Religion

Religion evolved as a set of beliefs regarding the nature and purpose of the universe. Gradually, they became
organized systems of beliefs binding groups of people into a close-knit society.
Religion in India has never been static; various movements have developed with new ideas and in response to
evolving socio-economic situations. Almost all major religions of the world are professed in this country. There are
four religions that trace their origin to the Indian subcontinent- Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. Religious
beliefs and systems that arrived from outside are Islam and Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Judaism and Baha’i.
Jainism
The Jina or Jaina means ‘the conqueror’. According to Jain tradition their religion is quite old, even earlier to Aryan
Brahmanism. The Yajurveda mentions Rishabha, Ajinatha and Aristanemi. One of the Puranas describes Rishabha as
an incarnation of Narayana.
Main aspects related to Jainism
1. The Jain tradition has a succession of teachers called as Tirthankaras. There are a total of 24 Tirthankaras
associated with Jainism.
2. The first Tirthankara is believed to be Rishabhanath. The last Tirthankara is believed to Vardhaman Mahavira.
3. It is believed that all Tirthankaras were Kshatriyas by birth.
4. Vardhaman Mahavira
o Believed to have lived between (540-468 BC)
o He was born at Kundagrama near Vaishali.
o Mahavira was a Kshatriya, son of Siddhartha (the head of Jnatrika clan) and Trishla
o At the age of 30, he became an ascetic and left his home in the search for truth.
o After 13 years of penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kaivalya Jnan. He attained this at
Jrimbhikgrama village under a sal tree aged 42.
o Since this attainment he was called as Mahavira, Jina, Jitendriya (one who conquered his senses), Nigrantha
(free from all bonds), and Kevalin.
o He died aged 72 at a place called as Pava, near Rajagriha.
5. Main teachings of Jainism
o Jainism rejects the idea of a creator of the world as well as the authority of the Vedas.
o Jainism believes that humans may be good or bad according to their actions and not on account of their birth.
o The Jains believe in karma and in the transmigration of the soul
o Salvation or nirvana comes on getting rid of the cycle of birth and rebirth, and can be attained by leading a
pure life guided by the three-fold path of right faith, right knowledge and right conduct.
o Right to conduct involves– not to steal, non-possession, ahimsa, not to lie and control of the senses.
o The teachings of the Tirthankaras were compiled in 12 angas which were written down at Vallabhi in the 5th
6. Jainism councils
o First Jainism council: It was held at Pataliputra in the 3rd century BC. It was presided by Sthulabahu
o Second Jainism council: It was held at Vallabhi in Gujarat in 512 AD. It was presided
by Devardhigani. Angas were compiled during this time.
7. Jains split into two groups- the Digambaras (sky clad) and Svetambaras (clothed in white).
8. Difference between the two sects of Jainism
o Digambaradenies liberation in the Whereas salvation in the Svetambaras has been accepted.
o In Digambara, Tirthankara Mallinath is said to be a man. Whereas, in Shwetambar Mallinath has been
accepted as Mallikumari.

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 o Svetambaras believe that Mahavira married and a daughter was born to him. However, Digambara believe
Mahavira remained unmarried.
Indian culture has been deeply influenced by Jainism ideas such as Ahimsa, and the positive way through which
Jainism has contributed to the development of language, literature, art and architecture.
Buddhism
The sixth century B.C. is considered a wonderful century in history. Great thinkers like Buddha, Mahavira, Heraclitus,
Zoroaster, Confucius and Lao Tse lived and preached their ideas in this century. Among them the most successful were
Jainism and Buddhism whose impact on the Indian society was remarkable.
Main aspects related to Buddhism
1. Life of Buddha
o Buddha is also called as Sakyamuni or Thathagata. He is considered as the founder of Buddhism. He was born
as Siddhartha to Suddhodhana, the ruler of Sakyan republic, and his wife Maya, on Vaisaka Purnima in
the Lumbini gardens near Kapilvastu in the 6th century BC
o Siddhartha married Yashodhara and had a son Rahula. His luxury life left him dissatisfied and he was troubled
by the signs of sickness, old age and death that he observed in the worldly life.
o At the age of 29, he decided to leave the palace in search of peace and understanding of the world’s ills.
o At the age of 35, again on Vaisaka Purnima, he attained enlightenment at what is now famously known as
Bodh Gaya. He gave his first sermon in a deer park at Sarnath before his first disciples
o Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana at Kusinara
2. Teachings associated with Buddhism
o To avoid extremes of life, whether it is addiction to worldly pleasures or a life of painful asceticism and self-
mortification.
o Buddhism does not concern itself with metaphysical controversies
o Buddha emphasized on moral progress which was independent of any creator of the universe
o The essence of Buddhism lies in the realization that life is transient
o Buddha seems to have accepted the idea of transmigration
o Four noble truths of Buddhism are: They are the truth of suffering, the truth of the cause of suffering,
the truth of the end of suffering, and the truth of the path that leads to the end of suffering.
o The path to nirvana or cessation of suffering is the Noble Eightfold path- Right understanding (Samma
ditthi), Right thought (Samma sankappa), Right speech (Samma vaca), Right action (Samma kammanta),
Right livelihood (Samma ajiva), Right effort (Samma vayama), Right mindfulness (Samma sati) and Right
concentration (Samma samadhi)
3. Buddhist councils:
o After Buddha’s death, 4 councils were held

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 4. The Tripiṭaka is composed of threemain categories of texts that collectively constitute the Buddhist canon: the
Sutra Piṭaka (discourses and sermons of Buddha, some religious poetry and is the largest basket), the Vinaya
Piṭaka (dealing with rules or discipline of the sangha) , and the Abhidhamma Piṭaka (treatises that elaborate
Buddhist doctrines, particularly about mind, also called the “systematic philosophy” basket)
5. Schools of Buddhism:
Hinayana
o It means ‘lesser path’
o They are true to the teachings of Buddha
o Its scriptures are in Pali.
o Doesn’t believe in idol worship
o Salvation through self-discipline and meditation
o It was patronized by Ashoka
Mahayana
o It means ‘Greater path’
o Mahayana has two main philosophical schools – the Madhyamika & Yogachara.
o Its scriptures are in Sanskrit.
o It considers Buddha as God and worships idols of Buddhas & Bodhisattvas.
o Salvation can be attained by means of faith and devotion to the mindfulness of the Buddha. It believes in
mantras.
Vajrayana
o It means “Vehicle of Thunderbolt”.
o Established in Tibet in 11th CE
o It believes that salvation can be attained by acquiring magical powers called vajra.
o Much importance is given to the role of the guru called Lama who has mastered the philosophical and ritual
traditions. There is a long lineage of lamas. The Dalai Lama is a well known Tibetan Lama.
Similarities and differences between Jainism and Buddhism
Similarities:
• Both possessed the background of the Aryan culture and were inspired by the ascetic ideals and the
philosophy of the Upanishads, particularly that of Sankhya-Yoga.
• Both were the products of intellectual, spiritual and social forces of their age and therefore, both stood up as
revolts against the prevalent Brahmanical religion.
• Both emerged in eastern India which by that time had successfully retained some features of the pre-Aryan
culture.
• Both were started by the members of the Kshatriya caste and both appealed to the socially down-trodden, the
Vaishvas who were not granted social status corresponding to their growing economic power, and the Sudras
who were definitely oppressed.
• Both, Mahavira and Buddha, the founders of Jainism and Buddhism respectively were Kshatriya princes and
were able to get support for their cause from the contemporary ruling class, different Kshatriya rulers and
economically prosperous Vaishvas.
• Though both did not attack the caste system, they were opposed to it and therefore, drew large converts from
the lower strata of the society.
• Both opposed the ritualism and the sacrifices of Brahmanism and also challenged the supremacy of the
Brahmanas.

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 • Both believed that Nirvana or salvation of an individual meant his or her deliverance from the eternal chain of
birth and death.
• Both denied the authenticity of the Vedas as an infallible authority.
• Both laid great stress upon a pure and moral life rather than practice of ritualism or even devotion to and
worship of God as a means to attain salvation.
Differences
• Jainism is a much more ancient religion as compared to Buddhism. According to Jaina traditions it had
twenty-four Tirthankaras and Mahavira was the last of them.
• The Jaina concept of soul is different from that of Buddhism. Jainism believes that everything in nature, even
stone and water has a soul of its own. Buddhism does not believe so.
• The concept of Ahimsa (non-violence) is different in Buddhism as compared to Jainism. While Jainism
emphasized it very much, Buddhism remained liberal in its interpretation in foreign countries, and even
permitted eating of animal flesh where it was a necessity or traditional diet of the people.
• Buddhism emphasized elimination of caste distinctions more as compared to Jainism.
• Jainism advised practice of strict asceticism to attain salvation while Buddhism advised its Upasakas to follow
the middle path or Tathagata marga
• According to Jainism, women and men householders cannot attain salvation while, according to Buddhism, it
is possible for both
• In Digambara sect of Jainism, it is necessary for the monks to go naked while Buddhism denounced it
• Buddhism emphasized the organisation of Sangha more as compared to Jainism
• According to Jainism, salvation is possible only after death while according to Buddhism it is possible during
one’s own life if one is able to detach oneself completely from the worldly existence. Thus, while Jainism
describes Nirvana as freedom from body. Buddhism describes it as destruction of the self or detachment from
worldly existence.
• Buddhism proved more adaptable to circumstances as compared to Jainism. That is why while Buddhism
spread all over Asia and accommodated the traditions of the local populace; Jainism remained confined to
India alone.
Buddhism and Bodhisattva
• In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is any person who is on the path towards Buddhahood.
• In the Early Buddhist schoolsas well as modern Theravada Buddhism, a bodhisattva refers to anyone who has
made a resolution to become a Buddha and has also received a confirmation or prediction from a living
Buddha that this will be so
• In Mahayana Buddhism, a bodhisattva refers to anyone who has generated Bodhicitta, a spontaneous wish and
compassionate mind to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings
• As a result, the universe is filled with a broad range of potential Buddhas; from those just setting out on the
path of Buddhahood to those who have spent lifetimes in training and have thereby acquired supernatural
powers. These “celestial” bodhisattvas are functionally equivalent to Buddhas in their wisdom, compassion,
and powers
• Pan-Buddhist bodhisattvas include Maitreya, who will succeed Sakyamuni as the next Buddha in this world,
and Avalokiteshvara, known in Tibet as Spyan ras gzigs (Chenrezi), in China as Guanyin(Kuan-yin), and in
Japan as Kannon.
• Although all bodhisattvas act compassionately, Avalokiteshvara is considered the embodiment of the abstract
principle of compassion. Bodhisattvas of more localized importance include Tārā in Tibet and Jizō in Japan.

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Question: Trace the contribution of Buddhism and Jainism to Indian culture
PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge,
values, mind, and language.
Problems that the Indian philosophers raised for consideration, but that their Western counterparts never did, include
such matters as the origin (utpatti) and apprehension (jnapti) of truth (pramanya).
General characteristics of Indian philosophy
Diversity: The various Indian philosophies contain such a diversity of views, theories, and systems that it is almost
impossible to single out characteristics that are common to all of them.
Acceptance of Vedas:
• Acceptance of the authority of the Vedas characterizes all the orthodox (astika) systems. Moreover, even when
philosophers professed allegiance to the Vedas, their allegiance did little to fetter the freedom of their
speculative ventures.
• Developed as a practical necessity: The Indian philosophers very well understood that philosophy and life had
a close relation. They also believed that life could be best led by following a good philosophy. This can be
noticed in the different problems discussed in the systems of Indian philosophy. Philosophical thought in India
grew out of practical motivation.
Initial pessimism:
• Indian philosophy, in general, is found to start with a note of pessimism. A sense of dissatisfaction at the
existing state of affairs can be noted in almost all the systems of Indian philosophy. Ex: Buddha’s philosophy
• However, the pessimistic note is only the initial note in Indian philosophy which generally concludes with the
optimistic note. All the systems, in their own ways, have shown that we can get over the sufferings of life.
There are ways that lead to freedom from the miserable state of existence on earth.
Ignorance as the root cause of suffering:
• Indian philosophy, in general, believes that ignorance is the root cause of human suffering.
• Ignorance about the true nature of things gives rise to attachment to the worldly objects as they can gratify the
senses.
• Freedom from this state can be obtained only through right knowledge of things.
Liberation as the ultimate goal of life:
• Systems of Indian philosophy, barring the Carvaka, take liberation or freedom from bondage to be the ultimate
goal of human life.
• Liberation means complete cessation of suffering.
• Except for the Lokayata materialists, all these systems agreed about karma and reincarnation.
• Except for Buddhism and Lokayata, the Indian systems agreed on the existence of a permanent soul, or atman.
Six schools of philosophy
Many Hindu intellectual traditions were classified during the medieval period of Brahmanic-Sanskritic scholasticism
into a standard list of six orthodox (Astika) schools (Darshanas), the “Six Philosophies” (Sad-Darshana), all of which
accept the testimony of the Vedas.

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These six philosophies are:
Samkhya
• It is considered as the oldest philosophical tradition.
• Sage Kapila is traditionally credited as a founder of the Samkhya
• It propounds that the universe as consisting of two independent realities: puruṣa(‘consciousness’)
and prakṛti (‘matter’) and which attempts to develop metaphysics based on this duality.
• Samkhya posits the existence of an infinite number of similar but separate purushas, none superior to any
other.
• Advaita Vedanta derives its base from this school.
Yoga
• Sage Patanjali is the founder of Yoga.
• It is closely related to the Samkhya school of Hinduism.
• The objective of Yoga is- to better oneself physically, mentally and spiritually
• The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is a key text of the Yoga school of Hinduism
• It is believed that practicing Ashtanga Yoga will lead to liberation.
• But the more important addition to Sankhya was the practice of yoga: the cessation of all mental function.
Nyaya
• The term ‘Nyaya’ means “justice”, “rules”, “method” or “judgment”
• Sage Gautama is the founder of this school with his Nyaya-sutra,
• It approaches philosophical questions in a scientific and rational approach.
• According to Nyaya, there were four valid sources of knowledge — perception, inference, comparison, and
testimony
• four sources of invalid knowledge: memory, doubt, error (false certainty), and hypothetical argument (“If
there was no fire, there wouldn’t be smoke, but there is smoke, so there must be fire”).
• This school believes attaining knowledge through the five senses is the sole way of attaining liberation from
the cycle of birth and death.
Vaisheshika
• It was founded by Sage Kanada
• Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, like Buddhism, accepted only two reliable means to knowledge: perception
and inference

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 • Vaisheshika School is known for its insights in naturalism. It is a form of atomism in natural philosophy.
• It postulated that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to paramāṇu(atoms), and one’s experiences
are derived from the interplay of substance, quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence
Purva Mimamsa
• It was propounded by Sage Jaimini
• It places emphasis on the power of yajnas and mantras in sustaining the activities of the universe.
• This school of thought believes in complete authority of Vedas.
• This school of thought states that a human being can attain salvation only by acting in conformity with the
principles of Vedas.
Vedanta
It is also referred to as Uttara Mimamsa
The influence of Upanishads on this school of thought is predominant.
It is a monistic school of philosophy that believes world is unreal and the only reality is Brahman
Sub-branches of Vedanta are: Advaita, Visishtadvaita, Dvaita, Dvaitadvaita,
Shuddhadvaita and Achintya Bheda Abheda.
AJIVIKA
• It was a school of thought that developed in India during the same time as Jainism and Buddhism
• It is one of the schools under Nastika philosophy (it does not believe in the authority of Vedas)
• It was founded by Goshala Maskariputra (He is considered to be friends with Mahavira)
• The sect is as seen as professing total determinism in the transmigration of souls, or series of rebirths.
• Whereas other groups believed that an individual can better his or her lot in the course of transmigration, the
Ajivikas supposedly held that the affairs of the entire universe were ordered by a cosmic force
called niyati that determined all events, including an individual’s fate, to the last detail
• Ajivikas also believe that all change was illusory and that everything was eternally immobile.
• This school of thought gained prominence for some time during Mauryan rule
LOKAYATA/CHARVAKA
• It is an ancient school of Indian The materialist systems were often called “Lokayata,” which means “that
which is found among people in general.”
• Charvaka holds direct perception, empiricism, and conditional inference as proper sources of knowledge,
embraces philosophical skepticism and rejects ritualism and supernaturalism.
• Brihaspati is traditionally referred to as the founder of Charvaka or Lokāyata philosophy
• The Charvaka did not believe in karma, rebirth or an afterlife.
• Charvaka believed that there was nothing wrong with sensual pleasure. Since it is impossible to have pleasure
without pain, Charvaka thought that wisdom lay in enjoying pleasure and avoiding pain as far as possible.
• Charvakas rejected many of the standard religious conceptions of Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Ajivakas, such
as an afterlife, reincarnation, samsara, karma and religious rites. They were critical of the Vedas, as well as
Buddhist scriptures
• Charvakas concluded that the inference could not be used to ascertain metaphysical truths.

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INDIAN MUSIC
Origin and evolution
• It is generally believed that Indian classical music has its origins in the religious observances of the Aryan
people who arrived in India some 3,000 years ago
• The Aryans brought with them their sacred texts known as the Vedas, meaning ‘knowledge’ forming the core
of ancient Hindu scriptures with their worship rituals largely centering on the highly structured and organised
recitation of these verses.
• Thus, the roots of Indian classical music can be traced back to its origin in the recital of Vedic hymns of the
Hindu temples
• There are four main Vedas, of which the one known as Samaveda (from saman, roughly translating to
‘melody’) is the most relevant – as the texts contained in it were clearly meant to be sung whilst also acting as
treatises about music, dance and theatre.
• The seven swars of music – Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni represent different scriptural deities: SA – Agni, RE
– Brahma, GA – Saraswati, MA – Shiva, PA – Vishnu, DHA – Ganesha, NI – Surya
Hindustani music
It is believed by many that Hindustani music started to take a distinctive form since the medieval period. Many credit
Amir Khusro for this evolution. However, this remains contested. The forms of Hindustani classical music were
designed primarily for vocal performance, and many instruments were designed and evaluated according to how well
they emulate the human voice.
Some of the salient features of Hindustani classical music:
• The six primary ragas in Hindustani classic are- Bhairava, Kausika, Hindola, dipak, sriraga and Megh
• Ragas in Hindustani classic music used to strictly observe the time theory. Ex: Bhairavi at dawn, Megh in the
morning
• Ragas in Hindustani music are also associated with feelings and moods. Ex: Bhairavi with awe and fear,
Kausika with joy
• It has a highly formalized grammar, dictated by textual as well as oral tradition.
• Hindustani music places more emphasis on improvisation and exploring all aspects of a raga
• Slow and sometimes even leisurely introductory section (alap) followed by solfege and fast section with fast
melodic phrases and rhythmic play
• Hindustani classical music has been influenced considerably by Persian traditions
• Musical instruments used in Hindustani are Tabla, Sarangi, Sitar, Santoor, Flute and violin.
• Main styles in Hindustani music– Dhrupad, Khayal, Tappa, Chaturanga, Tarana, Sargam, Thumri and
Ragasagar, Hori and Dhamar.
Major Hindustani musical compositions and their features
Dhrupad
• It is ancient form, probably developing from the Prabandha
• Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior and Emperor Akbar played a significant part in the growth and
development of Dhrupad
• Other personalities who contributed to the development of Dhrupad are: Tansen, Baiju bawra, Swami Haridas
• The lyrics are generally in Braj Basha and involve veera and sringar rasas
• Some of the major gharanas of Dhrupad are– dagarvani gharana, bishnupur gharana, darbhanga gharana,
mallik gharana, bettiah gharana

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Khayal
• The term Khayal has Persian origins and means ‘idea or imagination’
• Its origin is attributed to Amir Khusro and Sultan Mohammed Sharqui
• Khayal is a delicate and romantic composition
• It provides more freedom in structure and composition
• Some of the major gharanas associated with this style include: Gwalior, Kirana, Patiala, Agra, and Jaipur
Gharana
• It is usually accompanied by a tabla(pair of drums) and a tambura (lute) in a variety of talas (metric cycles).
Thumri
• It is a light form based on the romantic-religious literature inspired by the Bhakthi movement
• It became famous under the patronage of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah
• It employs folk scales and text of the songs is of primary importance
• Themes from the lives of Lord Krishna and Radha are common
• Lyrics are primarily in Braj basha
• Main gharanas of this style are: Benaras, Lucknow and Patiala.
Tappa
• It is believed to have been developed from the songs of camel drivers
• It is noted for its quick turns of phrase
• Poetry full of expressions of love and physical intimacy is the salient feature of Tappa.
• It was developed as a form of classical music by Mian Gulam Nabi Shori or Shori Mian, who was a court
singer for the Nawab of Awadh, Asaf-Ud-Dowlah.
• Tappa employs Ragas like Khamaj, Jhinjhoti, Kafi, Tilang, Bhairavi, Des, which conveys affection and light
tempers or sadness, with its vigorous Taan and irregular musical tones of voice.
• The lyrics in Tappa are very short and not as richly controlled as in Khayal or thumri.
• This style of Tappa singing is a specialty of Gwalior gharana, with its beautification with geetkari, khatka,
mukri and harkat.
Ghazal
• It is a product of Persian influence
• It is composed of independent couplets
• Though love theme is predominant, it also has the element of Sufi
• The traditional Ghazals are similar to the Hindustani classical music forms such as “Dadra” and “Thumri”.
• The Golconda and Bijapur rulers encouraged this tradition of Urdu. Some important patrons of Ghazal and
Urdu were Nusrati, Wajhi, Hashmi, Mohammad Quli Qutab Shah and Wali Dakhini.
• Then there are some Ghazal forms that are similar to Qawwali. India has produced some of the exceptional
talents in the field of Ghazal singing like Begum Akhtar, Jagjit Singh and Pankaj Udhas.
Hindustani classical music was used extensively during the Bhakthi movement to preach the gospel of love and
devotion by various reformers in the country. Ex: Kirtans of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Abhangs of Eknath, Jnanesvar
and Tukaram etc.
Some of the important differences between Carnatic and Hindustani music are:

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SPM IAS Academy, D.S. Mansion 2nd floor, Opposite Indian Oil Petrol Pump, Near Assam State Zoo, Zoo Road,
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