Question Bank M.A.

Final Sem III

Paper II English Prose

1.Essay: Essay, an analytic, interpretative, or critical literary composition usually

much shorter and less systematic and formal than a dissertation or thesis and
usually dealing with its subject from a limited and often personal point of view.

2.Utopia: a place of ideal perfection especially in laws, government, and social

conditions. 2. : an impractical scheme for social improvement. 3. : an imaginary and
indefinitely remote place.

A utopia typically describes an imaginary community or society that possesses highly desirable
or near-perfect qualities for its members.[1] It was coined by Sir Thomas More for his 1516
book Utopia, which describes a fictional island society in the New World.

3. Translation of Bible: The Old Testament was translated from Hebrew into Greek in
the 3rd century B.C. The entire Bible was first translated into Latin, making it
accessible to Western Europe. Other European language translations followed much
later, with a Spanish translation completed in 1569 and an Italian translation in 1607.

4. In his essay “Of Revenge”, Francis Bacon delves into the topic of revenge,
approaching it with objectivity. He acknowledges the pervasive tendency that is
revenge, likening it to a which is and yet it must be given legal retribution.

REVENGE is a kind of wild jusitce; which the more man's nature runs to, the more
ought law to weed it out. For as for the first wrong, it doth but offend the law; but
the revenge of that wrong pulleth the law out of office
5.Satire:Satire is the art of making someone or something look ridiculous, raising
laughter in order to embarrass, humble, or discredit its targets. Satire is a way of
writing about a flaw or failure in society by inflating it to absurdity. Satire as a literary genre
uses a wide variety of literary techniques, such as exaggeration, humor, and irony.

6. Of Truth: In Francis Bacon's essay "Of Truth", the key themes and concepts revolve
around the nature of truth and the relationship between truth and deception. Bacon delves
into the essence of truth, discussing its importance and relevance in human life and society.

In this essay, Bacon has presented the objective truth in various manifestations.Similarly,
Bacon shares with us the subjective truth, operative in social life. “OF TRUTH” is Bacon’s
masterpiece that shows his keen observation of human beings with special regard to truth.

7.Dream Chidren: "Dream Children: A Reverie" is a poignant exploration of Charles

Lamb's inner life, revealing his emotional struggles with nostalgia, regret, and
unfulfilled dreams. Through its dreamlike narrative and introspective style, the essay
provides a deeply personal and moving reflection on the themes of loss and
idealism.
8.Old China: Charles Lamb uses the text of this play to describe the trials of poverty
and wealth. Both states are uniquely important in building one's experience and character.
He is with his cousin Bridget who has endured a life of poverty and deprivation with him.

9.Philip Sidney: An Apologie for Poetrie

In “An Apology for Poetry,” Sir Philip Sidney sets out to restore poetry to its rightful
place among the arts. Poetry has gotten a bad name in Elizabethan England,
disrespected by many of Sidney’s contemporaries. But, Sidney contends, critics of
poetry do not understand what poetry really is: they have been misled by modern
poetry, which is frequently bad. If one understands the true nature of poetry, one will
see, as Sidney shows in his essay, that poetry is in fact the “monarch” of the arts.
Sidney does so by articulating a theory of poetry, largely drawn from classical
sources, as a tool for teaching virtue and the poet as a semi-divine figure capable of
imagining a more perfect version of nature. Armed with this definition, Sidney
proceeds to address the major criticisms made of the art of poetry and of the poets
who practice it, refuting them with brilliant rhetorical skill.

Following the seven-part structure of a classical oration, Sidney begins with

an exordium, or introduction. He tells an anecdote about horse-riding, noting that,
like his riding instructor Giovanni Pietro Pugliano, he will not dwell so much on the
writing of poetry as the contemplation and appreciation of it. Since he has become a
poet, he feels obliged to say something to restore the reputation of his unelected

vocation.

Sidney begins his defense of poetry by noting that poetry was the first of the arts,
coming before philosophy and history. Indeed, many of the famous classical
philosophers and historians wrote in poetry, and even those who wrote in prose, like
Plato and Herodotus, wrote poetically—that is, they used poetic style to come up
with philosophical allegories, in the case of Plato, or to supply vivid historical details,
in the case of Herodotus. Indeed, without borrowing from poetry, historians and
philosophers would never have become popular, Sidney claims. One can get some
indication of the respect in which poets were held in the ancient world by examining
the names they were given in Latin and Greek, vates and poietes. Vates means
“seer” or “prophet,” and in the classical world, poetry was considered to convey
important knowledge about the future. Poietes means maker, and this title reflects
the fact that poets, like God, create new and more perfect realities using their
imaginations.

Sidney then moves to the proposition, where offers a definition of poetry as an art of
imitation that teaches its audience through “delight,” or pleasure. In its ability to
embody ideas in compelling images, poetry is like “a speaking picture.” Sidney then
specifies that the kind of poetry he is interested in is not religious or philosophical,
but rather that which is written by “right poets.” This ideal form of poetry is not limited
in its subject matter by what exists in nature, but instead creates perfect examples of
virtue that, while maybe not real, is well-suited to teaching readers about what it
means to be good. Poetry is a more effective teacher of virtue than history or
philosophy because, instead of being limited to the realm of abstract ideas, like
philosophy, or to the realm of what has actually happened, like history, poetry can
present perfect examples of virtue in a way best suited to instruct its readers. The
poet can embody the philosopher’s “wordish descriptions” of virtue in compelling
characters or stories, which are more pleasurable to read and easier to understand
and remember, like Aesop’s Fables. The poet should therefore be considered the
“right popular philosopher,” since with perfect and pleasurable examples of virtue,
like Aeneas from Virgil’s Aeneid, poetry can “move” readers to act virtuously.
Reading poetry about virtue, Sidney writes, is like taking a “medicine of cherries.”

Following the classical structure from this examination to the refutation, Sidney
rebuts the criticisms made of poetry by “poet-haters.” Sidney outlines the four most
serious charges against poetry: that poetry is a waste of time, that the poet is a liar,
that poetry corrupts our morals, and that Plato banished poets from his ideal city in
the Republic. He highlights that all of these objections rest on the power of poetry to
move its audience, which means that they are actually reasons to praise poetry. For
if poetry is written well, it has enormous power to move its audience to virtue.

Following a short peroration, or conclusion, in which he summarizes the arguments

he has made, Sidney devotes the final portion of his essay to a digression on
modern English poetry. There is relatively little modern English poetry of any quality,
Sidney admits. However, is not because there is anything wrong with English or with
poetry, but rather with the absurd way in which poets write poems and playwrights
write plays. Poets must be educated to write more elegantly, borrowing from
classical sources without apishly imitating them, as so many poets, orators, and
scholars did in Sidney’s time. For English is an expressive language with all the
apparatus for good literature, and it is simply waiting for skillful writers to use it.
Sidney brings “An Apology for Poetry” to a close on this hopeful note—but not before
warning readers that, just as poetry has the power to immortalize people in verse, so
too does it have the power to condemn others to be forgotten by ignoring them
altogether. The critics of poetry should therefore take Sidney’s arguments seriously.

10.Of Studies

Summary

Highlighting the importance of studies, Bacon’s essay illustrates the role studies play
in an individual’s daily life. For Bacon, the study is always related to the application

of knowledge in practical life.

At the beginning of his essay, Bacon describes the three main purposes of study
including studying for gaining delight, studies done for ornamenting one’s life and
studying in order to improve one’s ability.

The author is the notion that only learned and well-read men can execute plans
effectively, manage their daily affairs with expertise and lead a healthy and stable
life. He further states that reading makes a full man; conference leads to a ready
man while writing makes an exact man.

While throwing light on the advantages and usefulness of studies, Bacon also puts
forward some demerits of study as he thinks that studying for a prolonged period of
time may lead to laziness.
He also condemns the act of studying from books solely without learning from nature
around. The essay Of Studies further asserts the benefits of studies by considering
this act as a medicine for the defects of the human mind and the source of
enhancing one’s wit.

While discussing the importance of studying in an individual’s life, the essayist

informs his readers about the benefits of reading good books.

For Bacon, some books are only meant to be tasted; others are there to swallow
while some books are meant for chewing and digesting properly. Therefore, the
readers must choose wisely before studying any book to enhance his/her knowledge

about the world around.

Bacon concludes his essay by suggesting that studies assist an individual in

removing the defects of his/her mind as every problem of the human mind carries
special importance for the individual and the world.

Conclusion

Bacon’s essay Of Studies deals with the benefits of studies for the individuals in their
daily lives. From reading books to writing papers, study plays a vital role in a man’s
life making him learned, witty and experienced.

The essay by Bacon is enriched with intellectual wisdom, pragmatic approach and
practical knowledge; therefore, it is considered to be the most beneficial essay for
the students and young individuals.

11. The Pilgrim"s Progress as an allegory: John Bunyan

The Pilgrim’s Progress is a book written by John Bunyan and was

published in 1678. This book talks about a journey executed by its main
character, Christian from the City of Destruction to Celestial City which
stands for heaven. The Pilgrim’s Progress contains allegories in each side
of the plot, from the name of the characters, actions, up to its
circumstances. According to Coleridge, an allegory is the employment of
a certain set of characters, actions and circumstances in such a way that
this convey certain moral qualities and conceptions so all the parts can
combine to form a whole. Actually all interpretations of literature, any
way of understanding meanings other than its literal surface can be
called allegorical.

The Pilgrim’s Progress consists of two meanings, one is on its surface

and the other is the one hidden. The surface meaning is seen as an
adventure of Christian salted with full actions scenes. Its hidden meaning
conveys an important message and moral values about the preseverance
of a human being in seeking his soul’s salvation to get God’s grace. The
journey done by Christian is not merely a common adventurous story, but
it is also a representation of one’s spiritual journey since he is born until
death comes and takes him to an eternal life. The narrative has also its
didactic mission, i.e to tell the readers on how to tackle God’s trials and
strives such as spiritual doubt and uncertainty, carnal desires, worldly
temptations, despair and afflictions as well as felicities to reach God’s
salvation. Bunyan’s allegory keeps the spiritual meaning explicit bu the
use of personification. His allegories immitate external actualities and at
the same time reveal the significance of such immitations by extending a
central metaphor and by showing additional analogies.

Bunyan is aware of the capacity of the allegory to train the mind in form
of judgement and to help the memory as well as to please the
understanding. He treats the allegory as a persuasive way of making
important matters known through figurative expression.

Since the very beginning, Bunyan has put allegory in the name of the
central character, Christian. Such name symbolizes Christ follower. He is
told to have a burden in his back which represents his sins and the book
in his hand which refers to Bible. Christian’s journey to Celestial City is
the representation of a religious-minded man in order to keep his faith
alive to attain God’s grace to give his soul a salvation.

The Wicket Gate is an important allegory for Christ. When Christian

reaches the Wicket Gate which is opened by the watchman named Good-
Will, it is in a deeper sight a symbol of Christ’s grace to grant him
salvation through difficulties, strives and trials. In the House of the
Interpreter, Christian is shown some Christian life lessons. One of those
is a man in an iron cage which represents a sinful person who is unable
to repent because his heart is too hardened. The Interpreter in this place
stands for an interpreter of God’s message to the congregation members.
The scene in the House of Interpreter is best regarded as the didacticism
of this story to show some lesson based on Christian’s values. The cross
that Christian meets afterwards which rolls off the burden on his back
also reveals a message that his sin has already been forgiven by God.

Bunyan’s allegories is his persuasive way to make important things

recognized. His personification of the devil in the Valley of Humiliation in
the form of Appolyon is his method to symbolize the worldly temptations
offered by the devil to make an allegiance with him rather than with God.
Christian finally conquered Appolyon by the sword which represents
faith. This scene conveys the victory of faith over temptations.

Another important allegory lies in the town of Vanity and Vanity fair
where Christian and his pilgrim companion whose name is Faithful refuse
to be interested in the merchandise displayed in the fair, they choose to
buy only truth. This scene is a representation of worldly and carnal
desires which are successfully beaten by Christian and Faithful, refering
to their succeeded struggle to conquer carnal and sensual desires.
Faithful died as martyr here to defend his seeking of truth.

As a non comformist/Dissenter, Bunyan also puts some clues on the

government treatment to him as a preacher who spread Calvinistic
doctrines while the authorized churches at that time did not approve.
Bunyan inserted two lions outside House Beautiful as his revelation of a
very limited space for such non-conformist like him to move. The chained
lions are his metaphor to tell his readers that he himself had to be put
into custody and lived almost twelve years in prison.

God’s strives and trials which are given to human beings are not always
in the form of afflictions, but also in the form of pleasurable state such as
the scene in Hill Lucre. In this scene, Christian has to defend his faith to
God to beat temptation of monetary gain. The pleasure offering
materialistic gain is defeated by his firm self determination to seek only
for God’s grace.

The Doubting Castle’s scene put Christian and his pilgrim companion,
Hopeful in an imprisonment, in which the Giant Despair urges them the
temptation to give up their journey and commit suicide. We can relate
this allegory to our own life’s experience that sometimes we feel
desperate for the hardship we face in life and forget that God is always
there to help. Bunyan’s didactive mission to tell his readers that one must
hang on to his faith and maintain his hope and trust to God so that he can
reach God’s salvation is accomplished in this scene.

From all the descriptions I stated above, it reveals that allegories are
everywhere in the Pilgrim’s Progress. Bunyan provides those allegories
to show us some important matters through the use of personification,
metaphors, and allegories so that the reader can recognize the moral
values and general conceptions regarding one’s spiritual journey to
attain soul’s salvation.

The moral of the whole story is that by means of faith, hope, and firm self
determintaion, a man can achieve the salvation of his soul. In the process
of doing so, he has to overcome his spiritual doubts, temptation to
despair, and he also must conquer the carnal desires as well as forego all
pleasures of the flesh. It is also to be noted that a man can achieve
salvation only if he gains the grace of God (as calvinist doctrine stated).

12. The Battle of the Books:Jonathan Swift

“The Battle of the Books” begins with a note from the bookseller to the
reader, telling the reader that it refers to a “famous dispute … about
ancient and modern learning.” Sir William Temple had taken the side of
the ancients against Charles Boyle, who had praised the ancient writer
Phalaris, but Wotton and Bentley had taken Boyle’s side. The controversy
led to a battle between the books themselves, literally, in the King’s
library. The manuscript about the battle is incomplete, so we still do not
know who won.

Then comes a preface from the author in which the nature of satire is
discussed. Most people do not see themselves in the satire, seeing only
others, and it is not a problem when someone sees himself and get
offended, since in anger his counter-arguments are weak. Weak satires
apply “wit without knowledge,” while strong ones have depth.

The main tale begins with reflections about the causes of battles: mainly,
pride and want. Like dogs, people fight over scarce resources but tend to
be at peace during times of plenty.

The battle began, the story goes, when the Moderns, occupying the lower
of the two tops of the hill Parnassus, grew jealous of the Ancients on the
higher one. The Moderns offered to trade places or else to shovel down
the higher hill, as a way of avoiding war, but the Ancients rejected the
offer, surprised by the newcomers’ insolence. The Moderns should raise
themselves up instead. Yet the Moderns rejected that alternative and,
being of greater numbers, always with new if weak recruits, chose war,
with the pen as the chosen weapon. Despite defeats, both sides set up
victory marks.

When the tales of victory are repeated often enough, the two sides
become entrenched in “books of controversy” in the library. For example,
Scotus made trouble for Plato by turning Aristotle against him, which led
to a policy whereby upstarts would be chained up and kept away from the
others. This policy worked until the Moderns became a force to be
reckoned with, despite being “light-headed.” Many of the Ancients had
gotten out of place in the library as well, being stuck among the crowd of
Moderns.

When the Moderns got ready for warfare, they got their best armor (ideas)
from the Ancients. They claimed to be original, though, and since most of
them had shoddy armor of their own making, Plato saw them and laughed
in agreement that it was all their own.

There is a well-fed spider whose web-fortress is decorated “in the modern

style” and who is best at science and mathematics. There is also a bee,
who argues for the ancient values of “long search, much study, true
judgment, and distinction of things” after getting caught briefly in the
spider's web. The books are so transfixed by the discourse of the spider
and the bee that they cease to quarrel.

Aesop takes the opportunity to escape to the side of the Ancients,

remarking, characteristically, that the argument between bee and spider
is a good allegory for that between Ancients and Moderns: the spider
boasts “of his native stock and great genius,” particularly in architecture
and mathematics, while the bee and the Ancients are content “to pretend
to nothing of our own beyond our wings and our voice” and “whatever
[else] we have got has been by infinite labour and search, and ranging
through every corner of nature.”

This reflection inspires the books to prepare for battle, so they retreat to
opposite sides of the library to choose their leaders and make their
strategy. The moderns have lots of ugly weapons, some bulky fighters
“without either arms, courage, or discipline,” including Aquinas, and a
crowd of “disorderly” and generally worthless writers. There are far more
Moderns than Ancients, the Ancients being primarily Greeks (Homer,
Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates, Euclid, Herodotus) but also Romans such as
Livy.

Fate alerts Jove about the impending battle, and (similarly to Homer’s
Iliad) there is a big meeting of the gods. Momus is on the side the
Moderns; Pallas (Athena or her close relative) is on the side of the
Ancients. Jove consults the book of Fate and learns what will happen
regarding the battle, but he tells nobody.

Momus engages with the Goddess Criticism in order to gain victory. She
sits upon a mountain next to Ignorance and Pride, her parents, along with
others including Opinion, Noise, and the like. After hearing of the battle,
she proceeds to dispense her critical bile where it can be made use of—
especially in England. She arrives at the library to see her son Wotton. She
disguises herself as Bentley (the book version) to speak with him. She
encourages him and leaves helpers with him (named Dulness and Ill-
manners).

The battle finally begins. Details of the battle, we learn, are missing in
some of the alleged gaps in the text. Aristotle flings an arrow at Bacon,
which misses and hits Descartes. Homer kills many. Virgil is a bit slow and
his helmet is too big. Dryden appears, claiming descent from Virgil, and
tricks Virgil into changing armor with him. (Virgil’s was better.)

The Roman poet Lucan and the Modern epic poet Blackmore agree to
exchange gifts and fight no more. The goddess Dulness gives the
translator Thomas Creech a flying figure of the poet Horace to fight, but it
goes badly for him—in the tradition of another poor translator, John
Ogleby. The Greek poet Pindar slays many and finally faces the Modern
named Abraham Cowley, to whom Pindar shows no mercy and cuts in two.
Venus takes the better half of his body.

After another gap in the text comes “The Episode of Bentley and Wotton.”
The Moderns are almost ready to retreat when Bentley takes up their
cause. He is contentious and “malignant,” having a talent of lowbrow
“railing,” which is serviceable enough in politics, at least. He is rude to the
Moderns and turns to his friend Wotton for help, The two of them march
past the tomb of Aldrovandus, the Modern naturalist.
They find two Ancients asleep. Bentley goes forward while Wotton stands
back. Bentley is about to kill an Ancient, when Affright (a child of one of
the deities), sensing danger, stops him, with the two Ancients scaring him
simply by moving in their sleep. He at least takes their armor.

13.Sir Roger in Church:Joseph Addison.

SUMMARY
Sundays in The Countryside
Country Sundays are special occasions and the Spectator considers
them of great value. These days see the country folk dressed in their best
and putting on a cheerful front. Sunday, says Addison, clears the rust of
the whole week. It not only refreshes the notions of religion in minds of
the villagers but also makes them all come forth at best because each
wants to appear good and become popular and distinguish himself.
Church gatherings in the country have the same effect on the country folk
as the Exchange has on the town dwellers

Sir Roger’s Interest in the Village Church

Sir Roger took great interest in the village church and also saw to it
that his tenants attended church regularly. He had got the church
decorated with quotations from the Bible which he selected himself. He
had presented the church with a new pulpit cloth which was beautiful. He
had also got the communion table enclosed in a railing. He had gifted
parishioners with a Common Prayer book and a hassock to kneel on in
church to encourage them to attend church regularly. Further, he had got
a traveling musician to come and instruct the parishioners to sing the
Psalms in the right tune, as a result, they prided themselves upon the fact
that they sang much better than the congregation of any other village
church.

Sir Roger’s Behaviour in Church

Sir Roger being the landlord of all in the congregation felt personally
responsible for their behavior and exerted his authority to keep them
disciplined. He allowed no one to sleep in the church except himself. If he
fell asleep during the sermon, on waking up he would look around and if
he found anyone dozing off he would immediately wake up that person or
send his servants to wake him up. Many of his oddities came out in the
church. He would still be singing a verse long after it had been sung by
the rest of the congregation. If he liked a particular prayer, he would say
‘amen’ a number of times at the end of that prayer. Often when the rest
of the congregation was kneeling, he would stand to the count the
number of people present to note anyone’s absence. If he felt anyone was
disturbing the service, he would not stop from calling that person to order
in the middle of the service. The parishioners were too simple and naive
to find anything ridiculous in the behavior of the knight. In fact, these
oddities merely served to make his virtues seem all the more striking.

Squire-chaplain Relationship
Sir Roger and his chaplain had a perfect understanding between each
other and there was an amicable relationship between them. This was all
the more remarkable because, in the very next village, this cordial
relation between squire and chaplain was absent. There the two were all
the time indulging in some dispute. The person seemed to preach at the
squire who stayed away from church. The parishioners were encouraged
not to pay their dues to the upkeep of the clergyman and they became
quite slack about attending church. The squire and the parson ought to
have a good relationship with one another. The villagers were usually
simple and generally equated richness with good sense and wisdom. They
thus followed the squire’s viewpoint. This kind of discord led to eroding of
faith in the commoners.

14.The Indian Jugglers:William Hazlitt

The essay describes a remarkable feat of human ingenuity, performed by an Indian

juggler. The juggler can catch four balls in succession in less than a second, making
them revolve around him and chase one another like sparkles of fire. This precision
and rapidity are like mathematical truths, and the juggler’s grace and carelessness
make the audience laugh and enjoy the spectacle.

The juggler’s skill surpasses difficulty, and beauty triumphs over skill. The difficulty
once mastered resolves into ease and grace, and to overcome it, it must be
overcome without effort. The juggler’s feet are bare, and his rings on his toes turn
round all the time.

The author is ashamed of his own abilities and wonders what he can do as well as
the jugglers. He believes that he has been doing nothing but wasting his life, trying to
prove arguments in the teeth of facts and looking for causes in the dark. He tries to
write a description of the jugglers’ abilities, but finds them to be ill-written and ill-
structured.

The author is fond of arguing, but with practice and pain, he can often beat his
opponent. A common fencer would disarm his adversary in the blink of an eye, but
there is no complete mastery of execution. The professor is different from the
impudent pretender or the mere clown.

The author argues that danger, defeat, exposure to immediate scorn, and laughter
are essential for learning and developing skills. They argue that there is no
opportunity for self-delusion, idling time away, or being off guard. The author also
discusses the ambiguity of style in manual dexterity, as the juggler cannot make a
bad antithesis without cutting his fingers.

The author argues that manual dexterity involves gradual aptitude acquired through
constant repetition and an exact knowledge of what is still needed. Muscles ply
instinctively to the dictates of habit, and the limbs require little more than to be put in
motion for them to follow a regular track with ease and certainty. The author
compares this to the mechanical precision of Locksley in Ivanhoe, who shoots at a
mark to allow for the wind.

Perfection in mechanical exercises involves performing feats to a uniform nicety,

which is achievable only by the individual’s own abilities. The mechanical performer
must emulate themselves, not equal another, and there is no abstract standard of
difficulty or excellence beyond their own powers. The artist must imitate nature or
copy what nature has done, which is more difficult than keeping up four brass balls
simultaneously. Reynolds, for example, is more respected than Richer, as he could
dance on a rope like Reynolds but paint like Sir Joshua.

The power of the Muse’s gift, or genius, imagination, feeling, and taste, is the key to
unraveling this mysterious web of thought and feeling. The mechanical excellence of
Dutch painters in colouring and handling is the nearest in fine art to the perfection of
certain manual exhibitions of skill. Up to a certain point, everything is faultless, but
there is only a need for taste and genius. The undefined and imaginary regions are
difficult and doubtful, and execution comes with practice.

Cleverness is a talent or aptitude for performing certain tasks, often requiring

liveliness, intelligence, or sleight of hand. Accomplishments are external graces that
can be learned from others and are displayed to the beholder. These are appropriate
for those with ease in mind and fortune. Talent is the capacity to perform tasks that
depend on application and industry, such as writing a criticism or studying the law.
Talent differs from genius, as voluntary differs from involuntary power. Ingenuity is
genius in trifles, while greatness is genius in undertakings of great importance. A
clever or ingenious man can do any task well, while a great man can do something
of the highest importance. Themistocles’ statement that he could not play on the flute
but could make a small city a great one demonstrates the distinction between these
two concepts.

Greatness is the power that produces great effects and is not just about having great
power in oneself. It must be applied to great purposes, resulting in a lasting
impression on others. A great man’s actions and thoughts must be communicated to
their understanding, either through an increase of knowledge or by subduing and
overawe them. Admiration must be based on proofs from which we cannot escape,
and it is neither a slight nor a voluntary gift.

Great men are not just those who have great powers, but also those who shew the
marks of a great moving intellect so that we trace the master-mind and can
sympathize with the springs that urge them on. The rest is just a craft or mystery. A
great man always has an idea of something greater than himself, and it is in the
nature of greatness to propagate an idea of itself.

The French have produced three great men that belong to every country: Moliere,
Rabelais, and Montaigne. They have produced great men that belong to every
country, and greatness sympathizes with greatness, while littleness shrinks into
itself. In summary, greatness is a result of great power and the ability to spread it to
others.

John Cavanagh, a renowned hand five-player, was a remarkable example of manual

dexterity. He died in 1889, leaving a gap in society as he left a lasting legacy.
Cavanagh was twice young, feeling neither past nor future, and had no other desire
or thought. He played the game with equal power, skill, quickness, and judgment,
out-witting opponents by finesse or beating them by main strength. He could tell the
degree of force necessary to be given to a ball and the precise direction in which it
should be sent. Cavanagh did his work with greatest ease, never taking more pains
than necessary, and was as cool and collected as if he had just entered the court.
His style of play was remarkable, with no affectation or trifling, and he did what he
could, but that was more than any one else could even affect to do. His blows were
not undecided or ineffectual, but rather, they were not ineffectual like other writers’
works. Cavanagh’s death leaves a lasting impact on the game of fives and continues
to inspire others to strive for manual dexterity.

15.The Ethics of War:Bertrand Russell

This was an entry made in the International Journal of Ethics, Vol. 25 No. 2 in
January 1915 by a renowned British philosopher, writer, political activist,
mathematician, and social critic Bertrand Russell OM FRS. It had been six months
since World War 1 had broken out when the article was published. Being a pacifist
himself, Russell wrote this article addressing not only Britain but the whole world,
convincing them that war cannot be justified and is not the way for any country or
any race to achieve happiness and peace. Reminding the reader that ethics can only
be understood when feelings are present, clarified, and methodized. Russell uses
pathos to invoke sympathy and uses assumption-based logic and tonal variation,
however, his argument tends to change the course of the main theme and
consulates the reader.

Russel divided his article into parts, each one being a reason for why war is
considered unjustified under not all but many circumstances. He dissects these
reasons systematically and in detail. His article not only appeals to the common man
but to all the classes of men on both sides of the war. He relates the present events
with the past for emphasizing on how times have changed, thus the meaning and
effects of war have also altered.

Russel gained sympathy from an audience who were still in shock and baffled due to
the events of a global war. Publishing this article in such a perilous and intricate
period about the war was an act of gallantry. He presents his reasoning for his
beliefs through explaining the different causes and effects of war. In his article, he
blames the common man too and writes in the third person using ‘we’ through which
he includes himself as one of the culprits. And so making it easier for people to relate
to his point and not seeing him as a self-righteous philosopher. He uses an appeal to
emotion by the use of imagery. His aim is to invoke sympathy in the hearts of people
for those suffering from the brutal consequences of war whether they are from the
opposing combatant or their homeland. For instance: “An overcrowded family, living
in a slum in conditions of filth and immorality, where half the children die from
ignorance of hygiene and bad sanitation, and the remainder grow up stunted and
ignorant--such a family can hardly make progress mentally or spiritually, except
through an improvement in its economic condition”(3).

He signifies ‘hate’ as the root cause of all evil. “Hatred, by a tragic delusion,
perpetuates the very evils from which it springs”(3). He displays how hate and horror
compel men in such a large number to break through the chains of sanity and inflict
violence in any direction they are maneuvered towards by mentioning the sufferings
of Germany. This makes the reader fearful for their own future. Providing
international socialism as the one and only rational choice among all others and
embedding assumptions in the reader’s mind that other options will eventually lead
to violence makes the reader put strenuous effort into thinking for a better future and
thus makes them hopeless. It also develops a sense of weight for the issue. And so
through the use of metaphor and connotative words and phrases, Russel is able to
play with the emotions of almost every class of men of every nation engaged in the
war.
Russell has mostly used an aggressive tone in the essay which he supports till the
end with unapologetic sarcasm. However, his tone seems to vary along the length of
the essay as he touches on different aspects surrounding the issue He criticizes the
powerful men, who go on making international treaties, in a sardonic tone
demeaning the point of view of all so-called political powers of the world. This forces
the reader to consider the higher class authority false.

16.Reflections on Gandhi:George Orwell

Reflection on Gandhi" was an essay written by George Orwell. In this

essay he analyse Gandhi's life. The essay is a reflection on Gandhi's life.

Orwell tried to understand Gandhi by reading his autobiography called

"My Experiments with Truth". The book impressed him but Gandhi was not
not an impressive person to him. He pointed out some reasons for his
dislike of Gandhi;
1. Gandhi believed in mind power.
2. Gandhi supported vegetarian food.
3. Gandhi believed in the Khadi or homemade clothes.
4. Gandhi believed in the old fashioned village-based economics, which
is not suitable for a big country like India.
5. Gandhi was not a saint but a very shrewd person.
However, Orwell did not consider Gandhi as a bad person. He says "even
Gandhi's worst enemy would also admit that he is an interesting and
unusual man, who enriched the world simply being alive".

Orwell observes that Gandhi had an outstanding physical courage. Nobody

ever suggested that he is corrupted or ambitious in a vulgar way. In spite
of being the leader of great political movement, he had no personal
security. Anyone could walk into his ashram and attack him; and that
happened in 1948 when he was assassinated with a gun.

Orwell observes that Gandhi lived a very simple life. Gandhi was a man of
great honesty and he openly admitted that he had done some crimes such
as smoking a few cigarettes, eating some meat etc in his young days.

Orwell found some of Gandhi's principles ridiculous, because they look

foolish from the European viewpoint. Some of these include avoiding
alcohol, sex, spices in food and animal food. Gandhi followed all his
principles very strictly. He was not ready to break his principles even to
protect his wife or child; "On three occasions Gandhi was willing to let his
wife or child die rather than administering animal food prescribed by the
doctor." According to Orwell this is a point which questions the kindness of
Gandhi.

Orwell also is surprised to see that Gandhi was against personal

relationship. According to Gandhi close friendships are dangerous. He
says "Friends react on one another" and through loyalty to friend, one can
be led into wrong doing.

Gandhi was successful in reaching his goal of life when India got
independence in 1947. But Orwell thinks that India was given
independence, because of the Soft Labour Party came to power in
England. If hardliners like Winston Churchill were in power, Gandhi's non-
violent methods could have never reached any success.

Orwell doesn't think Gandhi as a saint. He also feels that Gandhi's basic
aim were anti-human and reactionary. At the same time Orwell admitted
that Gandhi was much cleaner than most of the politicians of his time.

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16. politics and English Language: George Orwell

George Orwell begins his "Politics and the English Language" by asserting that
modern English is in decline and that it has become unclear and lazy, and he
connects the issues in language with politics. He writes:

 "Modern English, especially written English, is full of bad habits which spread
by imitation and which can be avoided if one is willing to take the necessary
trouble."
Orwell cites five examples to discuss the most pressing and common issues within
language. The five excerpts come from:

1. Professor Harold Laski - Essay in Freedom of Expression

2. Professor Lancelot Hogben - Interglossia
3. A psychology essay published in Politics
 4. An excerpt from an unknown Communist pamphlet
5. A Letter published in Tribune
Orwell claims that each of the five samples have two major problems: "The first is
staleness of imagery; the other is lack of precision." He goes on to further explain
four specific issues that cause the poor imagery and imprecision.

Dying Metaphors
Orwell warns against using over-used metaphors and metaphors that have
lost their meaning over time.
Verbal False Limbs
The practice of using verbal phrases rather— "have the effect of, play a
leading part"— than simple verbs had become common. He also notes this
occurs with conjunctions. Orwell believes people use these phrases to pack
sentences with extra syllables. He advises writers to use simple verbs and the
active, rather than passive voice.
Pretentious Diction
Orwell argues that pretentious words in place of simple ones has a negative
impact on writing. He writes: "Words like phenomenon, element,
individual (as noun), objective, categorical ...are used to dress up simple
statements and give an air of scientific impartiality to biased
judgements." They obscure the true meaning.
Meaningless Words
Orwell points out that meaningless words, or words with no agreed upon
definition, are common in political language. The words he uses as examples
are "democracy, socialism, freedom, patriotic, realistic, justice." He says that
words like these are often used in politics to manipulate and deceive.

17. Education and Discipline: Bertrand Russell

"Education and Discipline" - Critical Summary
Introduction
The essay “Education and Discipline” by the Nobel laureate Bertrand Russell, was
first published in his collection of essays titled, In Praise of Idleness, in 1935.
Educational theories generally focus on how learning occurs, and they seek to
understand, analyse, and prescribe educational practices.

According to Bertrand Russell, the real purpose of education is civilisation, which

includes both individual and social aspects. On the individual front, it consists of
intellectual and moral qualities, and, on the moral front, it consists of the virtues of
impartiality, kindliness, and self-control. Moreover, civilisation also demands respect
for the law, and the intelligent adaptation of means to the ends. If this is the purpose
of education, then psychologists should consider how to realise them, and analyse
the degree of freedom that is essential to make it more effective.

Three Main Schools of Thought on Freedom

As far as the question of freedom in education is concerned, there are three main
schools of thought. The first school of thought says that children should be
completely free, however bad they may be.

The second school of thought says that children should be completely subject to
authority.

The third school of thought says that children should be free, but in spite of freedom,
they should be always good. According to Russell, complete liberty to the child,
ignores the importance of knowledge to the child, and also the positive purpose of
education.

At the same time, he also believes that, authoritative education turns the students
into timid tyrants, incapable of either claiming or tolerating originality in word or deed.
Too much authoritarianism can also lead to over-submissive and timid children or it
can also make them rebels. Thus there is danger in both the extremes of liberty and
authority.

The Need of the Hour in Education

Hence, what is wanted is neither submissiveness nor rebellion, but good nature and
general friendliness both to people and to new ideas. By developing children with
“good nature” Russell stresses on the importance of raising students who can be
well-adapted and self-content in their later life. This requires a balance between
cultivating the child’s individuality and preparing him/her to be a social being.
Educationists all over the world rarely recognise this conflict. While the famous
educationist John Dewey overemphasised socialisation, Montessori,
overemphasised on individualisation. The more individualised you are, the less
socialised you become, and vice versa. But, according to Russell, ideally,
individuality and sociality can and should peacefully coexist in the same individual.

Individual and Social function of the Child

Educational theorists should strive to give an education that teaches children to be

independent but also carry the wisdom to know how to do this as a social being.
Hence, it is important to recognise that being a well-functioning adult requires
individual authenticity and an ability to function in society.

Conclusion

To achieve this fine balance, as far as children’s education is concerned, we require

teachers who develop spontaneous pleasure in the presence of children, without any
ulterior purpose. Unfortunately, it is utterly impossible for over-worked teachers to
preserve an instinctive liking for children.

Hence, education should be undertaken for at most two hours a day by teachers,
whose remaining hours should be spent away from children. Spontaneous love for
children, produces the right impulse to treat naughty children, and the child feels
easy to respond, if they feel that you like them. Hence, Russell concludes by saying
that, no rule, however wise, can be a substitute for affection and tact, while dealing
with children.

18.Allegory: The term ‘allegory’ refers to the form of writing that has a moral to be
inferred. The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary defines ‘allegory’ as “a story, play, picture,
etc. in which each character or event is a symbol representing an idea or a quality,
such as truth, evil, death, etc.; the use of such symbols”. According to the Concise
Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms, ‘allegory’ is “a story or visual image with a
second distinct meaning partially hidden behind its literal or visible meaning”.

Forms of Allegory

Allegory can be expressed in two ways.

 Literary allegory – uses language as a tool to portray situations and present

abstract ideas by employing human and non-human characters.
 Symbolic allegory – uses symbols to represent ideas and messages that are
not recognisable on the surface but requires interpretation.
Types of Allegory

Can allegory be categorised into types? The answer to this question is yes. Allegory
can be classified into two main types based on some of its characteristics. They are,

 Fables – use animals and non-human objects as the main characters to tell
the story and present abstract ideas. An example of fables is ‘Aesop’s
Fables’, a collection of more than six hundred fables such as ‘The Town
Mouse and the Country Mouse’, ‘The Fox and the Grapes’, ‘The Ant and the
Dove’, ‘The Stag, the Sheep and the Wolf’, etc.
 Parables – use human characters to tell the story and present day-to-day
situations. An example of parables are parables from the Bible, such as ‘The
Parable of the Lost Sheep’, ‘The Parable of the Mustard Seed’, ‘The Parable
of the Good Samaritan, ‘The Parable of the Fig Tree’, etc.

Parts on Essay:
What are the parts of an essay?
Most writers think of essays as having three main parts:
o Introduction
o Body
o Conclusion
 Each is made up of one or several paragraphs.
How do I write an introduction?
 The purpose of this section is to introduce the topic and why it matters,
identify the specific focus of the paper, and indicate how the paper will be
organized.
1. Begin your introduction by telling readers what the general topic of the paper
is.
o To keep from being too broad or vague, try to incorporate a keyword
from your title in the first sentence.
2. Explain why the topic matters. Why should we care?
o For example, you might tell readers that the issue is part of an
important debate or provide a statistic explaining how many people are
affected.
3. Introduce key terms, theories, or texts that will be discussed throughout the
paper.
o Defining your terms is particularly important if there are several
possible meanings or interpretations of the term.
4. State the main point of your paper, and tell us how you will support it.
o Try to frame this as a statement of your focus. This is also known as a
purpose statement, thesis argument, or hypothesis.
How do I write the body of my essay?
 The purpose of this section is to provide information and arguments that
follow logically from the main point you identified in your introduction.
1. Identify the main ideas that support and develop your paper’s main point.
 2. Place these ideas in a logical order (e.g., by chronology or importance)
o For longer essays, you may be required to use subheadings to label
your sections.
3. Develop each idea in a paragraph or series of paragraphs. Not sure how to
structure your paragraphs? Try this approach:
o Point: Provide a topic sentence that identifies the topic of the
paragraph.
o Proof: Give evidence or examples that develop and explain the topic
(e.g., these may come from your sources).
o Significance: Conclude the paragraph with sentence that tells the
reader how your paragraph supports the main point of your essay.
How do I write the conclusion?
 The purpose of this section is to summarize the main points of the essay and
identify the broader significance of the topic or issue.
1. Remind the reader of the main point of your essay (without restating it word-
for-word).
2. Do one (or more) of the following:
o Summarize the key ideas that supported your main point. (Note: No
new information or evidence should be introduced in the conclusion.)
o Suggest next steps, future research, or recommendations.
o Answer the question “Why should readers care?” (implications,
significance).

18. Charles Lamb as an essayist:

Lamb occupies a unique position in the history of English essay. Though he began his literary
career as a poet, he is remembered today for his invaluable essays – ‘The Essays of Elia’ and
‘The Last Essays of Elia’. He is an eminent essayist of the early nineteenth century and
belongs to the group of romantic essayists. He has often been called the prince of all the
essayist England has so far produced.

The Personal elements in Lamb’s essays Lamb is unsurpassed as an essayist. His essays are
intimate expression of his mind, his life and all that makes him an individual. He resembles
Montaigne, the French essayist, in this respect. He reveals much of himself indirectly and
incidentally in his essays and as a result his essays can be called his best biography. They
show him as a typical Londoner who loves the town, especially, all that is old and expressive
of the human past. We see his love for relatives and friends and his devotion to his sister. He
mentions many place names in his essays which are linked with his past and these places are
like living characters in his mind. In his essays we get to see Lamb the man - his affection,
loyalty, uncomplaining endurance, simplicity, likes and dislikes, sportive humour and serious
moods. His essays are intensely personal and subjective. They cover a great variety of topics,
but the approach is always personal. Without openly taking himself as a subject, he is forever
speaking of himself.

Wit and Humour in Lamb’s essays Wit and humour are all-pervasive in Lamb’s essays. It is a
rare and rich blend of elements which he draws lavishly from an inexhaustible storehouse of
his own. While his wit is based on the intellect, his humour is based on insight and sympathy.
There is always some touch of humour, sly remark and irony to amuse his readers. In “The
Praise of Chimney-Sweepers” we find several touches of humour in their description and the
annual feast hosted by Jem White. His essay “A Dissertation Upon Roast Pig” is replete with
wit, humour and fun. In “Dream Children: A Reverie” the reactions of the children provide a
touch of humour. Pathos in Lamb’s essays Pathos is another striking feature of Lamb’s
essays, which appeals to our feelings of compassion and evokes sympathy. It exists
separately but often intermingles with humour. Lamb’s pathos springs from the tragic
background of his life. Reminiscence has for him a great charm and in doing so a note of
sadness enters many of his essays. His essay, “Dream children: A Reverie” is highly moving
with its account of his dead brother, non-existent wife and children. Even the reference to his
grandmother’s loneliness is tinged with melancholy.

The Fusion of Humour and Pathos In many of Lamb’s essays we find humour and pathos
alternating each other and in some, the two elements exist simultaneously as two aspects of
the same person. The curious intermingling of the two elements gives a peculiar flavour to his
essays. A touch of morbidity in him makes him dwell upon the melancholic aspect of things.
At the same time being endowed with a keen power of observation he could perceive the
funny side of things. It is Lamb’s perception that everything in life has at one and the same
time its serious and trivial side that makes him fuse humour with pathos. He combines the
two apparent opposites – the joyous and the pathetic by full sympathy with each and it is this
unique blend that makes his style special and makes his essays memorable. In “The Praise of
Chimney-Sweepers” he arouses our sympathy for the poor and unfortunate young fellows and
at the same time amuses us by his description of the chimney-sweepers and their teeth. The
description of the disappearance of a young chimney- sweeper entering a chimney and his
reappearance, after doing his job, at the top amuses us. Again Lamb’s account of how some
of these chimney-sweepers might have been kidnapped in their infancy from the aristocratic
homes where they were born appeals to our feelings of compassion and evokes our
sympathy..

Unique style used by Lamb in his essays Lamb was very much fond of the earlier prose
writers of the 17th century and as a result the influence of these writers shines out
conspicuously in his style. He often used obsolete Latinised words, long heavy winding
sentences, quotations from the old writers to express his feelings. Allusiveness and
evocativeness are marked features of his style, which are characteristic qualities of romantic
essayists. These features can be noticed in his essay “Dream Children: A Reverie”. He also
makes use of parentheses, which gives us an insight to the characters stream of
consciousness. The parentheses in “Dream Children: A reverie” mostly show us the
observations of the father, which tells us more about the children’s expressions for dramatic
emphasis. Another aspect of Lamb’s style is his dramatic characterization. His character
sketches are brief but vivid. In “Dream Children: A Reverie” the characters of his
grandmother Mrs. Field, his sweetheart Alice Winterton , his brother John Lamb are skilfully
portrayed. The unforgettable portraits of James Boyer and Matthew Field in “Christ’s
Hospital Five and Thirty Years Ago” are admirably drawn. Lamb’s essays are also rich in
poetic cadence and beauty. They may be called lyrics in prose. In fact, it is in prose that
Lamb the poet is to be found. As for instance, the essay “Dream Children: A Reverie” is
steeped in rich poetry. Thus Lamb’s position in the realm of English essay is unquestioned.
His essays are the greatest contribution to this genre of literature, the unique charm of which
lies in the bewitching personality of their creator. He is rightly entitled to a place as an
essayist beside Montaigne, Sir Thomas Browne, Steele and Addison.

19.Hazlitt as an essayist:

William Hazlitt is one of the greatest English essayists. He is

classified as a romantic essayist. He was a prolific writer. He
was eager to inquire into human life with all its variety. He
wrote of a vast range of topics. He was keenly interested in a
vast variety of things-books of all kinds, politics, sports, stage
etc. He conveyed his enjoyment and observation to the readers
through his essays.
 Hazlitt's essays are grave in nature. They are very
serious and thought provoking. They show his philosophic bent
of mind. A large number of his essays are on abstract ideas
such as Egotism, Reason, Imagination, and the fear of Death
etc. He is more interested in the idea than in the essay as a
form. He does not indulge in moralizing. In his hands essay
became a means of self-expression. His essays are
autobiographical in nature. He puts himself as the centre of his
essay. He often glides into the past. He weaves the texture of
his essays by the threads of memory. He thus reveals his life
and mind.

Hazlitt is a keen observer of life. Whatever the theme of

his essays, each of them is a reflection on human nature. They
are the reflections of a man who lived and loved life. He
observes life with penetrating sympathy and feelings. He wrote
with convictions that were deep and firm. He gave more
attention to the idea than to the expression. He wrote with a
spontaneity and involvement that verged on frenzy. He wrote
with an aim to communicate with his readers.

Hazlitt's "On Actors and Acting-I" is a beautiful essay. It is

in praise of actors and acting. Here the essayist is highly
allusive. His mood is philosophic and nostalgic.

Hazlitt has a style of his own. It has been titled as the

familiar style. It is natural. It has precision and purity of
expression. He does not use archaic, irrelevant and superfluous
words. He frequently uses figures of speech to emphasize his
point of view. His essays are replete with vivid descriptions. His
sentences are brief and abrupt, vigorous and direct. He often
writes balanced, antithetical sentences to present the
contrasting ideas. He is also praised for the use of epigrams
and paradoxes.