands Rama’s 14-year exile to make her son
Bharata the king.
 Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana leave for the forest.

5. Surpanakha’s Revenge & Sita’s Abduction

 Surpanakha, Ravana’s sister, tries to seduce Rama but is disfigured by Lakshmana.

 To take revenge, Ravana abducts Sita with the help of Maricha (who disguises as a
golden deer).

6. Hanuman & The Search for Sita

 Rama forms an alliance with Sugriva and Hanuman.

 Hanuman finds Sita in Lanka, gives her Rama’s ring, and burns Lanka with his tail.

7. The Great War in Lanka

 Rama, Lakshmana, Hanuman, and the Vanara army build a bridge (Ram Setu) to
Lanka.
 A fierce battle ensues.
 Kumbhakarna, Indrajit, and Ravana are defeated.
 Rama kills Ravana and rescues Sita.

8. Agni Pariksha & Return to Ayodhya

  Sita undergoes the Agni Pariksha (trial by fire) to prove her purity.
 Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana return to Ayodhya after 14 years.
 Rama is crowned king, bringing in the golden age (Rama Rajya).

Story of Mahabharata

1. Introduction

 Written by Sage Vyasa.

 The epic revolves around the Kuru dynasty, focusing on the conflict between the
Pandavas and Kauravas.

2. Birth of the Pandavas & Kauravas

 King Pandu (father of the Pandavas) is cursed and cannot have children. His wives
Kunti and Madri bear sons through divine blessings:
o Yudhishthira (Dharma - god of justice), Bhima (Vayu - god of wind),
Arjuna (Indra - king of gods).
o Nakula and Sahadeva (Ashwini Kumaras - twin gods of medicine).
 Dhritarashtra, Pandu’s blind elder brother, has 100 sons (Kauravas), led by
Duryodhana.

3. Rivalry Between Pandavas & Kauravas

 The Pandavas and Kauravas are trained by Guru Dronacharya.

 Arjuna excels in archery, making Duryodhana jealous.
 Karna, born to Kunti before her marriage (through Surya’s blessing), becomes
Duryodhana’s close friend.

4. The Lakshagraha Conspiracy

 Duryodhana, with his uncle Shakuni, plots to burn the Pandavas alive in
Lakshagraha (House of Lac).
 The Pandavas escape and live in disguise.

5. Draupadi’s Swayamvara & Marriage

 Arjuna wins Draupadi in a contest.

 Due to a misunderstanding, she becomes the wife of all five Pandavas.

6. Indraprastha & The Game of Dice

  The Pandavas establish Indraprastha as their kingdom.
 Duryodhana, jealous of their prosperity, invites Yudhishthira to a game of dice.
 Shakuni cheats, and Yudhishthira loses his kingdom, brothers, and Draupadi.
 Draupadi is humiliated in the Kaurava court, but Lord Krishna saves her.

7. Exile & Preparation for War

 The Pandavas are sent into 13 years of exile (12 years in the forest + 1 year in
disguise).
 Arjuna gains divine weapons from Lord Shiva and Indra.

8. Kurukshetra War

 After failed peace talks, the great war of Kurukshetra begins.

 Bhishma, Drona, Karna, and Duryodhana are major warriors on the Kaurava side.
 Arjuna is hesitant to fight, and Krishna delivers the Bhagavad Gita, teaching duty
(dharma).
 Bhishma falls due to Shikhandi.
 Karna is killed by Arjuna.
 Duryodhana is defeated in a mace fight with Bhima.
 Ashwatthama, in revenge, kills Draupadi’s five sons.

9. Aftermath

 The Pandavas win and rule Hastinapura.

 The Pandavas renounce the throne and embark on their final journey
(Mahaprasthana).
 Yudhishthira alone reaches heaven in human form.

Purana

1. Ancient Hindu Texts – The Puranas are a vast collection of religious and
mythological texts in Hinduism, written in Sanskrit.
2. Authorship – Traditionally attributed to Maharishi Vyasa, the same sage who
compiled the Mahabharata.
3. Classification – There are 18 Mahapuranas (major Puranas) and 18 Upapuranas
(minor Puranas).
4. Subject Matter – They cover a wide range of topics, including cosmology,
mythology, genealogy of gods and sages, ethics, and rituals.
 5. Most Popular Puranas – The Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana, Shiva Purana,
Devi Purana, and Brahma Purana are among the most widely read.
6. Religious Significance – They emphasize bhakti (devotion), dharma
(righteousness), and moksha (liberation).
7. Stories of Gods and Avatars – The Puranas narrate the lives and miracles of Hindu
deities like Vishnu, Shiva, Devi, and Brahma, including the Dashavatara (ten
incarnations of Vishnu).
8. Blend of History and Mythology – While they contain historical references, they
are largely mythological, symbolic, and philosophical.
9. Influence on Hindu Culture – The Puranas have greatly shaped Hindu traditions,
festivals, and temple rituals, making them a key part of religious life.

Buddhist Literature in Pali

1. Tripitaka – The main Buddhist scriptures with three parts:

o Vinaya Pitaka – Rules for monks and nuns.
o Sutta Pitaka – Teachings of Buddha.
o Abhidhamma Pitaka – Deep philosophy and analysis.
2. Jataka Tales – Stories of Buddha’s past lives with moral lessons.
3. Dhammapada – A famous book of Buddha’s sayings in verse form.
4. Milindapanha – A conversation between a king (Milinda) and a monk (Nagasena)
about Buddhism.
5. Mahavamsa & Dipavamsa – Historical books about Sri Lanka’s Buddhist traditions.

Jain Literature in Pali (and Prakrit)

1.Agamas – The holy books of Jainism, containing Mahavira’s teachings.

2.Sutras – Books explaining Jain beliefs and moral rules.

3.Kalpasutra – A biography of Mahavira and rules for Jain monks.

4.Tattvartha Sutra – A summary of Jain philosophy and teachings.

5.Niryuktis & Bhashyas – Commentaries (explanations) on Jain holy books by scholars.

Prakrit and Sanskrit

Prakrit

1. Ancient Indian Language – Used in daily life by common people.

2. Simpler than Sanskrit – Had easier grammar and pronunciation.
3. Used in Jain & Buddhist Texts – Jain Agamas and some Buddhist scriptures were
written in Prakrit.
4. Famous Forms – Pali (Buddhism), Ardhamagadhi (Jainism), Shauraseni,
Maharashtri.
5. Used in Literature & Drama – Many plays, like those by Kalidasa, used Prakrit for
dialogues of common people.

Sanskrit

6. Sacred & Classical Language – Used in Hindu scriptures and scholarly works.
7. Vedas & Epics – Rigveda, Mahabharata, Ramayana were written in Sanskrit.
8. Grammar by Panini – Ashtadhyayi, a famous grammar book, standardized Sanskrit.
9. Language of Hinduism & Philosophy – Used in Upanishads, Puranas, and
Smritis.
10.Still Used Today – Found in religious rituals, chants, and modern studies.
 Kautilya’s Arthashastra

1. Author – Written by Kautilya (Chanakya), the advisor of Emperor Chandragupta

Maurya.
2. Time Period – Composed around 4th century BCE.
3. Political & Economic Treatise – A guide on statecraft, administration, economy,
and warfare.
4. Divided into 15 Books – Covers politics, law, taxation, foreign relations, and
espionage.
5. Concept of a Strong King – Emphasizes a powerful and wise ruler for a stable
empire.
6. Spy System – Advocates a well-organized intelligence system to monitor enemies
and officials.
7. Economic Policies – Discusses taxation, agriculture, trade, and financial
management.
8. Foreign Policy (Mandala Theory) – Suggests alliances and strategies to deal with
neighboring states.
9. Law and Order – Covers crime prevention, punishments, and justice system.
10.Relevance Today – Still studied in political science, economics, and military
strategy.

Famous Sanskrit Authors

1. Panini – Wrote Ashtadhyayi, a major Sanskrit grammar book.

2. Valmiki – Author of the Ramayana, the first epic poem in Sanskrit.
3. Vyasa – Wrote the Mahabharata, the world’s longest epic, and compiled the Vedas.
4. Kalidasa – Classical Sanskrit poet and playwright, wrote Abhijnana Shakuntalam,
Meghaduta, and Raghuvamsha.
5. Bharavi – Composed Kiratarjuniya, a poem about Arjuna’s battle with Lord Shiva.
6. Dandin – Wrote Dashakumaracharita, a prose romance.
7. Banabhatta – Wrote Harshacharita, the biography of King Harsha.
8. Jayadeva – Wrote Gita Govinda, a devotional poem on Lord Krishna.
9. Vishakhadatta – Wrote the political drama Mudrarakshasa, about Chanakya’s
strategies.
10.Bhasa – Early playwright, known for dramas like Swapnavasavadatta.

Telugu Literature

Origin – Developed from Prakrit and Sanskrit influences.

First Known Work – Nannaya’s Mahabharatam (11th century).

Trinity of Poets – Nannaya, Tikkana, Errana completed the Telugu Mahabharata.

Bhakti Movement Influence – Works of Annamacharya, Tyagaraja, and Kshetrayya.

Modern Literature – Writers like Sri Sri, Viswanatha Satyanarayana contributed

revolutionary and social themes.

Kannada Literature

Early Kannada Works – Kavirajamarga (850 CE) by Nripatunga was the first
literary work.

Jain Influence – Pampa, Ranna, and Ponna wrote Jain epics.

Bhakti Movement – Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi, Allama Prabhu wrote Vachanas.

Dasa Sahitya – Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa spread devotional music and poetry.

Modern Kannada Writers – Kuvempu, U.R. Ananthamurthy, and Girish Karnad

contributed to novels and plays.

Malayalam Literature

Evolution – Developed from Tamil and Sanskrit.

First Known Poet – Cherusseri Namboothiri, who wrote Krishnagatha.

Bhakti & Classical Poetry – Ezhuthachan, known as the father of Malayalam

literature, translated the Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Modern Literature – Kumaran Asan, Vallathol Narayana Menon, and G.
Sankara Kurup shaped contemporary poetry.

Famous Writers – M.T. Vasudevan Nair, Basheer, and O.V. Vijayan wrote novels
reflecting Kerala’s culture.

Sangam Literature (Tamil)

Time Period – 300 BCE – 300 CE, written during the Sangam Age.

Main Themes – Love (Akam) and War (Puram).

Famous Works – Ettuthokai (Eight Anthologies) and Pathuppattu (Ten Idylls).

Important Poets – Tiruvalluvar (Tirukkural), Ilango Adigal (Silappadikaram),

Sattanar (Manimekalai).

Cultural Significance – Preserves ancient Dravidian culture and Tamil heritage.

Northern Indian Languages & Literature

Sanskrit Influence – Most Northern Indian languages evolved from Sanskrit and
Prakrit.

Braj & Awadhi Poetry – Tulsidas (Ramcharitmanas), Surdas (Sursagar), Kabir

(Dohas).

Persian Influence – Delhi Sultanate & Mughal rule impacted Hindi and Punjabi.

Bengali Literature – Chandidas, Rabindranath Tagore (Gitanjali).

Punjabi Literature – Guru Nanak’s hymns (Guru Granth Sahib), Waris Shah
(Heer Ranjha).

Persian and Urdu Literature

Persian Literature – Brought by Turkish and Mughal rulers in India.

Famous Persian Works – Baburnama (Babur), Akbarnama (Abul Fazl), Diwan-

e-Ghalib.

Urdu Development – Evolved from Persian, Arabic, and local languages.

Great Urdu Poets – Mir, Ghalib, Allama Iqbal, Faiz Ahmed Faiz.

Popular Forms – Ghazal, Nazm, Marsiya, and Qasida.

 Hindi Literature

Origin – Derived from Sanskrit and Apabhramsha.

Bhakti Era – Kabir, Tulsidas, Surdas, Meera Bai.

Riti Era – Courtly poetry with themes of love (Bihari, Keshavdas).

Modern Hindi – Writers like Premchand, Harivansh Rai Bachchan, Mahadevi

Verma.

Contemporary Literature – Focuses on social issues, nationalism, and

progressivism.