LUTHER W. NEW JR.

THEOLOGICAL COLLEGE

DEHRADUN, UTTARAKHAND

A Paper Presentation on:

“Women in Paul and Feminist Interpretation”

Submitted to:

Dr. Simon Samuel

In Partial Fulfillment of the requirements of the course

Theology of Pauline Writings

Submitted by:

Mr. Alen Thapa

M.Th I – New Testament

Date: 18th February 2025

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 Table of Content

Introduction

1. Historical and Cultural influences on Paul’s Views on Women

1.1 Women in Greco-Roman World
1.2 Women in Jewish world
2. Women in Pauline Letters
2.1 Women as Co-workers and Leaders
2.2 Women in Household Codes
2.3 Gender Equality
3. Controversial text on women in Paul
3.1 Women’s Head Coverings (1 Corinthians 11: 2 -16)
3.2 Women’s Silence in Churches ( 1 Corinthians 14: 34 – 35; 1 Timothy 2: 11 – 15)
3.3 Women’s Teaching and authority
4. Feminists Interpretation on Paul

4.1 Elizabeth Schüssler Fiorenza

4.2 Rosemary Radford Ruether
4.3 Bernadette Brooten
4.4 Beverly Roberts Gaventa

Conclusion

Bibliography

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Introduction

The role of women in early Christianity, particularly within the Pauline letters, has been a subject
of scholarly debate for centuries. Paul's writings present both affirmations of women in ministry
and passages that seem to restrict their roles, leading to diverse interpretations among
theologians and historians. This paper aims to understand Paul's perspectives on women
exploring the broader historical and cultural context, a careful analysis of his treatment of
women in the churches, and an examination of controversial passages that have shaped gender
roles in Christian tradition. Furthermore, it also explores feminist theological scholarship that has
provided fresh insights challenging traditional readings and proposing new frameworks for
understanding Paul’s views on women.

1. Historical and Cultural influences on Paul’s Views on Women

To understand Paul’s statements on women, it is essential to consider the cultural and historical
influences that shaped his perspective. Paul operated with both Greco-Roman and Jewish
traditions, each of which had distinct views on gender role.

1.1 Women in the Greco-Roman World

The Greco-Roman world in which Paul lived and wrote was deeply patriarchal, though it
exhibited some diversity regarding women's roles. Women were always under the legal authority
of a male guardian (Father, Husband or Son). Roman women, especially those of the upper class,
had significant legal and economic privileges, including the ability to own property and engage
in business transactions.1 Greek woman played important roles in religious life as priestesses.
Greek women had more freedom and could receive physical and intellectual education, but these
ideas had limited impact on mainstream societal norms. 2 Despite these rights, societal
expectations largely confined women to domestic and reproductive roles. Marriage was a
primary means of securing social stability, and women were often expected to uphold the values

1
Lynn H. Cohick, Women in the World of the Earliest Christians: Illuminating Ancient Ways of Life
(Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2009), 19.
2
Wayne A. Meeks, The First Urban Christians: The Social World of the Apostle Paul, 2nd ed. (New
Haven: Yale University Press, 2003),23.

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of modesty, chastity, and obedience to their husbands.3 The prevailing Aristotelian view held that
women were inherently subordinate to men, a belief that permeated many aspects of Greco-
Roman culture and law.4 The churches founded by Paul included both Greek converts and
Hellenized Jews who had the preponderant influence and impact of Greek philosophy. Socrates,
Plato, Aristotle and the later Greek philosophers who had championed the Greek philosophical
traditions and upheld the attitudes, views and teachings that women are inferior and unequal to
men.

1.2 Women in the Jewish World

Paul was a Jewish Pharisee who maintained his Jewish identity even after his call to be an
apostle. Consequently, his views on women are deeply rooted in Jewish culture. Like most early
Christians and Jews, Paul relied on the Hebrew Scriptures, which predominantly present a
patriarchal perspective on women.5 Jewish women were under the authority of their father and
their husband. They had limited rights and were mostly excluded from formal religious
leadership but played vital roles in family-centered religious life. However, some women like
Deborah had significant religious influence. Women were mostly expected to focus on family
and household duties.6 Although first-century Judaism was patriarchal portraying women as
severely oppressed by patriarchal norms, it was not oppressive in the extreme misogynistic
sense. In fact, some women held limited leadership roles in synagogues and were not entirely
separated from men. Nevertheless, women were generally regarded as inferior, weak, and in
need of male direction.7 In the same way, while Paul’s writings reflect the patriarchal norms of
his time, he did not establish an overly oppressive or misogynistic framework that reduced
women to mere subordinates of men.

2. Women in Pauline Letters

2.1 Women as Co-workers and Leaders

3
Joel B. Green and Lee Martin McDonald, The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and
Historical Contexts (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013),180.
4
Philip B. Payne, Man and Woman, One in Christ: An Exegetical and Theological Study of Paul’s Letters
(Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009), 25.
5
Payne, Man and Woman, One in Christ, 26.
6
Don Williams, The Apostle Paul and Women in the Church (Van Nuys: BIM Publishing Co., 1997), 25.
7
Cohick, Women in the World of the Earliest Christians, 30.

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Paul has been castigated as a stone faced misogynist with a particular dislike for women. But
reading his letters reveals, instead a man deeply invested in relationships with both men and
women. He accepts women as ministry leaders and respects and honors women who labor for the
Lord, not as his subordinates but as his partners and equals. 8 Despite the patriarchal culture of his
time, Paul acknowledges several women as key figures in the early Christian movement. In
Romans 16, Paul greets numerous female coworkers, recognizing their contributions to the
church.9 In a society in which the role of women in public affairs was highly discouraged and
even prohibited Paul's ways of proceeding with women in mission were indeed path breaking in
the history of the early church. Some of the women mentioned in his writings are as follows.

Phoebe (Romans 16:1-2) is described as a “deacon” (διάκονος, diakonos) of the church in

Cenchreae. The term diakonos is often translated as “minister” or “servant” and is used
elsewhere by Paul to describe his own role in spreading the gospel. She was apparently a person
with administrative responsibility in the early church. Paul also calls her a “helper" (prostatis), a
term which normally refereed in antiquity to patrons, some of whom were women. As a patron,
she would own the home in which the church met and hold a position of honor.Paul also
commneds Phoebe and entrusts her with delivering his letter to the Romans.10

Junia (Romans 16:7) is referred to as “outstanding among the apostles.” This phrase has been
the subject of considerable debate, with some later interpretations attempting to obscure Junia’s
apostolic status by changing her name to the masculine form “Junias,” despite the lack of
historical evidence for such a name. However, the phrase “prominent among the apostles”
indicates that Junia was recognized as an apostle—someone who had witnessed the risen Christ
and participated in missionary work. All the Greek Manuscripts before the 13 th Century and
several early church theologians such a s Chrysostom, Origen and Jerome referred Junia’s name
as feminine and an apostle. Junia was one of the first female apostles , and many more apostolic
women, throughout the church history have pioneered new works which have facilitated the
spread of the gospel.11

8
Craig S. Keener, Paul, Women & Wives: Marriage and Women’s Ministry in the Letters of Paul
(Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 1992), 237.
9
Keener, Paul, Women & Wives, 238.
10
Payne, Man and Woman, 35.
11
Payne, Man and Woman, 36.

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Priscilla (Acts 18:26; Romans 16:3) is frequently mentioned alongside her husband Aquila, but
often her name appears first, suggesting her prominence in ministry. She is noted for instructing
the eloquent preacher Apollos in theological matters, indicating a teaching role. 12

Many other women are mentioned in Paul’s letter, who were co-workers and helpers of Paul in
church and mission. Such women are - Mary (Romans 16:6), Tryphaena and Tryphosa, Persis,
Mother of Rufus, (Rom 16:12- 13); Euodia and Syntyche ( Philippinas 4: 2 -3); Nympha ( Col
4:15); Apphia (Philemon 1:2). Paul also discusses about the role widow and virgin women in his
letters. Widows played an important role in the church through payer, charity and hospitality (1
Timothy 5: 3 -16). Paul gave specific instructions regarding virgins in 1 Corinthians 7 focusing
on marriage, celibacy and devotion to God.

2.2. Women in Household Codes

Paul’s household codes, particularly those found in Ephesians 5:21–33 and Colossians 3:18–19
—have traditionally been seen as reinforcing patriarchal norms by urging wives to submit to
their husbands.13 However, a closer reading suggests that Paul’s instructions are embedded in a
counter-cultural ethic that redefines authority through the lens of sacrificial love. In a society
where Greco-Roman norms typically relegated women to subordinate, domestic roles, Paul’s
directive for husbands to “love [their] wives, just as Christ loved the church and gave himself up
for her” introduces a model of leadership based on selflessness rather than domination. 14 The
word ‘head' referred to husband in verse 23 does not mean “boss,” or “ruler,’ but it means ‘one
who leads.’ Just as Christ is called kephale of the church; one who is in the forefront to offer
himself entirely and even ready to sacrifice his life, husband are meant to be the head of his wife.
Paul offers a new and radical model of marriage which is compared to Christ's relationship with
the Church.

2.2 Gender Equality

12
Ben Witherington, Women in the Earliest Churches, repr., Society for New Testament Studies 59
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 80.
13
Witherington, Women in the Earliest Churches, 82.
14
Meeks, The First Urban Christians, 28.

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Paul’s statement in Galatians 3:28, “there is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor
female, for you are all one in Christ,” reflects his broader vision of equality in Christ. While this
verse promotes an egalitarian ideal, other passages like 1 Corinthians 14:34-35 and 1 Timothy
2:12 seem to reinforce traditional gender roles. Sandra Hack Polaski argues that this tension
arises because Paul was balancing his theological beliefs with the cultural realities of his time.
His letters express both a vision of liberation and a practical adaptation to prevailing social
norms.15 By emphasizing a person’s status in Christ, Paul introduced a transformative and
countercultural perspective. Polaski connects this idea to Genesis 1:27, where humanity is
created in God’s image as “male and female.” She critiques interpretations that have upheld male
dominance and insists that Galatians 3:28 is a call to gender equality, not just a statement about
salvation. Paul’s words challenge social hierarchies that favor men, urging the church to adopt a
more inclusive mission.16 This radical message of equality suggests that submission within
Christian households does not imply inferiority but rather a structure based on mutual service
and Christ-like love. Scholars note that while Paul does not completely dismantle patriarchy, he
reshapes its meaning within the Christian community. 17 Philip B. Payne argues that Paul’s
theology ultimately supports the full participation of both men and women in every aspect of
church life and ministry.18

3. Controversial Texts on Women in Paul

Despite Paul’s recognition of women in leadership several Pauline texts have been at the center
of debates concerning women’s roles in the church.

3.1 Women’s Head Coverings (1 Corinthians 11: 2 -16)

1 Corinthians 11:2 -16 remains one of the most difficult and controversial passages in the
New Testament. This passage has often been taken to support the view that women should,
in general submit to men thus, indirectly indicate women’s subordinate tole to men in the
15
Sandra Hack Polaski, A Feminist Introduction to Paul (Missouri: Chalice Press, 2005), 64 – 68.
16
Sandra, Feminist Introduction to Paul, 69 -70.
17
Williams, The apostle Paul and women in the Church, 49.
18
Payne, Man and Woman, 55 -56.

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church as well. Paul offers four reasons for married women to cover their heads during worship:
it reflects the order of the home, the order of creation, the natural order, and established church
custom. While some critics see this instruction as a mandate for female subordination, others
accept it as a genuine, culturally specific guideline limited to its time and place. 19

William Ramsay argues that in the ancient world a veil symbolized a woman’s power, honor,
and dignity. With a covering, a woman could move about safely and command respect, whereas
going uncovered exposed her to public disrespect and insults. Thus, Paul’s instruction in Corinth
was intended not to subordinate women but to uphold their dignity and prevent them from
sending misleading signals about their freedom that might imply sexual or religious infidelity. 20

Beyond cultural concerns, there are also religious and social factors at play. In religious settings,
Greek women customarily wore head coverings, and Roman men did so during ceremonies.
Given Corinth’s mixed Greek and Roman population, Paul’s directive likely sought to harmonize
these practices during church gatherings. Socially, while elite women often enjoyed the freedom
of revealing their fashionable hairstyles, lower-class women typically veiled themselves. Paul’s
call for all women to cover their heads was thus also aimed at reducing class distinctions and
curbing behavior that might provoke lustful attention from men.21

Moreover, Paul grounds his teaching in a theological framework, stating that Christ is the head
of every man and that the man is the head of the woman. Some egalitarians contend that this
phrase should either be seen as a later interpolation or understood in terms of self-governance
rather than imposed authority, while hierarchic lists interpret it literally as endorsing female
subordination.22 However, the text also clearly acknowledges that women engage in public
prayer and prophecy alongside men—sharing equally in the gifts of the Spirit (cf. 1 Corinthians
12:7–13). In this way, Paul’s instruction on head coverings regulates sociocultural behavior
without excluding women from leadership roles in the church.23

19
Jorunn Økland, Journal for the Study of the New Testament 269 (London: T & T Clark International,
2004) N.A
20
Cynthia Long Westfall, Paul and Gender: Reclaiming the Apostle’s Vision for Men and Women in Christ
(Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016), 86.
21
Brendan Byrne, Paul and the Christian Woman (Homebush: St Paul Publishing, 1988), 105.
22
Keener, Paul, Women & Wives,70.
23
Økland, Women in Their Place, 106.

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Gordon fee explains that Paul’s teaching on head coverings reflect his concern for maintain order
and propriety in worship, especially in light of cultural expectations.24

Anothony Thieselton notes that head coverings symbolize both authority and modesty in the
worship context, where cultural norms required certain decorum for women in public spaces,
especially in religious gatherings.

Richard hays argues that Paul’s teaching on head coverings cannot be isolated from his broader
theology of gender equality which suggests that cultural practices should not obscure the
fundamental equality of men and women in Christ.

3.2 Women’s Silence in Churches ( 1 Corinthians 14: 34 – 35; 1 Timothy 2: 11 – 15)

This might be the most controversial passage in the authentic Pauline letters with regard to
women’s role in the church. Traditionally it is understood as forbidding women’s participation in
the leadership role of the church. However, modern scholars though varied in their
interpretations have more or less abandoned this traditional view.

In 1 Corinthians 14:34–35, Paul instructs women to remain silent during church gatherings, a
command that has sparked much debate. Craig Blomberg suggests that this passage must be
understood alongside the earlier text in 1 Corinthians 11:2–16, where Paul permits women to
pray and prophesy, implying that his silence command was not meant as a universal, timeless
ban on all speech. Instead, it appears aimed at regulating public behavior—specifically
preventing women from asking disruptive questions in the assembly, which could bring shame
upon their husbands and, by extension, the entire Christian community in a minority context. 25
So, paul’s main concern is the conducting of worship service in a fitting and orderly way.
Therefore, he is instructing th e women to stopmurmuring and to ask their husbands at home
what they wanted to know from men them, not in the church. Similar directives in 1 Timothy
2:8–15 indicate that Paul did address certain aspects of women’s conduct in worship settings.

24

25
Craig L. Blomberg, “Neither Hierarchicalist nor Egalitarian: Gender Roles in Paul,” in Paul and His
Theology, ed. Stanley E. Porter, Pauline Studies 3 (Leiden: Brill, 2006), 283–326.

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 3.3 Women’s Teaching and authority

Although majority of modern scholars regard this letter as written after the death of Paul, this
text clearly forbids women from taking active role in the ministry of the church and has debated.
According to Craig S. Keener in Paul, Women, and Wives, 1 Timothy 2:11–15 should be
understood in its historical and cultural context rather than as a universal, timeless prohibition
against women teaching or holding authority in the church. Keener argues that Paul’s instruction
that “a woman should learn in silence” was aimed at addressing specific issues in the Ephesian
church.26 In that community, there were likely problems stemming from the influence of false or
disruptive teachings—possibly connected with proto-Gnostic ideas—that prompted Paul to
restrict certain types of public discourse by women. This prohibition was not intended to silence
all women altogether but to maintain orderly worship and protect the church’s witness in a
culturally sensitive environment.27

Paul grounds his directive in the creation order—pointing out that Adam was created before Eve
and that Eve was deceived. Keener notes that this reference reflects the prevailing cultural norms
of the time, which naturally saw male leadership as the norm. However, he emphasizes that this
does not imply an inherent inferiority of women. In other parts of his writings, Paul
acknowledges and encourages the ministry of women (e.g., in 1 Corinthians 11 and elsewhere). 28
Thus, Keener contends that the restrictions in 1 Timothy are best seen as context-specific
measures to counteract local disruptions rather than as a general mandate for all Christian
communities across time. Keener’s explanation suggests that 1 Timothy 2:11–15 is not a blanket
command against women’s leadership or teaching in the church. Rather, it is a culturally and
contextually bound instruction intended to address specific issues in the Ephesian community,
aiming to maintain order and protect the church’s witness without negating the broader scriptural
affirmation of women’s spiritual gifts and ministry.29

4. Feminist Interpretations of Pauline texts

26
Keener, Paul, Women & Wives, 101.
27
Andreas J. Köstenberger, Thomas R. Schreiner, and H. Scott Baldwin, eds., Women in the Church: An
Interpretation and Application of 1 Timothy 2:9–15, 3rd ed. (Wheaton: Crossway, 2016), 157.
28
Keener, Paul, Women & Wives, 102.
29
Keener, Paul, Women & Wives, 105.

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Below are some prominent scholars whose work has significantly influenced feminist
interpretations of Paul’s writings:

4.1 Elizabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, in her work, In Memory of Her: A Feminist Theological
Reconstruction of Christian Origins argues that traditional readings of Pauline texts have
been shaped by patriarchal biases that obscure the radical, egalitarian elements of early
Christianity. She reinterprets Paul’s writings to highlight the often-overlooked contributions
and voices of women in the early church, challenging established power structures and
advocating for a theology that centers women’s experiences.30
4.2 Rosemary Radford Ruether in her work, Sexism and God-Talk: Toward a Feminist
Theology, critiques conventional interpretations of Pauline texts that uphold male authority
and dominance. She calls for a re-examination of these passages in light of a feminist
theological framework that emphasizes equality, liberation, and the inherent dignity of
women. Her work invites readers to see Paul’s writings not as endorsements of permanent
subordination but as context-bound instructions that can be reinterpreted for modern
egalitarian practice.31
4.3 Beverly Roberts Gaventa in Our Mother Saint Paul explores maternal imagery (nurturing,
laboring) in Paul’s letters, arguing that Paul’s use of feminine metaphors and maternal
language undermines traditional notions of masculinity and power. She suggests that Paul’s
theology, when properly understood, offers a vision of mutuality rather than hierarchy in
gender relations.32
4.4 Sandra Hack Polaski, An Introduction to Feminist Interpretation on Paul
4.5 Antoinetter Clark Wire, in The Corinthian Women Prophets: A reconstruction Through
Paul’s Rhetoric, argues that women played a significant prophetic role in the
Corinthian church ( 1 Corinthians 11:5). Wire reconstructs the women’s voices behind
Paul’s text, arguing that his letters should be read as part of an ongoing debate rather
than absolute prohibitions against women’s leadership.

30
Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, In Memory of Her: A Feminist Theological Reconstruction of Christian
Origins (New York: Crossroad, 1983).
31
Rosemary Radford Ruether, Sexism and God-Talk: Toward a Feminist Theology (Boston: Beacon Press,
1983).
32
Beverly Roberts Gaventa, Our Mother Saint Paul (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2007).

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4.6 Katherine Grieb, in her work, The Story of Romans: A Narrative Defense of Good’s
Righteousness has argued that Paul’s vision was not inherently patriarchal but rather
focued on justice and equality in Christ. Instead of dismissing Paul as a misogynist she
argues that his understanding of righteousness and inclusion can be used to support
gender equality. She acknowledged that later Christian tradition has misused Paul’s
writings to justify oppression, but the original context suggests a more complex and
inclusive theology.

Conclusion

Paul’s letters reflect a dynamic engagement with cultural norms and theological principles
concerning women. Paul’s views on women were complex and nuanced. He was neither a
hardcore chauvinist nor a full-fledged egalitarian. He retained some patriarchal notions, but he
also radically reformed and transcended the stereotypical understanding of women’s role in the
ancient world. Paul’s interpretation of women’s role was radically transformed by the
Christological vision of the new humanity in Christ. In Christ, there is no male or female.
Women are equal to men in status and dignity. However, Paul also recognized that women had to
follow the cultural patterns of the society in order to avoid suspicion of the wider society about
the moral character of the church. Pauline writings emancipate women, but they also establish
boundaries of freedom. Paul’s views on women were progressive for his time. He recognized
the equality of women and men in Christ, and he encouraged women to play active roles in the
church. However, he also recognized the need to balance these principles with the practical
realities of living in a patriarchal society. Feminist interpretations have broadened scholarly
understanding, emphasizing the need for historical sensitivity and nuanced exegesis.

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and His Theology, edited by Stanley E. Porter. Pauline Studies 3:283–326. Leiden:

Brill, 2006.

Brooten, Bernadette Brooten. Love Between Women: Early Christian Responses to Female
Homoeroticism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.

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Don Williams. The Apostle Paul and Women in the Church. Van Nuys: BIM Publishing Co.,

1997.

Cohick, Lynn H. Women in the World of the Earliest Christians: Illuminating Ancient Ways of

Life. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2009.

Fiorenza, Elisabeth Schüssler. In Memory of Her: A Feminist Theological Reconstruction of

Christian Origins. New York: Crossroad, 1983.

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and

Historical Contexts. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013.

Gaventa, Beverly Roberts. Our Mother Saint Paul. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press,
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Keener, Craig S. Paul, Women & Wives: Marriage and Women’s Ministry in the Letters of

Paul. Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 1992.

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An Interpretation and Application of 1 Timothy 2:9–15. 3rd ed. Wheaton: Crossway, 2016.

Meeks, Wayne A. The First Urban Christians: The Social World of the Apostle Paul. 2nd ed.
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Haven: Yale University Press, 2003.

Økland, Jorunn. Women in Their Place: Paul and the Corinthian Discourse of Gender and

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Clark International, 2004.

Polaski, Sandra Hack. A Feminist Introduction to Paul. Missouri: Chalice Press, 2005.

Payne, Philip B. Man and Woman, One in Christ: An Exegetical and Theological Study of Paul’s

Letters. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009.

Ruether, Rosemary Radford. Sexism and God-Talk: Toward a Feminist Theology. Boston:
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Westfall, Cynthia Long. Paul and Gender: Reclaiming the Apostle’s Vision for Men and

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Witherington, Ben. Women in the Earliest Churches. Reprinted. Society for New Testament

Studies 59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

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