PFAS-Selective

Single-Use Ion
Exchange Resin
for Drinking
Water Systems

Design and operation guidelines

for water systems using PurofineTM
PFA694E PFAS selective single-use ion
exchange resin for removing per- and
polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from
drinking water.
2

Design and Operational Guidelines:

PFAS-Selective Single-Use Ion Exchange
Resin for Drinking Water Systems

Contents

Introduction 3

Pretreatment 4

Resin Vessel Design 6

Vessel Configuration 7

Post-Vessel Design 8

Operational Considerations 9

Troubleshooting 14

References 16

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Introduction
Purofine PFA694E can reduce PFAS to non-detect or single-digit part per trillion (ng/L) levels for long
periods of times due to their inherent high selectivity for PFAS. However, proper treatment system design
and operation are crucial to such success. While standard anion exchange resins can remove PFAS to
some extent, they are not recommended due to their lower selectivity and tendency to produce higher PFAS
leakages. Adherence to guidelines and suggested minimum requirements for Purofine PFA694E can allow
operators to achieve effective and cost-efficient results.

Purofine PFA694E provides:

• High selectivity for both short and long-chain PFAS removal.

• Small footprints for treatment, including the reduction of ancillary equipment.

• Long bed life as the resin loads PFAS for months to years, depending on the water chemistry.

• Elimination of liability for the generator when spent PFAS resin is incinerated properly. The resin and the
PFAS are both destroyed, ending the PFAS “forever chemical” cycle in the environment.

Purofine PFA694E,
the premier PFAS-
selective single-use
ion exchange resin,
can be an excellent
choice for removing
per- and polyfluoroalkyl
substances (PFAS)
from drinking water.

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Pretreatment
Total Suspended Solids
Ion exchange resin can act as an absolute filter. Total suspended solids (TSS) removal is key to preventing
blockage and subsequent channeling within the resin bed. TSS is likely the greatest cause of failure of single-
use ion exchange resin. Proper design and operation of the prefiltration system will allow the resin to operate
for months or years and prevent the need for backwashing. Backwashing of the resin during the service period
is not recommended. Backwashing resin can potentially mix PFAS-loaded resin from the top of the vessel with
uncontaminated resin at the bottom which will mix the mass transfer zone and lead to premature breakthrough
of PFAS.

A particle size distribution analysis can help determine the size of incoming solids. If the well produces any
sand, a de-sander is recommended. For all water:

• Recommendation: Use a 5-micron bag or cartridge filter before the resin. If high levels of suspended solids
are expected that can quickly clog the 5-micron filter, consider installing a series of larger filters ahead of the
5-micron filter (for example, 25-micron followed by 10-micron followed by 5-micron). Base this on particle
size distribution analysis.

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

PurofineTM PFA694E throughput is dependent on the competing anions in the influent water. In general, the bed
life of anion resin decreases as the TDS of the influent rises. Contact your Ecolab sales representative for high-
confidence projections of resin life based on your specific water quality.

Oil and Grease

The resin will be readily fouled by oil and grease — remove these completely before the water makes contact
with the resin. Organo-clay media alone or in combination with oil-absorbing bag filters are good choices. Get
help from manufacturers to select the right ones for your specific needs.

Dissolved Iron and Manganese

As a rule of thumb, these metals can precipitate on downstream media (e.g. resin, granular activated carbon
(GAC), or membranes), especially when the iron concentration is above 0.5 ppm and manganese is above
20 ppb. Piloting may be necessary to determine the degree to which these minerals fall out of solution.
Pretreatment may be needed for these metals.

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• Recommendation: Use precipitative greensand or catalytic-type media like Purolite MZ10Plus to remove iron
and manganese before the water contacts the resin.

These media are often used in conjunction with an oxidant like permanganate or chlorine. Oxidants will
destroy the resin and must be removed before the water contacts the resin. Remove all traces of oxidants
before the resin with either sodium bisulfite, sodium thiosulfate or GAC per manufacturer’s instructions.

Oxidants
Prolonged contact of the resin with oxidants such as chlorine, chloramine, hypochlorite, permanganate and
ozone will destroy the resin and also increase the potential for nitrosamine formation in the effluent water.

• Recommendation: Remove all traces of oxidants before the resin with either sodium bisulfite, sodium
thiosulfate, or GAC, per manufacturer’s instructions.

Scaling
When the Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) of the water is positive, calcium carbonate scaling can occur. A
slightly positive LSI (e.g., +0.2 to +0.5) can form a beneficial thin film of calcium carbonate on the distribution
pipework that can protect against corrosion. If an air stripper is used to remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from the
water, the pH of the effluent water will generally increase; this can sometimes turn the LSI from a negative to a
positive value. If the LSI becomes too high (e.g., +1 to +2), excessive scaling can occur — scale precipitation on
resin beads and vessel internals will degrade overall system performance.

• Recommendation: Determine the LSI based of the water. If the LSI is too high or can become positive after a
pretreatment step, consider feeding an acid to prevent scaling.

Microbes
Bacteria are sometimes found in groundwater and in equipment in contact with the water — this makes it
difficult to achieve negative BAC-T counts in the water exiting the resin vessel. Careful investigation should be
done to determine the source — besides the well, other sources of bacterial contamination can include dead
legs in the piping or improper application of gasket lubricant. If the well is determined to be the source:

• Recommendation: If necessary, disinfect the inlet well water with a UV disinfection unit. Solids filtration can
be used to filter out biomass after a UV. Alternatively, use an oxidant and refer to the oxidants section above.

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Total Organic Carbon

Total organic carbon (TOC) can foul and negatively impact resin performance — the extent of fouling depends
on the molecular weight distribution of the TOC and its anionic characteristics. TOC in groundwater usually
ranges from 1 to 2 ppm or less. At higher levels, the throughput of Purofine PFA694E will be negatively
affected (but less so than GAC used for PFAS removal).

• Recommendation: Use GAC or a brine regenerable organic-scavenger resin like Purolite A502P, Purolite
A860, or Purolite TanexTM resins before the Purofine PFA694E to significantly improve the throughput of the
resin when TOC exceeds 2 ppm.

Volatile Organic Compounds

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) generally will not affect Purofine PFA694E throughput. If removal of VOCs
is needed, GAC can be used with an EBCT of approximately 5 minutes. Check with your GAC provider for
guidance.

• Recommendation: If PFAS and VOCs co-exist in the water, use GAC treatment for VOCs removal. VOCs
treatment with GAC can be done either before or after the resin. Be aware that GAC may preferentially roll
over or slough smaller chain PFAS as a longer chain PFAS load. VOCs will not affect the Purofine PFA694E.

• If TOC present is greater than 2 ppm, GAC before the resin can help protect the resin against potential TOC
fouling. The user should be aware of the potential sloughing of shorter chain PFAS from GAC as longer chain
PFAS load.

• Alternatively, Purolite A502P can be used for TOC reduction before the Purofine PFA694E. In most cases, if
no TOC pretreatment is used, the Purofine PFA694 performance will be reduced, but not as severely as the
performance reduction for GAC. Piloting to determine throughput is recommended.

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Resin Vessel Design

Below are the critical elements for vessel design1 to treat PFAS using Purofine PFA694E resin:

• Bed Depth: 3 ft (0.91 m) minimum up to 12 gpm/ft2 (30 m/h); 3.7 ft (1.1 m) minimum above 12 gpm/ft2 (30
m/h) design flows

• Linear Velocity: Design goal = 6–18 gpm/ft2 (15–45 m/h)

• Specific Flowrate: Design goal = 1–5 gpm/ft3 (8–40 BV/h)

• Empty Bed Contact Time (EBCT): Design goal = 1.5–2.5 minutes contact time for the lead resin bed

The kinetics of Purofine PFA694E are very fast compared to GAC, with GAC typically requiring 8 to 13 minutes in
the lead vessel. Check with your GAC provider for guidance.

Resin vessels must be properly designed to handle the faster hydraulics indicated above. Whether designing a
new resin system or retrofitting another media vessel for resin use, pay attention to the following:

• Size new piping or evaluate existing piping for accommodating the maximum flow rate.

• Ensure that influent distributors to the resin vessels are properly designed to distribute the water flow evenly
over the cross-section of the vessels — this achieves plug flow or uniform distribution of the water through
the resin bed and avoids channeling and premature breakthrough of PFAS.

• Ensure that slot size of the effluent distributors can retain the resin. In general, a slot size of 60 U.S. mesh
(~0.01 inch or 250 microns) is adequate to accommodate Gaussian and uniformly sized resin beads (typical
bead diameters range from 300–1200 microns (16–50 U.S. mesh).

• Ensure vessels are lined with a National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) approved coating and all other
components are NSF-compliant.

• Recommend that sample ports be installed at 25, 50, and 75 percent of the resin depth. Such sample ports
allow monitoring of the PFAS loading profile and are especially important for troubleshooting
the system.

Preferably, vessel design should also include both a side manway and a top manway. These make it easier to
inspect the vessel and resin bed.

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FIGURE 1 Lead Lag

Typical Lead/Lag
Vessel Configuration

Vessel Configuration
Although PFAS treatment goals are achievable with a single vessel, a lead-lag pair of vessels is recommended
for several reasons:

• Operational costs will be lower with lead-lag design because the lead vessel will be allowed to operate for a
significantly longer period while the lag is still at non-detect or single digit part per trillion. Longer run time
allows for more efficient use of resin.

• Because sampling results may take weeks to arrive, a lag bed provides the best assurance that PFAS levels
in the discharge water are below treatment goals.

Post-Vessel Design
Inline installation of a “witch’s hat” type strainer or basket strainer on the vessel effluent can help catch
escaped resin beads in case there is a screen failure in the outlet distributors.

Installation of check valves after the treatment system will ensure water does not flow backwards into the
vessel and disrupt the mass transfer zone of the resin bed.

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Operational Considerations
Startup
Before loading, disinfect all vessels and piping as per “AWWA C653-20 Disinfection of Water Treatment
Plants.” Rinse equipment to remove all chlorine residuals to avoid destruction of the resin beads.

A food-grade wash out must be done on slurry trucks and hoses before resin is loaded in them.

Rinse the Purofine PFA694E as per the NSF/ANSI-61 guidelines using at least 20 bed volumes of water (150
gallons per cubic foot of resin) before sending drinking water to the distribution system. Offsite resin rinsing
can often be done by service providers before installation. In such cases, minimal onsite rinsing is needed.

Fill vessels partially with water (e.g., m 1/3 of volume) to provide a “water cushion” as the resin is loaded into
the vessel. This helps to level the resin bed as it is loaded and prevents resin breakage as it lands.

Slurry load the Purofine PFA694E to prevent bacterial contamination.

During startup of a new resin bed, nitrosamine sampling is sometimes recommended by regulators.
Nitrosamines are not in the resin but can be formed when nitrosamine precursors make contact with chlorine or
other oxidants. Rinsing the resin is generally enough to eliminate this issue.

BAC-T sampling is also recommended before sending water to distribution.

When starting up a Purofine PFA694E system, whether on the first load, or in a start/stop scenario, ramp
up the flow slowly either by using a variable flow drive (VFD) on the well pump or a control valve that slowly
diverts flow from waste to treatment. Water hammer, or instantaneous water flow changes, can cause resin
movement and disruptions in the bed. As a rule of thumb, the ramp-up time should be about five minutes
from start to full flow.

Purofine PFA694EBF for Minimal Water Chemistry Changes

One major drawback of anion exchange resin systems at startup is that they simultaneously remove alkalinity,
sulfate, and other anions in exchange for chloride. Buffered resin can reduce the effects of water chemistry
changes at startup by:

• Preventing effluent chloride from approaching or exceeding local discharge standards.

• Preventing high chloride to sulfate mass ratio (CMSR) which can create lead leaching potential in
piping systems.

• Stabilizing effluent pH and meeting local discharge standards.

In certain situations, the buffered form, such as Purofine PFA694EBF, can create significant savings on operations
and waste rinse water.

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300
FIGURE 2

ppm Chloride
250

Typical Elution Profile 200

150
of Purofine PFA694EBF
100
at Startup Compared to
50
Non-Buffered Version 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240

50
ppm Sulfate

40

30

20

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240

9
8.5
8
7.5
pH

7
6.5
6
5.5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240

Bed Volumes of Water Treated

Buffered Resin Standard Resin Raw Water

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Sampling
PFAS sampling protocols can be provided by your analytical laboratory — be sure to check with them before
starting any sampling regime.

Purofine PFA694E throughput is determined largely by the competing anions present in the influent water.

Influent Water Testing

Sample monthly for all anions to monitor if there are significant changes in water chemistry (e.g., 5 percent or
greater). Check at least for the following in the influent water:

• PFAS

• Sulfate

• Nitrate

• Alkalinity

• Chloride

• Total Organic Carbon

• Total Dissolved Solids

Midpoint and Effluent Sampling

• Sample weekly for PFAS to ensure proper treatment.

• The midpoint sample point is defined as the effluent of the lead bed. This data point provides the “trigger
point” information as to when a resin exchange is required. This “trigger point” can be recommended by
Ecolab to maximize resin usage.

• Sample the discharge point of the treatment train to ensure the treatment goal is being achieved.

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Monitoring
Once the vessels are properly configured in a lead-lag arrangement, no changes are required to the valves until
the resin is ready to be exchanged. Rounds and readings are recommended three times a week.

Monitor the following critical parameters:

• Flow rates

• Meter readings

• Pressure levels in and out of each vessel to determine pressure drop — or readings from a differential
pressure (dP) cell

• Other operational items to check routinely include:

• Proper valve positioning. Some water purveyors install locks to ensure valving is not changed.
- Air-relief valves can sometimes leak. Throttling them open and closed can dislodge a particle that
causes leakage.

Resin Exchanges
Before refilling with fresh resin into a vessel that previously contained spent resin, it is critical to remove all
spent resin and to visually inspect and confirm that no spent resin is left behind. Spent resin will compromise
the operating capacity during the next service cycle. Visual inspection of the vessel and internal distribution
systems must be done to confirm equipment integrity as well as to confirm that no resin beads or pieces of
beads are wedged in the distribution slots — any such defects must be corrected before the vessel is returned
to service. It should be noted that reduction of contaminants at parts per trillion levels to non-detect levels,
requires a lot of precision to ensure success. It is highly recommended that detailed photographs of the
inspected sections of the vessel be taken and stored as verification that this has been properly done for each
vessel.

Before returning to service, the vessel and its associated plumbing and valves should be sanitized for use in
drinking water treatment using a customer-approved procedure.

After completion of above task, a fresh charge of resin can then be loaded into the empty vessel, taking all
precautions to prevent contamination of the resin from direct handling and/or exposure to contaminants that
will foul and impair its operating efficiency (e.g., oil, grease, soil). Typically, the vessel with the fresh resin is
then placed into the lag (or polishing) position while the former lag vessel is placed into the lead position (not
physically but) by opening and closing of appropriate valves. After settling of the fresh charge of resin, the resin
bed is rinsed to drain using our recommended procedure.

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Starting and Stopping a System

As mentioned previously, water hammer should be avoided to prevent resin movement. Flow should be
ramped down when stopping and ramped up when re-starting.

If a system needs to sit idle, generally there are no issues with turning a well on and off over the course of
a day. Warmer weather conditions are more conducive to bacteria growth. Consider these guidelines for
preventing bacterial growth:

• If a vessel is idle more than 24 hours, at least two bed volumes of water should be rinsed through the vessel
every day or two.

• If a vessel is idle for longer periods or where periodic rinsing is not feasible, the water should be completely
drained from the vessel. When the vessel is ready to be started up, rinse the resin at full flow until the BAC-T
samples are negative. Depending on the water quality, this can take from one hour to a day.

Conditions to Avoid
If properly run and maintained, resin beds enjoy long and hassle-free life. To prevent upsets, ensure these
factors are addressed:

• Oxidants like chlorine will destroy the resin as well as cause nitrosamines to form. Influent water should,
therefore, be oxidant-free.

• Water hammer should be avoided. Ramp-up and ramp-down procedures should be in place.

• Entrained air in the influent water may cause bubble formation and subsequent resin movement.

• Any solids need to be removed before the resin as discussed in the pretreatment section. Solids can include
suspended solids, precipitated solids (iron, for example) or biological growth.

• Interfering contaminants in the influent water include fuels, solvents, oils and surfactants. Each of these has
the potential to negatively impact resin performance by breaking down the resin or blinding off its active
sites.

• Resin loss, although obvious, can be detrimental to the performance of a bed.

• Ensure the manifold valves are configured properly before starting up.
• Excessive backwashing can displace resin. Backwashing is not recommended.
• Broken effluent screens can cause resin loss. Secondary resin retention screens
— basket strainers or witch’s hats — are recommended.

• Backwashing of the resin is not recommended after startup (and not required before startup). If a system is
backwashed intentionally or through a leaking valve, the PFAS mass transfer zone is mixed and can lead to
premature breakthroughs.

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Troubleshooting
Keeping good records is the first step to understanding where a problem originates. Follow the sampling and
monitoring guidelines above.

Premature Breakthrough
Diagnosing system operating problems before they lead to premature breakthrough is critical to achieving
good results. An adequate monitoring and sampling protocol should be set up and followed. Operators should
pay attention to any sudden changes in influent water characteristics or operation of upstream pretreatment
equipment, any fouling, loss of resin or any of the above mentioned parameters.

Solids buildup in the vessel:

• If dirt accumulates in the vessel, the influent water will find the path of least resistance. As this path is
established, the water will push dirt-encrusted resin out of the way. This results in vessels channeling of the
resin and early breakthrough.

• Visual inspection is the easiest way to verify solids buildup. Samples of resin can also be pulled from various
spots in the vessel and tested for dirt accumulation.

• Pressure drop (dP) across the lead vessel is another indication of dirt accumulation. If dP is seen to increase
excessively, a vessel inspection may be recommended. Watch for an increase in pressure and then a sudden
reduction. That could indicate the resin bed has shifted.

• In some cases, if there is significant life remaining in the resin bed, the dirt layer on top can be removed, the
bed can be leveled and the resin can be put back into use. This should be done with the help of a service
provider to ensure proper equipment and sterilization procedures are used. The vessel should be tested for
BAC-T before being put back into service.

• Prefilters should be inspected for tears or improper installation. Prefilters should be changed regularly —
usually when the dP across the prefilter is 10 pounds per square inch.

• If prefilters are not compromised, it is possible the particles in the water are smaller than the micron
rating of the filter. A particle size analysis of the influent water can be done to understand the filtration level
required.

• Solids build up can also come from dissolved metals like iron and manganese in the influent water. These
metals can come out of solution, precipitate and foul the resin. Again, this can be diagnosed by sampling the
resin bed and performing a resin analysis.

• Solids buildup can also occur if bacterial growth is occurring. Investigation of systems upstream from the
resin bed should be analyzed to determine the source of the bacteria.
See pretreatment recommendations.

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Resin Movement
• A resin bed should be level to ensure plug flow through the vessel.

• Solids buildup, as discussed above, is the primary cause of resin movement.

• Water hammer can cause resin movement. Ensure ramp-up and ramp-down procedures are followed.

• Entrained air or excessive dissolved air in the influent water will cause resin movement. When the water hits
the resin bed, there is a pressure drop, causing air to come out of the solution. As bubbles form on the resin
bead, the beads can float to the top of the bed, causing disruption of the mass transfer zone.

• If influent water distribution is either not designed effectively, or is somehow damaged, influent water
pressure can move resin around.

• Excessive backpressure can cause water to flow backward — especially in startup and shutdown modes —
causing the bed to get mixed and disturbing the mass transfer zone.

• Check valves should be installed after the treatment vessels to ensure water cannot flow backwards.

• Backwashing of the vessel will cause disruption of the mass transfer zone and lead to
premature breakthroughs.

Water Chemistry Changes

Anion concentrations will affect the performance of the resin. Spikes in any of the influent anions will deplete
resin capacity, causing less throughput than initially expected.

Resin Fouling
In addition to dirt and dissolved metals, resin can be fouled by organics in the water. Oil, grease, or a
surfactant will all blind the active surface of the resin bead. Solvents, fuels, or surfactants can impair the bead
structure and cause performance issues. Resin sampling and analysis can diagnose these problems.

Resin Loss
When resin is not in the vessel, it cannot remove PFAS. Visual inspection should indicate if resin loss has
occurred. Please note that resin will shrink as it exchanges chloride ions for other anions in the water. Expect
up to 30% shrinkage of the bed from when it’s first installed. Causes of resin loss include improper valving,
broken screens or excessive backwashing.

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Channeling
Channeling can occur because of too low a flow. Design flow should be between 6–18 gpm/ft2 (15–44.0
m/h). Between 2–6 gpm/ft2 (5–15 m/h), channeling may be a risk. Lower than 2 gpm/ft2 (5 m/h) will cause
channeling issues, which can lead to premature breakthroughs.

Insufficient Removal of Spent Resin

If not all of the resin is completely removed in a resin exchange, the residual resin can cause
early breakthrough.

High Pressure Drop

• High dP across a vessel can most often be explained by dirt accumulation. See the “Solids buildup in the
vessel” section above.

• High dP across a vessel can also be explained by excessive resin fines clogging the effluent screens. Ensure
screens are cleaned out during changeouts.

• High dP across a basket strainer or witch’s hat can indicate a broken screen at the bottom of a vessel or
excessive resin fines in the resin bed. Removing the strainer and inspecting the contents of the strainer
should help indicate what happened.

Learn More
Visit www.puroliteresins.com/pfas to discover how Ecolab can support your PFAS treatment needs.

References
1. Civardi, John. “Section 10.6 Design Guidelines for PFAS.” Ion Exchange for Drinking Water Treatment,
American Water Works Association, Denver, CO, 2021, pp. 171–172.

PFAS-Selective Single-Use Ion Exchange Resin for Drinking Water Systems A P P L I C AT I O N G U I D E

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