PROGRAMME: BSC CATERING AND HOSPITALITY

MANAGEMENT
COURSE: FUNDAMENTALS OF EDUCATIONAL
MANAGEMENT,
LEADERSHIP AND ADMINISTRATION
COURSE CODE: EDC 242
CLASS: CAT 200 A
GROUP: GROUP 3 B
LECTURER: DR. RAPHAEL KWASI DZAKPASU

INDEX SIGNAT
NAME
NUMBER URE
1 AGGREY RUTH 5221180026
2 AMOAH CINIDA 5221180027
3 DANWAA REBECCA 5221180028
4 MENSAH MARY 5221180029

5 DONKOR LILIAN 5221180030

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND DECISION-MAKING

Introduction

Effective planning is very crucial and a key feature in the pursuit of any meaningful human
activity, including the management and the administration of schools or educational
organization. Decision-making is part of the planning function of management and ensure
that the best course of action is selected and applied to successfully pursue organizational
goals and objectives.

The Concept Of Planning

Planning is fundamental to the achievement of set goals, UNESCO (2003) describes planning
from the perspective of national Planning as a process that makes it possible to work out a
systematic outline of activities to be undertaken in other to meet the developmental objectives
of a country within that country possibilities and aspiration.

Educational Planning
Educational Planning refers to the process by which educational organizations or an
education system create a plan or action for providing quality education to student. It also
involves making decisions about what resources are needed in other to provide the best
possible education for all student irrespective of the circumstances.

Importances Of Educational Planning

 It helps in identifying educational goals and objectives.

 It aids in decision making in education.
 Planning gives directions and guidelines for a country’s educational system.
 It enables a nation to make her choices clearly in terms of educational needs.
 It helps in even and effective delivery of scarce educational resource.
Reasons For Planning Education In Ghana

 To ensure quality education.

 The increasing cost of education.
 The impart of globalization on national development.
 Increasing demands for and access to education.
 Because of social change.

Characteristics Of Effective Educational Planning

 It should be dynamic in other to keep pace with changes in the society.

 It should focus on achievement of set educational goals and objectives.
 It should be good and effective at solving educational problems.
 It has a structured plan and some procedure in a written form to follow.
 It should be comprehensive to cover the entire national educational system (basic,
secondary, and Tertiary}.
 To provide adequate information for planning,

Types Of Educational Planning/Plan

The various types of planning based on classification include:

 Planning by time horizon.

Planning under this classification clearly specifies the time frame for implementation
of the plan. It includes long-term planning, medium-term planning, and short-term
planning.
 Planning by management level.
It includes strategic planning, tactical planning, and operational planning.
 Planning by Usage.
It includes standing planning and single-use planning.
 Planning by scope.
It includes micro-planning and macro-planning.

Decision-Making In Educational Institutions

A decision making is a course of action which is consciously chosen from among a set
alternative to achieve desired results (i.e. educational goals, objectives, performance target or
outcomes). In educational management and schools’ administration decisions have to be
made about a number of issue; national philosophy of education, structure of the education
system. The designing of management and administrative systems, staffing, professional
development etc. Educational decision making therefore requires a rational and systematic
approach.

The Decision-Making Process In Educational And Other Organisations

 Identification and definition of the problem.

 Analysis of the problem.
 Gathering of information.
 Finding/development of alternative solutions.
 Evaluation of alternative solutions.
 Selections and implementation of the right alternative solution.
 Ensuring feedback.

Characteristics Of Organizational/Educational Decision-Making

 Decision-making calls for the exercise of good judgement in the selection of the best
possible solution to the problem.
 Decision-making is a rational process, and its steps are directed towards the
achievement of organization.
 Decision-making is an intellectual process involving careful analysis, deliberation,
evaluation and choice making.
 There is freedom of selecting a specific course of action, of course the best course of
action without any pressure.
 Decision-making is related to the situation or environment.
Types Of Decision In Educational Organisations

According to Chester Barnard (1938), They are:

 Creative decisions: These are decisions that are initiated by the executive to bring
significant change in attempt to improve the system.
 Intermediary decisions: This is a type of decision that do not originate from the
executive but is made in response to an authoritative communication from a
superior officer in the organisation hierarchy.
 Appellate decisions: It is a decision that is called for when subordinate refer or
report matters to the educational administrator or head for his deposition.

Conditions Under Which Schools Heads Or Managers Make Decisions

 Conditions or certainty: In this case, the exact outcome of the decisions is

known in advance or predictable.
 Conditions of risks: The decision maker has some probabilistic estimate of the
outcome of each alternative.
 Conditions of uncertainty: This is the circumstance under which the
administrator does not know the exact probabilities attached to the alternatives
available and therefore has difficulty assigning probabilities to the outcomes.

Parties In Organizational (Educational / School) Decision-Making

 Board of directors/ school board: such boards engage extensively in the

formation of decisions that aim at achieving the objectives and gaols of the
organisation/school.
 Managers and administrator: The managers and administrators of an
organisation for example school heads, assistant, headmasters and other
administrators are parties in educational schools’ decision-making.
 Internal specialist and outside consultant: They are experts within or outside
an organisation whose input in the form of pieces of advice may be required in
certain decisions of the organisation.
  Committees: They make general and specific decisions that affects the
operations of the organisations concerned.
 Supervisors: They make detailed operational decisions for carrying out the
task of an organisation,
 Workers: They are responsible for making the day-to-day routine or specific
task related decisions for ensuring effectiveness and efficiency of work.

Educational/School (Organisational) Committee Decision-Making

An educational or organisational committee may be define group of persons with

delegated authority to make a particular decision concerning an aspect of education or
to carry out specific tasks for the school. Committees are used in organisations to
solve problems and make important management decisions.

Types Of Educational Organisation Or School Committee

1. Executive/Management Committee: An executive or management Committee is a

group of individuals, usually senior leaders within a school who are responsible for making
important decisions.

2. Standing Committee: A standing committee is like a permanent group within a school

that focuses specific areas or functions!

3, Ad-Hoc Committee: An Ad-hoc committee is like a temporary group that comes

together for a specific purpose or task and disbands once the tasks is completed.

4. Sub-Committee: This is a smaller committee formed from a parent committee to

perform certain duties on its behalf.

5. Joint Committees: A Joint Committee is like a combine group that brings together
from different organisations or bodies to work on a common goal or address a specific issue.
Advantages Of The Use Of Committees In Organisational/School Decision Making

i. Committees chance the democratic participation of organizational members in the

decision-making process.
ii. Committees help to a combine the abilities of organizational members for effective
decision-making.

Iii. Committees help in co-ordinating the activities of various groups and individuals
towards the realization of organisational goals and objectives.

iv. Committees can provide advice to management for effective decision-making.

v. Committees ensure that organisational decisions are more group-based or

representative.

vi. The responsibility of organisational decision-making is sometimes shared by all

members.

Disadvantages Of The Use Of Committees In Organisational/School Decision- Making

I. Committees can be time-consuming and expensive.

II. Committees are sometimes dominated by outspoken members and this can
negatively affect the quality of organisational decision.
III. Sometimes the use of committees delays decision -making because of difficulty in
reaching agreement between group members or in decision on the part of
committee members.

Participatory Organisational/School Decision-Making

Participatory decision-making in a school or other organisation is encouraged because of its

democratic nature and demonstrative effectiveness. Participatory decision-making is a
collaborative approach in which superordinate and subordinates (headmasters and
teachers/non-teaching staff) work together as equals in attempt to solve problems.

Some Generalizations On Teacher Participation In Decision-Making

Theoretical literature and research is replete with propositions about teacher participation in
decision-making. Hoy and Miskel (1987, p.338) have summarized number of generalizations
as follows.

1. The opportunity to share in formulating policies is an important factor in the morale of

teachers and in their enthusiasm for the school organization.

2. Participation in decision-making is positively related to the individual teacher's satisfaction

with the profession of teaching

3. Teachers prefer principals who involve them in decision-making.

4. Teachers neither expect nor want to be involved in every decision; in fact, too much
involvement can be as detrimental as too little.

5. Participation in decision-making has consequences that vary from situation to situation.

6. The roles and functions of both teachers and administrators in decision-making need to be
varied according to the nature of the problem.

7. Both internal and external factors affect the degree of participation in decision- making by
teachers.

8. Typical administrators are likely to prove ineffective because they are not fully accepted
by subordinates or because of the limited quality of the decisions they make.

9. To maximize the positive contributions of shared decision-making and to minimize the

negative consequences, the administrator needs to decide on the following: (a) Under what
conditions should teachers be involved? (b) To what extent and how should teachers be
involved? (c) How should the decision- making group be constituted? (d) What role is most
effective for the principal (Bridges, 1967).

IMPORTANCE OF DECISION-MAKING IN EDUCATIONAL AND OTHER

ORGANISATIONS

1. Decision-making is a primary management function that helps management to achieve

stated organisational objectives. This is because organisational goals and objectives are based
on strategic decisions.

2. Decision-making enables management to develop procedures of operation that

organizational members follow in carrying out their work activities.

3. Decision-making promotes discipline and co-ordination among workers.

4. Decision-making helps the organisation to face new problems and challenges that may
impede its growth, survival, progress, and effectiveness.

5. Decision-making helps the organisation to allocate its limited resources effectively and
efficiently.

6. An effective organisational decision promotes the organisation's image or reputation.