🖋️

Theme 5: Philosophy of Science

Tags

Chap 3 Philosophy of Science: Logical

Positivism and its Failure
Introduction: Scientific Methods, Objectivity and
Rationality
Demarcation:

Seeks to distinguish science from pseudo-science (fake science) using

universal, ahistoric, and general methods.

Aims for an algorithmic approach free from subjective and social factors.

Logical positivists believed that only this kind of method could differentiate
real science from pseudo-science.

Criticism:

Focusing only on strict, formal methods limits our understanding of

rationality.

Ignored the value of open dialogue and different viewpoints.

Some logical positivists were more open-minded than critics admitted.

Logical positivists proposed demarcation as verifiable.

A statement or theory is scientific if it can be empirically verified, meaning

it can be tested and confirmed through observation or experiment.

Popper proposed demarcation as falsifiable.

Theme 5: Philosophy of Science 1

 A statement or theory is scientific if it can be potentially falsified, meaning
it can be tested in such way that it could be proven false if it is indeed
false.

Logical Positivism and Demarcation

Logical positivism → stressed the The standard view:
significance of empirical verification.
1. The basic elements of scientific
Arose due to challenges posed by knowledge are sense data;
unobservable terms (theoretical observation statements reflect
considerations). sense data, the senses give us
access to the world; observations
Meaningful statements must be
statements reflect elementary
empirically verifiable to be
facts.
considered legitimate.
2. Theories are sets of statements
Pure observations and
that can be either observation
operational definitions are
statements or theoretical terms
models of meaningful
(only if they can be related to
utterances.
controlled observations).
Axioms: observations statements
3. An ideal, formalized theory has a
through so-called correspondence
logical backbone that allows for
rules.
deducing propositions from other
Correspondence rules define statements (a deductive-
theoretical terms in (possible) nomological structure).
observations.
4. Unobservable theoretical terms
Scientific theories are linguistic must be translated in terms of
structures consisting of statements observations.
expressing states of affairs and their
5. All sciences should use the same
logical relations.
methods of observation,
Reduction is establishing relations explanation and theory building
between theories. and can, therefore, be unified.
Is deducing a higher-level theory 6. Scientific progress is cumulative,
from a lower-level theory plus getting ever closer to a true picture

Theme 5: Philosophy of Science 2

 bridge laws connecting terms from of the world by collecting more
both theories. and more objective facts.

→ Science as a single unified system, 7. Task of philosophy → explain how

in which the same methods can be and why science is successful,
applied across the board, and higher- and to discover, protect and
level sciences are just special cases promote the permanent criteria
of, and reducible to, basic sciences. and standards for a sound
scientific method.
→ Less successful seen in
explaining psychology and social Three problems of logical positivism:
sciences through behaviorism.
1. Theory and observation are not
Science should be seen as cumulative: independent: completely objective
research is incorporating ever more observation is impossible.
facts into as integrated deductive
2. No satisfactory demarcation
network, comprehending ever more
criterion is found, no cumulative
complex higher-level laws.
progress is guaranteed.
What really matter in scientific
3. Some philosophers argue that
knowledge and rationality was
objectivity is not only impossible,
justification → distinguish context of
but also undesirable in the
discovery and justification.
humanities: the humanities are
about understanding meaningful
action, objective observations are
uninteresting.

Further trouble for logical positivism: holism,

underdetermination, and theory-ladenness
Quine’s Two dogmas of empiricism Summary:

Two critiques for positivist: Positivism assumes theory-

Dichotomy between analytic and neutral observation statements,
synthetic truths → argue that the verification of a statement by
observations. Observations

Theme 5: Philosophy of Science 3

 criteria for analytic statements are (sense data) are independent of
unclear. theory.

Analytic: language, definitions, Positivism assumes that the

and the meaning of the words → meaning of a statement is the
priori (before experience) way it can be verified
(unverifiable talk is non-sense).
Synthetic: states of affairs, and
Meaning is reference, a
their truth depends on the world
correspondence with a state of
→ posteriori (after experience).
affairs.
Each meaningful statement is an
For Wittgenstein, meaning was
isolated observation report → argue
use, part of a ‘form of life’, a
that interconnected within a broader
language game. Language was
network os statements and theories,
an instrument of social
meaning cannot be fully understood
exchange, not a picture of a
in isolation from this context.
state of affairs.
Knowledge is neither priori nor theory-
For Sellars there were no
independent.
indubitable sense data as the
Whole theories are confronted with the basis of theory-neutral
world, not individual statements → holism observations. All knowledge
in epistemology. was ‘theoretical’ (introspection
Observations do not have direct access was a story [a theory] about
to the world but are interpreted against oneself, not the direct
the background of an entire theory. observation of inner data).

Observations are theory-laden and not For Quine there was no clear-
neutrally (not unbiased) given → not free cut separation of observation
from influence or preconceptions. and theory, observation
statements were not verifiable
Underdetermination: Quine-Duhem
thesis one by one, in isolation from
other statements. Theory was a
Any statement can be considered true if holist network of observation
adjustments are made elsewhere in the and concepts and theory choice
system → idea of verification. was underdetermined by the
Observations can be reconciled with a data (the Quine-Duhem thesis),
theory in many ways → challenge the

Theme 5: Philosophy of Science 4

 notion of a strict separation between hence a conclusive verification
observation and theory. was impossible.

Theory choice → pragmatic, not solely For Hanson observations were

dictated by nature or mechanical theory-laden, there were no
procedures. uninterpreted data, and having
→ Observation-theory distinction is highly different theories made
problematic. observers literally see different
worlds.
Hanson on the Theory-Ladenness of
observation

Observation is theory-laden → what we

perceive is influenced by our prior
knowledge.

Criticizes the deductive-nomological

philosophy of science → does not explain
how laws are decided.

Scientists don’t start from laws or

hypotheses but from data, which
becomes intelligible within theories.

Demarcation revived Popper

Positivists view:

Unverifiable statements are non-sense → not even be called false.

World as collection of facts (state of affairs), scientific language as a

collection of Protokollatze → basic statements expressing a state of affairs.

Verification → comparing statements derived from a theory with observation

statements.

Main tenets of positivist philosophy were:

1. Verifiability theory of meaning

2. The notion of confirmations of theories

3. A strict distinction between observation and theory

Theme 5: Philosophy of Science 5

 4. The view of theories as logical edifices.

Karl’s Popper critique and proposal: Popper on confirmation and

falsification:
Rejected verification, confirmation, and
induction as foundations for scientific Induction can not be
legitimacy. made certain, only
deduction can.
Introduced the concept of falsification
instead of confirmation. The goal is to refute, not
confirm theories.
Abandoned the idea of a foolproof
foundation in observation statements but No theory can ever be
sought a clear demarcation criterion for certain; knowledge is
science. always provisional and
revisable.
Key elements of Popper's philosophy include
falsification, criticism, and anti-dogmatism. All knowledge is theory-
laden, and accepted
data may be
reinterpreted when
theories are refuted.

Abandoned the positivist

conception of cumulative
growth founded on
observation.

Popper on Demarcation and Problems with falsification:

Dogmatism:
Popper viewed the addition of ad
Radical anti-dogmatism: all claims hoc hypotheses to repair a falsified
should be open to criticism. theory as dogmatism.

Criticism as mark of real scientific In practice, scientists often do not

rationality. reject their favorite hypotheses
when faced with conflicting
Pseudo-science is characterized
evidence → may propose ad-hoc
by certainty and immunity to
hypotheses.
criticism

Theme 5: Philosophy of Science 6

 → Anti-dogmatic attitude is as
indispensable for democracy as it is
for science.

Demarcation Abandoned: Kuhn on paradigms and

scientific revolutions
A role for history: Revolutions → are change of
paradigm, after a crisis, in which
Criteria for rationality and
methodological rules are relaxed and a
justification varied with history →
new generation promises to turn
not fixed but changes over times.
anomalies into exemplars.
Scientific progress is not merely
Kuhn view:
cumulative and incremental.
Cumulative-progress idea
Presentism: judging the past from
doesn’t work.
today’s view.
Distinction between context of
Takeaway: what is considered good
justification and context of
science can change depending on the
discovery did not work.
time and place.

Paradigms is → a generally agreed Anomalies are not necessarily

framework → no demarcation seen as falsifying instances but as
criterion between paradigms. challenges to the paradigm's
explanatory power.
Theories, statements, concepts
The phase model of scientific
and worldview.
development:
Techniques and laboratory
apparatus. 1. Pre-paradigmatic phase: data
collection, disagreement on
Social processes and institutional framework and core problems.
structures (laboratories, funding)
which together determine what are 2. Paradigm: normal science between
legitimate problems and solutions revolutions → puzzle solving.
in a field of scientific research. 3. Crisis: anomalies, old paradigm
→ Guide research by by providing a loses grip, new methods, promises
shared set of assumptions and of success.

Theme 5: Philosophy of Science 7

 methods. 4. Revolution: new paradigm takes

→ Determine what questions are worth over, new institution, methods,

investigating, what methods should be criteria, theories).
used, and how results should be 5. New paradigm (normal science) →
interpreted. 1, until crisis.
Paradigm can be as authoritative as Normal science: paradigm is stable.
dogmatic → against what Karl Popper
Paradigm is a set of commitments, not
proposed.
only to concepts and theories, but also
Paradigms are incommensurable → to instruments and methods.
no rational comparison is possible
Kuhn concept of paradigm:
between competing paradigms (can
not recognize each other’s research Emphasize the role of social and
question) → exemplify theory historical factors in shaping
ladenness. scientific revolutions.

Challenge the idea that scientific

progress is solely driven by the
pursuit of truth.

Rational reconstruction and methodological

anarchism: Lakatos and Feyerabend
Lakatos on Rational reconstruction Feyerabend on science in a free
society
Approach: adapt Kuhn’s analysis of
paradigms with the possibility of a Methodological anarchism: “anything
rational reconstruction of scientific goes” in methodology, there is and
progress. should be no demarcation criterion.

Against falsification and Scientific progress was often driven by

verification. social and accidental factors rather
than purely rational methods, and he
Research programme: sequences of
emphasized the importance of
theories over time, comprising a set of
irrationality in scientific innovation.
core theses immune to criticism and a
protective belt of auxiliary hypotheses. Criticized the distinction of discovery
and justification.

Theme 5: Philosophy of Science 8

 If a programme shows no empirical Argued against ideology, and free
progress, anticipates no new facts, society should not by patronized by
and only subsists by patching up its philosophical know-alls.
core with ever new excuses →
Fail to answer: why is it that science
degenerative. succeed in producing truth while
Within a research programme others can not?
dogmatism resigns, nevertheless some
form of fallibilism and falsification can
be salvages: there is a rational choice,
by way of a-posteriori selection
between programmes.

Rationality can be preserved through

competition, empirical growth, and
heuristic power.

Lakatos tried to rescue

rationality in a backward
fashion, combining
dogmatism within a
‘research programme’ with
the possibility of
progress through the
identification of progressive
and degenerating
programmes

Since Kuhn: Post-positivism in a Nutshell

Post-Kuhn: reconcile positivist concerns with Kuhnian insights on the role of social
and historical factors in shaping scientific practices

Theme 5: Philosophy of Science 9

 Laudan’s historical meta- Naturalism and an empirical
methodology philosophy of science

Normative naturalism: emphasizes Shift to naturalistic approach.

problem-solving over truth-seeking in Approach: pragmatic and naturalist.
science.
Naturalism: philosophy of science has
Possibility for a naturalistic meta-
no a-priori methods, and instead uses
methodology using historical methods. empirical findings and insights from
Methodological standards change with history, psychology,…
history and with cognitive goals.
Emphasizes understanding scientific
Defuse relativism by emphasizing knowledge as procedural rather than a
empirical success and pragmatic. web of beliefs, and it seeks to derive
normative principles from descriptive
psychology

Chap 7 Philosophy of Science

Decartes’ method of doubt

Respond to skepticism by turning to rationalism.

Method of doubt: examine various beliefs and to reject all but those that were
incontestably certain.

Empiricists

John Locke George Berkeley

Knowledge comes from experiences, All qualities are perceived qualities
not innate ideas. and, being objects of perception → are

Tabula rasa. ideas that only have existence in being

perceived.
Sensation represents immediate
knowledge of external things. Sensible qualities, including both
primary and secondary qualities, exist
Representationalism: ideas represent only insofar as they are perceived by
objects. ideas are mental minds.

Theme 5: Philosophy of Science 10

 representations of external objects → Ideas can only exist in perception and
Indirect realism cannot resemble non-ideas, such as

What we know are our ideas (mental material substance.

representations) of the world, not the
world itself.

Primary qualities: qualities that exist in

physical objects and produce ideas
that resemble them (touch, see) →
quantitative.

Secondary qualities: qualities that do

not resemble their causes (taste,
smell) → subjective.

David Hume Immanuel Kant and Herman von

The basis of any science was Helmholtz

observation and experience → Categories of mind: innate operations

demanded examination of the human of the mind, organize sensory input
capacity to know and of what it is and provided order to the chaotic
possible to have knowledge about. sensory impressions.

Reject primary and secondary qualities Subjective idealism: all knowledge is

derived from inner mental experience.
Impressions: equivalent to
sensations. Helmholtz rejected Kant's innate
categories and emphasized an
Ideas: residual images left by
empiricist approach to perception.
impression.
Helmholtz proposed that perception
Associations were the forced that
involves internal processing
united mental atoms (ideas) and
mechanisms that mediate between
created compound ideas.
sensory input and conscious
1. Law of resemblance: thoughts shift experience.
from one event to a similar event.
Kant and Helmholtz advocated for
2. Law of contiguity: recall together indirect realism, which posits that
events that were experienced perceptions are not direct
representations of the external world

Theme 5: Philosophy of Science 11

 together, the one calling up but rather interpretations based on
remembrances of the other. sensory input and prior experiences.

3. Law of cause and effect: mind infer

that if, in experience, one event
always preceded another, the first
event caused the subsequent
event.

Challenge causality: nothing to

suggest the cause of those
impressions, only that they are
immediately present → constant
conjunction.

“Necessity” is essential to causality

but that cannot be derived from
observations of immediate experience.

Problem of induction: generalize

observed to unobserved cases.

Theme 5: Philosophy of Science 12

 Positivism
Auguste Comte Ernst Mach
Conduct a historical analysis of the All knowledge is derived from sense
development of the sciences. Three experience
stages: Sensations as the fundamental
1. Theological stage → projection of elements of both the external world
human qualities onto nature. and the self.

2. Metaphysical stage → gods were Bodies are symbols of thought based

replaced by metaphysical, on particular sensation complexes.
conceptual abstractions that were Matter is just a mental symbol for a
not within immediate experience. complex of elements that are
3. Positive stage → emphasize sensuous.
observation and verification.

Theme 5: Philosophy of Science 13

 Positivism rejects metaphysical The aim of science is to describe
speculation and focuses on observations in terms of sensations,
observable, verifiable facts and laws are nothing more than
descriptions of the relations between
sensations.

Logical Positivism
Theoretical terms would be accepted if they could be connected to observations,
but empirical observation was the ultimate authority.
Science must be restricted to observables constrained scientific work.

Precursors Logical positivism as neo-positivism

Conventionalism: the positing of Three step process for scientific

certain truths from the start → rather theory:
than proven, truths were a matter of
1. Record observations (sensory
agreement among adherents.
experience) in observational terms.
Observational statements: can be
2. Data is generalized into statements
checked for truth or falsity by direct
about anticipated empirical
experience.
observations.
Theoretical statements: can not be
3. Explain generalizations in
checked for truth or falsity against
theoretical terms.
direct observation.
Two components in proper scientific
theory:

1. Internal principles: explained the

thing-in-itself (things beyond
senses).

2. Bridge principles: statements that

mixed both theoretical language
and observational language to
establish the relation between the

Theme 5: Philosophy of Science 14

 thing-in-itself and the thing-as-it-
is-experienced (observations).

Operational definitions: defines

theoretical terms according to how
they are detected or measured.

Correspondence rule: aim to justify

operational definitions.

Verifiability principle: meaning of a

proposition is determined by how
the statement is verified.

Unity of science: there are no

special sciences whose
fundamental principles and
concepts cannot be equated with
those of at least one another
science.

Assumptions of Positivism:

Verification of a statement by observations.

Theory-neutral observation are possible

Every statements can be verified. The meaning of a statement is the way it

can
be verified (unverifiable talk is non-sense).

Theme 5: Philosophy of Science 15