LITERATURE - body of written works

● LITERA - letters
● LITERATURA - words formed by letters

POETRY - form of writing that uses not only words, but also form, patterns of sound, imagery, and
figurative language to convey the message.

TYPES OF NARRATIVE POETRY

1. EPIC - long narrative poem divided into chapters.

TYPES OF EPIC
● FOLK/POPULAR EPIC - does not have a known author but evolved gradually from the
people’s ancient traditions. Ex. Beowulf and Nibelungenlaid
● LITERARY EPIC - has distinct authorships. Ex. Biag ni Lam-Ang by Pedro Bucaneg (It tells
the story of Lam-ang's life from avenging his father's murder, to being eaten by the water
monster Berkakan, to being reborn and living happily ever after with his love, Ines Kannoyan.)
● CLASSICAL EPIC - has standard conventions such as an underlying theme of human problem.
Ex. The Odyssey

2. METRICAL ROMANCE - long, rambling love story in verse. Ex. Florante at Laura by
Francisco Baltazar/Balagtas by which he dedicated this to his former lover, Maria Asuncion
Rivera.

3. BALLAD - short narrative poem intended to be sung with folk and literary as its types.

4. METRICAL TALE - what the short story is to prose; deals with any emotion or phase of life.

TYPES OF LYRIC POETRY

1. ODE - deals with a serious theme such as immortality. The most majestic of lyric types. It
expresses a noble feeling.

2. ELEGY - poem/song that deals with death as its subject.

● EULOGY - speech about the dead

3. SONG - short lyric poem intended to be sung.

TYPES OF DRAMATIC POETRY

1. FARCE - an exaggerated comedy
● PARODY - focuses on reenactment in humorous way
● SATIRES - focuses on irony or mockery

2. HISTORICAL PLAY - a drama materials of which are taken from the lives of outstanding
figures in history.

3. MELODRAMA - a play with sensational actions.

4. COMEDY - a humorous drama with a happy ending.

5. TRAGEDY - a sad drama with a sad ending.

PROSE - any written work that follows a basic grammatical structure (think words and phrases
arranged into sentences and paragraphs).

TYPES OF PROSE
ESSAY - piece of writing that presents a writer's ideas, arguments, or reflections on a particular topic. It
typically follows a structured format, including an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

TYPES OF ESSAY
1. REFLECTIVE ESSAY - serious and dignified and usually employ aphorisms.
● Aphorisms - short, wise, and memorable statements that express a general truth or principle. They
are often used to convey meaningful insights in a brief and impactful way.

2. NARRATIVE/STORY ESSAY - makes use of an incident to illustrate an idea or a theme.

3. DESCRIPTIVE ESSAY - has some narrative elements as well as color, vividness, and realistic
portrayals.

4. BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAY - sketches life or presents character analysis.

5. NATURE ESSAY - attempts to picture the world of God’s creation and may do so in a graphic,
pictorial vein or a more thoughtful, philosophical manner.

6. CRITICAL ESSAY - includes biographical criticisms, literary criticisms, and book reviews.

7. PERIODICAL ESSAY - generally published in periodicals, hence, they are also called journalistic.

8. DIDACTIC ESSAY - enforces a moral and, therefore, the tone is serious and didactic (instructive).
Ex. The Pilgrim’s Progress is about a man named Christian who is anxious and ashamed of his sin
and the burden on his back. He must make a journey to the Celestial City to find redemption.

FICTION - the literary production of men’s imagination finding shape in stories of people or events.

FICTION SUB-GENRES
● FANTASY - a story in a fantasy world
● FOLKLORE - old cultural stories (includes fairytales, fables, myths, legends, and tall tales)

TYPES OF FICTION
1. PROSE ALLEGORY - prose form in which the characters, ideas, and actions stand for something
else for a system of ideas with meanings implied. Concrete characters are personifications of abstract
ideas.

CATEGORIES
● FABLE - is a short allegorical tale conveying a moral or principle of behavior; the characters are
usually animals talking like human beings.
● MYTHS - traditional tales common to the members of a tribe, race, or nation usually involving the
supernatural and serving to explain natural phenomena or suggest a religious moral truth.
● LEGENDS - stories of some wonderful events popularly believed to have some historical basis and
passed down through the ages.

2. PROSE ROMANCES - types of stories in which there occur some supernatural or magical events,
fantastic, and unrealistic.

TYPES OF PROSE ROMANCES

 ● Fairy tales - always end happily
● Folk tales - a story which consists of one or a combination of many folklore themes; sometimes
called "migratory tales"

3. PROSE SATIRES - are stories in which human vices are held up to ridicule.

4. NOVELS - are prose narratives on a large scale (book length) and can be divided into three types,
fantasy, love, and adventure novels. They are further broken down into such varieties as: epistolary,
picaresque, Gothic, Utopian, Western, detective, science-fiction, naturalistic, psychological, stream-
of-consciousness, religious, sociological, romantic,sentimental, realistic, surrealistic.

5. SHORT STORY - a prose narrative of limited length which can be read in just one sitting.

6. NOVELETTES - prose narratives that are intermediate between the short story and the novels. It is
about 50-150 ordinary pages long, but no exact limits can be given as to length. Ex. Hemingway's
The Old Man and the Sea

NONFICTION - written works that are based on real events, facts, and actual people. It aims to present
information that is true and factual rather than imaginary or fictional.

TYPES OF NONFICTION
1. BIOGRAPHY - story of a person’s life.

2. AUTOBIOGRAPHY - story the author writes about himself or herself.

3. NARRATIVE NONFICTION - story (or narrative) that happened in real life.

4. PERIODICALS - magazines, newspapers, and journals that are written regularly.

5. REFERENCE MATERIALS - books with facts in alphabetical order (dictionaries, thesaurus, and
encyclopedias).

OEDIPUS REX
Characters:
● Oedipus — The tragic hero who unknowingly fulfills a prophecy that he will kill his father and
marry his mother.
● King Laius — Oedipus' biological father and the former King of Thebes.
● Queen Jocasta — Oedipus' biological mother and later his wife.
● The King of Corinth — The man who adopts and raises Oedipus.
● Teiresias — A blind prophet who reveals the truth.
● Antigone — Oedipus' loyal daughter who cares for him in his final days.

Setting:
The story takes place in Thebes and Corinth, with key events happening on a mountain path and later near
Athens.

Events:
1. A prophecy reveals that Oedipus will kill his father and marry his mother.
2. To prevent this, King Laius orders a servant to kill the baby, but the servant spares him.
3. Oedipus is raised by the King of Corinth, unaware of his true identity.
4. Hearing the prophecy as an adult, Oedipus leaves Corinth to avoid harming his believed parents.
5. On his journey, Oedipus unknowingly kills his real father, King Laius.
6. Oedipus solves the Sphinx's riddle and becomes King of Thebes, marrying Jocasta.
 7. Plagues strike Thebes, and Oedipus learns through investigation that he killed his father and married
his mother.
8. Jocasta takes her life, and Oedipus blinds himself in despair.

Conflict:
The main conflict arises from fate versus free will, as Oedipus tries to escape his destiny but ultimately
fulfills it.

Resolution:
Oedipus blinds himself out of guilt and sorrow, then lives in exile as a blind beggar.

Ending:
In his final days, Oedipus is cared for by his daughter Antigone. He finds peace when the gods mercifully
take him to a sacred place near Athens.

Themes:
● Fate and Destiny — Despite efforts to avoid it, Oedipus cannot escape his tragic fate.
● Self-Discovery and Truth — Oedipus' quest for truth leads to devastating revelations.
● Guilt and Punishment — Oedipus' self-blinding reflects his overwhelming shame and regret.
● Pride and Power — Oedipus’ determination to seek the truth ultimately leads to his downfall.

GREEK POETS
● HESIOD
○ an ancient Greek poet who lived between 750-650 BCE, around the same time as Homer.
○ born in Ascra, a rural village in Boeotia
○ a farmer who received poetic inspiration from the Muses on Mount Helicon.
○ works reflect his concerns about justice, morality, and daily life, making him one of the earliest
voices in Greek literature to emphasize personal experience and ethical teachings.

NOTABLE WORKS
● THEOGONY — provides a genealogy of the Greek gods, detailing the origins and relationships
of various deities.
— begins with primordial entities like Chaos and progresses through successive generations,
culminating in the reign of Zeus.
— is a foundational text for understanding Greek mythology and cosmology.
● WORKS AND DAYS — Addressed to his brother, Perses.
— didactic poem combines practical agricultural advice with moral teachings.
— emphasizes the value of hard work and justice, interweaving myths such as that of Pandora
and the Five Ages of Man to illustrate his points.
— The poem serves as both a farmer's almanac and a guide to ethical living.
● THE SHIELD OF HERACLES — describes the battle between Heracles and Cycnus, with a
detailed depiction of Heracles' shield.
— highlights Heracles as a symbol of divine favor and strength, influencing later works in Greek
literature

● SOPHOCLES
○ An ancient Greek Tragedian
○ Known as the “KING OF TRAGEDY”
○ Playwright, dramatist, general, and statesman
○ Inspirations: Literary and Mythological Traditions, Epic Heritage of Homer, Greek Mythology
and Religious Beliefs
○ Era: Classical Greece (Golden Age of Athens)
○ Biggest Achievement: Winning 20+ dramatic competitions in Athens
 ○ Legacy: One of the three greatest tragedians of Ancient Greece (along with Aeschylus and
Euripides)
○ Studied Music and Arts, Literature and Drama, Philosophy, Physical Training

INFLUENCE OF HIS WORKS

● Influence in the Innovation of Dramatic Form:

1. The addition of a third actor.
2. Reduced role of the chorus.
3. Development of character.
● Influence in Thematic Exploration:
1. Human Fate and Free Will
2. Suffering and Self-Discovery
3. Moral and Ethical Dilemmas
● Influence on Later Playwrights
1. Greek Tragedy
2. Roman Drama
3. Modern Drama

GENRE OF SOPHOCLES’ WORKS

Sophocles was one of the three great masters of the genre of Greek tragedy

WRITING STYLE

Sophocles' writing style is characterized by its precision, clarity, and dramatic intensity. He was known
for his:

1. Formal Language
2. Structured Dialogue
3. Compelling Characters
4. Dramatic Irony
5. Elevated Themes

MAJOR THEMES OF HIS WORKS

1. Fate and Free Will

2. Hubris
3. Moral and Ethical Dilemma
4. Sight and Blindness
5. Guilt and Shame

NOTABLE WORKS

● OEDIPUS REX — A tragedy about a man who unwittingly fulfills a prophecy by killing his
father and marrying his mother.
● ANTIGONE — A tragedy about a woman who defies the king's decree by burying her brother,
who is considered a traitor.
● ELECTRA — Story of Electra who plays revenge against her mother and urges her brother to
kill their mother. It examines the cycle of vengeance within a family and the moral complexities
of justice.

OTHER WORKS

● AJAX
● PHILOCTETES
 ● OEDIPUS AT COLONUS
● TRANCHINIAN WOMEN

● EURIPIDES
○ A GREEK DRAMATIST | GREEK TRAGEDIAN
○ Born in 480 BCE, his works were not always popular in his time, as they were seen as
unconventional and critical of traditional values, but they gained immense influence later.

LITERARY STYLE AND THEME

○ The use of common language, emotional intensity, realism (especially in character development),
and inventive theatrical devices like the prologue and deus ex machina are characteristics of
Euripides' style. His style was less formal and eminent than that of previous tragedians.
○ Themes of suffering (its causes and human reactions), the role of fate and the gods (often
portrayed as uncaring or erratic), strong and independent female characters who defy social
norms, criticism of war and its effects, and social and political issues like justice, the state, and
tyranny are all common in his works. Of the ancient Greek tragedians, he is regarded as the most
socially critical.

NOTABLE WORKS

● MEDEA — one of Euripides’ most powerful and enduring tragedies, exploring themes of
passion, betrayal, and revenge. The play follows Medea, a sorceress and wife of Jason, who is
abandoned when he chooses to marry the daughter of King Creon. In response, Medea enacts a
horrific vengeance, killing Jason’s new bride and, ultimately, their own children.
● THE TROJAN WOMEN — One of Euripides’ most devastating tragedies, The Trojan Women
is a harrowing critique of war and its human cost. Set in the aftermath of the Greek victory in the
Trojan War, the play follows the suffering of the women of Troy as they await their fate—
enslavement, exile, or death.
● THE BACCHAE — Widely considered Euripides’ masterpiece, The Bacchae is a powerful
exploration of divine vengeance, religious ecstasy, and the limits of human reason. The play
follows the god Dionysus, who arrives in Thebes disguised as a mortal to establish his worship.
● HIPPOLYTUS — Aphrodite seeks revenge on Hippolytus, who rejects her domain of sexual
love in favor of Artemis, the virgin huntress. To punish him, she makes his stepmother, Phaedra,
fall violently in love with him. The play examines themes of divine influence, shame, and the
consequences of misjudgment.

● AESCHYLUS
○ FATHER OF GREEK TRAGEDY
○ Aristotle praised him for expanding theatre, adding characters and conflict.

LITERARY STYLE | THEMES OF WAR AND JUSTICE

Aeschylus’ grand, poetic style uses formal language, vivid symbolism, and dramatic tension, with
the chorus playing a key role. His works highlight the devastating consequences of war and the
pursuit of justice, portraying the chaos and suffering of conflict. Central to his themes is divine
justice, where gods punish or reward actions, linking fate with morality. Through cycles of
revenge and bloodshed, he explores the moral complexities of retribution, creating timeless
reflections on war, justice, and human suffering

NOTABLE WORKS

● ORESTEIA TRILOGY — the only complete surviving trilogy. Comprising of:

 ○ Agamemnon,
○ The Libation Bearers, and
○ The Eumenides,
● THE PERSIANS — the oldest surviving tragedy, depicting the Persian defeat at Salamis.
● SEVEN AGAINST THEBES — about Oedipus’ sons’ conflict..
● THE SUPPLIANTS - following the Danaids fleeing forced marriage.
● PROMETHEUS BOUND - dramatizes Prometheus’ defiance of Zeus.

● ARISTOPHANES
○ Often referred to as the " Father of Comedy”

STYLE: Known for Old Comedy — bold fantasy , satire, and political commentary.

PERFORMANCE VENUES: His plays were performed at religious festivals in Athens , often winning
first prizes in competitions.

THEMES: His work frequently targeted contemporary events and prominent figures , such as the
Peloponnesian War and Socrates.

INFLUENCE: He uses the power of humor and satire to challenge societal norms, question, authority,
and stimulate thought among audiences.

LEGACY: His works remain influential and performed today, offering valuable insights into ancient
Greek society and politics.

NOTABLE WORKS

● THE CLOUDS — a comedic play by Aristophanes, first performed in 423 BCE. It is a satire on
intellectual fashions in classical Athens. It targets Socrates and the Sophists, who are known for
their philosophical and rhetorical teachings. The protagonist, Strepsiades, enrolls in Socrates'
"Thinkery" to learn arguments to help him evade his debts.
● THE BIRDS — is one of the surviving plays written by the ancient Greek playwright,
Aristophanes. First performed in 414 BC, it is a classic sample of Old Comedy. The plot follows
two men, Pisthetairos and Euelpides, who are tired of life in Athens and seek a new life among
the birds. They persuade the birds to build a new city in the sky called Cloudcuckooland, where
they will rule over humans and gods alike.
● LYSISTRATA — is a comedy by the ancient Greek playwright Aristophanes.
● THE KNIGHTS — also known as The Knight of Aristophanes, is a comedy by the ancient
Greek playwright Aristophanes.
● PEACE — is a comedic play first performed in 421 BC during the Peloponnesian War.
● THE FROGS — is a comedy by the ancient Greek playwright Aristophanes. It was first
performed in 405 BC at the Lenaia festival in Athens.

ROMAN POETS
● VIRGIL
○ Publius Vergilius Maro
○ was born on October 15, 70 BCE, in Andes, near Mantua in northern Italy.
○ received an extensive education in Cremona, Milan, and Rome, studying subjects such as
rhetoric, medicine, and philosophy.
○ deeply influenced by Greek literature and philosophy, particularly the works of
Theocritus and Hesiod.
 ○ He became part of the literary circle of Maecenas, a close advisor to Augustus, which.
provided him with the support to focus on his writing.

NOTABLE WORKS

● THE AENEID - composed between 29 and 19 BCE. This epic poem narrates the journey of
Aeneas, a Trojan hero, as he escapes the fall of Troy and embarks on a quest to establish a new
homeland in Italy, ultimately leading to the foundation of Rome. The Aeneid is celebrated for its
exploration of themes such as duty, fate, and piety, and it serves as a national epic that glorifies
Rome's origins and Augustus's reign.
● ECLOGUES — Composed between 42 and 37 BCE, the Eclogues are a collection of ten
pastoral poems that draw inspiration from the Greek poet Theocritus. These poems explore
themes of rural life, love, and political events of the time, reflecting the turbulence of the era
through allegory and pastoral imagery.
● GEORGICS - Written between 37 and 30 BCE, the Georgics is a didactic poem in four books
that focuses on agriculture, offering practical advice on farming, viticulture, animal husbandry,
and beekeeping. Beyond its instructional content, the poem delves into philosophical reflections
on humanity's relationship with nature and the value of hard work.

● HORACE
○ Quintus Horatius Flaccus
○ The VOICE OF AUGUSTAN ROME
○ Also known as the "ROME'S LYRIC MASTER"
○ Poet, lyricist, satirist, philosopher
○ Biggest Achievement: Becoming one of Emperor Augustus' favorite poets Legacy: His
philosophy of life is timeless, and his poetry inspired writers for centuries.
○ Inspirations: Greek Literary Models, Philosophical Foundations, Roman Political and
Cultural Context, and Literary Criticism and the "Ars Poetica"

INFLUENCE OF HIS WORKS

● Influence on Lyric Poetry

1. Master of the Odes
2. Personal and Universal
3. Influence on Later Lyric Poets

INFLUENCE IN SATIRE

1. Founder of Roman Satire

2. Influence on Latin Satirists

INFLUENCE ON LITERARY CRITICISM

1. Ars Poetica
2. Dulce et Utile

INFLUENCE ON PHILOSOPHICAL IDEAS

1. Epicureanism and Stoicism

2. Golden Mean

GENRE OF HORACE'S WORKS

Horace wrote in a variety of poetic genres and addressed many different topics. Books of poems that
include the books of Satires, Odes, Epodes, and Epistles. Topics of Horace's poems include nature, love,
political commentary, and artistic advice on the writing of poetry.
MAJOR THEMES OF HIS WORKS

1. Love
2. Friendship
3. Philosophy
4. Poetry
5. Politics

NOTABLE WORKS

● ODES — A collection of lyrical poems on a variety of themes, including love, friendship,

politics.
● SATIRES — A collection of satirical poems that criticize the follies and vices of Roman society.
● EPISTLES — A collection of letters in verse, addressed to various friends and patrons, on topics
such as philosophy, literature, and the conduct of life
● EPODES — A collection of short lyric poems that are often bitter, satirical, and aggressive,
reflecting his commentary on Roman society and politics.

● OVIDIUS
○ CANONICAL POET
○ Publius Ovidius Naso
○ often ranked as one of the three canonical poets of Latin literature. His works, especially
Metamorphoses and Ars Amatoria, have had a profound influence on Western literary
traditions, philosophy, and visual art. His themes of transformation, love, and exile, as
well as his blending of high and low culture, have made him an enduring figure whose
works continue to resonate across different periods and genres even after his death in the
17 CE.

LITERARY STYLE AND THEME

● Ovid's works are known to be elegiac couplets to retell tales of Greek mythology. Among Ovid's
early poetic influences were Hellenistic poets such as Callimachus and the Roman poets Catullus
and Propertius, the latter two of which influenced Ovid's use of elegiac couplets. Despite being
known for his poems written in elegiac couplet, his book of poems, Metamorphoses, with a theme
that deals about passion and is regarded as his magnum opus is an exception.
● Love, Passion and Romantic Relationships. No other Latin poet explored the theme of love quite
so thoroughly as Ovid. Whether relating mythical stories from the distant past or dispensing
advice to his fellow Romans, Ovid constantly evokes the joys and dangers of love. In writing
about love, Ovid drew on a variety of earlier authors, Terence, Catullus, and Virgil being among
the most prominent.

NOTABLE WORKS

● METAMORPHOSES — Considered Ovid's masterpiece, Metamorphoses is an epic poem that

tells the story of the world's creation and transformation, featuring a vast array of mythological
tales and legends. The poem consists of 15 books and over 250 myths, showcasing Ovid's
exceptional storytelling skills.
● ARS AMATORIA (THE ART OF LOVE) — This three-book poem is a guide to the art of
seduction, love, and relationships. Ovid offers advice on how to win over a loved one, how to
maintain a relationship, and how to cope with heartbreak. The poem's witty and humorous tone
has made it a timeless classic.
● FASTI — a six-book poem that explores the Roman calendar and its associated festivals, myths,
and legends. Ovid delves into the history and significance of various Roman holidays, providing
valuable insights into ancient Roman culture and traditions.
 ● TRISTIA (SORROWS) - Written during Ovid's exile in Tomis (modern-day Constanta,
Romania), Tristia is a collection of elegies that express the poet's sadness, longing, and despair.
The poems provide a glimpse into Ovid's personal life and his struggles with exile.
● REMEDIA AMORIS (REMEDIES FOR LOVE) - In this poem, Ovid offers advice on how to
cure oneself of love sickness. He provides a range of remedies, from distractions and diversions
to more drastic measures, showcasing his wit and humor.

● GAIUS
○ Gaius Valerius Catullus
○ He is best known for his passionate, often bitter poems about his love for Lesbia and his
satirical attacks on figures like Julius Caesar. After a disappointing stint in Bithynia (57
BCE) and mourning his brother's death, he returned to Rome, focusing on broader
themes. Despite his early death, his emotionally charged poetry profoundly influenced
Roman literature.

LITERARY STYLE AND THEME | THE HUMAN EXPERIENCE

His works are characterized by their exploration of universal human experiences, particularly love,
hatred, and personal reflection. His innovative use of language and metrical versatility captures the
ecstasy and despair of his relationship with Lesbia in 25 deeply personal love poems. Inspired by
Hellenistic poets like Callimachus he employed refined intimate hemes breaking away from traditional
epic poetry and emphasizing personal expression and the complexities of human emotion. His work
remains a timeless: reflection of human experiences, influencing later poets like Ovid, Virgil, and Horace

NOTABLE WORKS

● CARMINA (SONGS OR POEM) — Through the Carmina, Catullus masterfully explores love,
betrayal, and human emotion, leaving a lasting literary legacy.
● POEM 5 ("Vivamus, mea Lesbia") — which celebrates living and loving passionately;
● POEM 8 — where he laments the end of his affair with Lesbia; and
● POEM 51 — expressing intense jealousy over his beloved.
● POEM 16 — with its explicit language, controversial
● POEM 11 — a poignant farewell to friends.

● CICERO
○ Marcus Tullius Cicero
○ Studied rhetoric, oratory, and law under leading philosophers of his time
○ Style: elegance, clarity, and persuasive power
○ Influence: had a lasting impact on Western philosophy, law, and political thought.

NOTABLE WORKS

● DE ORATORE — a philosophical discourse on oratory, highlighting its significance in public

life and shaping society.
● DE REPUBLICA — a political dialogue on Roman politics and philosophy written by Marcus
Tullius Cicero. It explores various political and philosophical topics, including justice, the role of
the statesman, and the ideal government structure.
● DE OFFICIIS — "On Obligations" is a 44 BC philosophical treatise that delves into the ethical
and moral duties of individuals in society, focusing on justice, the common good, and virtue.
● DE FINIBUS BONORUM ET MALORUM — "On the Ends of Good and Evil" is a
philosophical work from 45 BCE that delves into Hellenistic ethical theories, examining
happiness, human action, and the highest good.
 ● DE NATURA DEORUM — "On the Nature of Gods" is a philosophical work by the Roman
statesman Cicero, written in 45 BC. A dialogue discussing the differing beliefs about the gods
and their nature within the various philosophical schools of the time.

PYRAMUS AND THISBE

Characters:

● Pyramus — A young man deeply in love with Thisbe.

● Thisbe — A young woman equally devoted to Pyramus.
● The Lioness — A wild beast that indirectly causes a tragic misunderstanding.

Setting:

The story is set in Babylonia, specifically near the tomb of King Ninus and a mulberry tree outside the city
gates.

Events:

1. Forbidden Love: Pyramus and Thisbe are neighbors whose parents forbid them from marrying.
Despite this, they communicate secretly through a crack in the wall.
2. Escape Plan: The lovers plan to meet at a mulberry tree by the tomb of King Ninus to elope.
3. Misfortune: Thisbe arrives first but flees when a lioness appears. In her rush, she drops her veil. The
lioness, with blood on its mouth, tears the veil and leaves it behind.
4. Tragic Mistake: Pyramus arrives next, finds the blood-stained veil, and assumes Thisbe has been
killed. Overcome with grief, he takes his own life with his sword.
5. Heartbreaking Ending: Thisbe returns, finds Pyramus dying, and in her despair, ends her life with the
same sword.

Conflict:

The main conflict stems from miscommunication and forbidden love, as the lovers face obstacles from their
parents and tragic circumstances.

Resolution:

In the end, Pyramus and Thisbe both die in sorrow, believing they had lost each other.

Ending:

The lovers are buried together, and as a symbol of their love and tragic fate, the once-white mulberry berries
turn red — a reminder of their spilled blood.
Themes:

● Love and Devotion — Pyramus and Thisbe love remains strong despite obstacles.
● Miscommunication and Fate — Their tragic end results from unfortunate misunderstanding.
● Sacrifice and Tragedy — Both characters willingly give their lives for love.

AMERICAN LITERATURE

PRE-COLONIZATION (20,000 BC TO 40,000 BC)

● Native Americans/Native peoples of the Plains, the Southwest, and parts of present
day California.
● Coyote was the central figure of the age before humans were created.

Coyote is a mythological figure who can be both clever and foolish.

MAIN FOCUS OF THE PERIOD

1. Survival - people during this period went beyond art and used literature as means of
survival
2. Trickster - used (?) for escaping and tricking other people

Hundreds of tales told by these peoples describe his (Coyote’s) exploits as a trickster and as
a benefactor to humankind.

3. Creation Myths - Gods and Goddesses

FAMOUS WORKS

● THE RAVEN CYCLE - refers to a collection of traditional stories, particularly those

found in the oral traditions of Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest and Arctic
regions.

These stories are a vital part of pre-colonization American literature. They were passed down
orally for generations before European contact.

● KACHINAS - creation myths about deities/spirit; are spirit beings in the religious
beliefs of the Pueblo peoples, particularly the Hopi and Zuni in the American
Southwest.
○ They are believed to be ancestral spirits who can bring rain, fertility, and well-
being.
 ○ Kachinas are represented by masked dancers during ceremonies and by carved
dolls.
○ The knowledge and stories surrounding Kachinas were transmitted orally
through generations.

COLONIAL AND NATIONAL PERIOD

● The Colonial and Early National Period of American literature spans from 1607 to 1830. This period
begins with the establishment of the first permanent English colony in Jamestown (1607) and
extends through the early years of the United States as a newly independent nation. Many of the
characteristics of colonial American literature can be found in the poems, journals, letters, narrative,
histories and teaching materials written by settlers and religious and historic figures of the period.

MAIN FOCUS ON THE LITERATURE PRODUCED

COLONIAL PERIOD

● Focus on Religion: Puritanism played a significant role, with religious texts, sermons, and
theological writings dominating the literary output. Writers often emphasized moral instruction and
the importance of living a righteous life.
○ The Puritans, a group of English Protestants seeking religious freedom, exerted a profound
influence on colonial life and literature. Their belief in God's sovereignty, predestination, and
the importance of personal piety shaped their writings.
● Exploration and Survival: The challenges and wonders of settling in a new land were a major
theme. Explorers and colonists documented their experiences in journals, diaries, and letters,
providing valuable insights into the encounters with Native Americans, the hardships of colonial life,
and the development of early settlements.
● Historical Accounts: Chronicles of explorations, colonial relations with indigenous populations,
and the establishment of early institutions formed a significant part of the literary landscape. These
accounts served both practical and historical purposes.
● Didacticism and Practicality: Much of the writing aimed to instruct, inform, or persuade. Literature
often served practical purposes, such as recording events, providing religious guidance, or
advocating for specific causes.
● Influence of British Literature: As the colonies were part of the British Empire, literary trends and
styles from England inevitably influenced American writers. However, a distinct American voice
began to emerge, reflecting the unique experiences and perspectives of the colonists.

EARLY NATIONAL PERIOD — After the American Revolution (1775-1783), the Early National
Period emerged as writers began to shape a distinct American literary identity, focusing on democracy,
independence, and national pride.

● Emergence of a National Identity: The primary focus was on establishing a unique American
identity, distinct from European traditions. Writers explored themes of democracy, liberty, self-
reliance, and the potential of the "American Dream."
● Political and Patriotic Fervor: The revolutionary spirit and the challenges of nation-building fueled
a surge in political writing. Pamphlets, essays, speeches, and even poetry often addressed issues of
governance, individual rights, and national unity.
 ● Early Fiction and Poetry: While earlier literature was dominated by religious and historical
accounts, this period witnessed the growth of imaginative literature. Writers began to experiment
with novels, short stories, and poetry, often drawing inspiration from American landscapes, historical
events, and the development of a national character.
● Influence of the Enlightenment: The ideals of reason, logic, and individual rights, championed by
European Enlightenment thinkers, continued to influence American writers. They emphasized the
importance of education, scientific inquiry, and critical thinking in shaping the new nation.
● Exploration of Moral and Social Issues: Writers grappled with questions of morality, social
justice, and the challenges faced by a diverse and growing population. They explored themes of
slavery, women's rights, and the treatment of Native Americans.
● Development of Regional Voices: As the nation expanded westward, distinct regional voices began
to emerge in literature. Writers captured the unique experiences and perspectives of different parts of
the country, contributing to a richer and more diverse literary landscape.

PROMINENT WRITERS

1. ANNE BRADSTREET (1612-1672) — She was the first published poet of America and the first
woman to be recognized for her literary work in the English colonies. Her poetry reflected Puritan
values, personal experiences, and the struggles of colonial life. She paved the way for women writers
in America.

Most Important Work: The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America

(1650) — The first published book of poetry written by an American.

2. JONATHAN EDWARDS (1703-1758) — He was a Puritan preacher and theologian known for his
role in the Great Awakening, a major religious revival in the American colonies. His sermons were
highly influential in shaping early American religious thought.

Most Important Work: Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God (1741) — A famous sermon that
emphasized God’s power and judgment, urging sinners to repent.

3. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1706-1790) — He was a key figure in the American Enlightenment,

promoting reason, self-improvement, and scientific thinking. His writings offered practical advice,
moral lessons, and political thought that influenced generations.

Most Important Work: The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin (published posthumously in 1791) – A
self-improvement guide and memoir that reflects his belief in hard work, education, and virtue.

PPT NI MA’AM

A new era began when the United States declared its independence in 1776, and much new writing
addressed the country’s future. American poetry and fiction were largely modeled on what was being
published overseas in Great Britain, and much of what American readers consumed also came from Great
Britain.

● The Federalist Papers (1787–88), by Alexander Hamilton, JamesMadison, and John Jay, shaped
the political direction of the United States.
 ● Benjamin Franklin’s Autobiography, which he wrote during the 1770s and ’80s, tells a
quintessentially American life story.

ENLIGHTENMENT PERIOD OR THE AGE OF REASON (1720-1830)

● American colonies began to reject many of the Puritan ideals, of which much of the culture
had been based upon until that time.

● Rooted in revolutionary ideas from the European Enlightenment, the American

Enlightenment introduced new ways of thinking, especially regarding government.

● John Locke, Charles Montesquieu, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau were three of the most
important Enlightenment thinkers. They developed theories about the government, religious
tolerance, and more.

● Famous works: ‘Paradise Lost’, ‘Robison’s Crusoe’, ‘The Rape of the Lock’, ‘Gulliver’s
Travels’, ‘Essay on Criticism’

“To err is human; to forgive, divine” — Alexander Pope

ROMANTIC PERIOD

● The Romantic Period, spanning from 1820 to 1860, was a literary movement that emerged as a
reaction against the growing industrialization and urbanization of the time. The "Romantic" period in
American literature is rooted in the medieval "romance" genre in Europe.

HOW ROMANTICISM STARTED

● The Romanticism Period started as a reaction to the industrialism and urbanization of the time and
prompted to celebrate nature, emotion, and individuality seen as a counterpoint to the perceived
coldness of industrial society. It is also influenced by the French Revolution because the ideals of
freedom, equality, and individuality resonated within the Romantic writers. Romanticism is also
because of the influence and works of Robert Burns and William Blake’s writing that has
foreshadowed and explored themes of spiritual and political freedom.

ROMANTICISM

● The American “Romanticism” put emphasis on emotions in their writings, from joy and awe to
melancholy and despair. The focus of most works are on individualism, the unique experiences and
feelings. And nature was seen as a source of inspiration and a powerful force in shaping human
experience. Writers from the Romantic period valued imagination over reason and logic and believed
that there is an inherent goodness in humanity and a desire for a change in politics and society.
MAIN GENRES AND SUBGENRES OF ROMANTIC PERIOD

MAIN GENRES

1. Essays - The essays during this period were heavily influenced by Transcendentalism, a sub-
movement of Romanticism that emphasized personal intuition, self-reliance, and connection between
humanity and nature.
2. Novels - Romantic literature flourished in poetry and short stories. Some major novels defined the
era while exploring psychological depth, morality, and the natural world.
3. Poetry - it was highly emotional, and often celebrated nature, the supernatural, and human intuition.

SUBGENRES

In literature, the subgenres are medieval themes and forms, as well as gloomy and rebellious figures.

In music, program music rose to prominence during the age where stories were presented without words.

In art, it has subgenres such as history painting and orientalism that romanticized Eastern cultures.

PROMINENT WRITERS

1. RALPH WALDO EMERSON (1803-1882)

He was a philosopher and writer who championed individualism, nature, and self-reliance, influencing
American thought through works like Self-Reliance and Nature. His ideas shaped Transcendentalism and
inspired generations of writers and thinkers.

FAMOUS WORK

SELF RELIANCE by Ralph Waldo EmersonSelf reliance is about an individual's confidence in their
capacity to manage their own life, make their own decisions, and provide for themselves without excessively
depending on others.

"Don't be pushed by your problems. Be led by your

dreams.”

2. NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE (1804-1864)

He was an American novelist and short story writer known for his dark, psychological themes, and
exploration of sin, guilt and morality. His writing blends symbolism, allegory, and psychological depth,
making him one of the greatest early American writers.
FAMOUS WORK

THE SCARLET LETTER by Nathaniel Hawthorne The Scarlet Letter is about a woman who is publicly
shamed and forced to wear a scarlet “A” for committing adultery.

THE ROMANTIC PERIOD (1830-1870

PPT NI MA’AM

● Romanticism is a way of thinking that values the individual over the group, the subjective over the
objective, and a person’s emotional experience over reason. It also values the wildness of nature over
human-made order.

● Famous Authors/Writers: Edgar Allan Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Walt
Whitman, Emily Dickinson

● Transcendentalists developed an elaborate philosophy that saw in all of creation a unified

whole.

● Famous works: ‘Uncle Tom’s Cabin’, ‘The Escape’ ‘Because I Could Not Stop For Death’, ‘My
Life Had Stood, A Loaded Gun”

“THE LONGEST WAY MUST HAVE ITS CLOSE - THE GLOOMIEST NIGHT WILL WEAR ON
TO A MORNING.” ― HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, UNCLE TOM’S CABIN

REALISM AND NATURALISM (1870-1910)

PPT NI MA’AM

● Realism is a literary genre that presents ordinary day-to-day experiences. Realism often focuses on
middle and lower class members of society. The purpose of literary realism is to tell truthful stories
of everyday people and their day-to-day lives, and it does so without dramatizing or romanticizing
these stories.

● Famous Authors/Writers: Mark Twain (comic realist), William Dean Howells (social realist),
Henry James (psychological realist), Stephen Crane, Jack London, Theodore Dreiser, and Frank
Norris

● Famous Works: ‘The Rise of Silas Lapham’, ‘The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn’, ‘The Red
Badge of Courage’, ‘Madame Bovary’
THE MODERNIST PERIOS

PPT NI MA’AM

● Advances in science and technology in Western countries rapidly intensified at the start of the 20th
century and brought about asense of unprecedented progress.

● A sense of disillusionment and loss pervades much American modernist fiction. That sense may be
centered on specific individuals, or it may be directed toward American society or toward
civilization generally. It may generate a nihilistic, destructive impulse, or it may express hope at the
prospect of change.

● Famous Works: ‘Their Eyes Were Watching God (1937)’, ‘Native Son (1940)’, ‘The Great
Gatsby (1925)’

THE CONTEMPORARY PERIOD

PPT NI MA’AM

It is more focused on their feelings, emotions and societies as they were experiencing them. The writing
styles can vary, but the main idea is to convey realistic characters and experiences.

PPT NI MA’AM

FATHER OF AMERICAN LITERATURE

● aka “Mark Twain” | SAMUEL LANGHORN CLEMENS

● humorist, novelist, and travel writer
● first to use vernacular
● His writings, whether they were satire or speech, shaped prose throughout the 19th century (and
continue to influence it today).

● Famous works: ‘Adventures of Huckleberry (1885)’, ‘Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876)’, ‘Life
on the Mississippi (1883)’

BELIEFS AND TRADITIONS

● American literature preserves traditions and beliefs from the country's early years. The innovator
notions of self-sufficiency and freedom have appeared repeatedly in these beliefs. .
 ● Authors place a high value on the individual's worth and significance. They tend to reject power in
favor of democratic republic, equality, and human rights, which distinguishes American literature
from other forms of literature.

THEME

● Has American literature provides a unique perspective on the world. People examine various themes
such as The American Dream, Coming of Age, Justice and Injustice, The Pursuit of Happiness, and
Freedom and Dignity when documenting the progression of American literature.

● The emphasis lies on distinguishing American ideals of rationality and power from what is
frequently portrayed as Europe's outcast social conservatism.

STYLE

American literature is more logical and skeptical, with diverse styles. The common styles in American
literature are politics, economics, and social status. However, American writers' works also contain elements
of parody, sarcasm, and pessimism. Humorous streak, too dark, depressing,

GENRES

● The genre of American literature includes topics related to religion and politics in the early literature.
American writers in the 17th and 18th centuries focused on revolutionary themes American history,
and social issues to provoke fundamental morals.

● American literature mainly comprises works from authors who are well-known for their contribution
to the literary landscape. These authors are revered for their works and have profoundly affected
society on both individual and collective levels.

WRITERS

F. Cooper, Jack London, J.D. Salinger, E.A. Poe, Scott Fitzgerald, Mark Twain W. Faulkner, Ernest
Hemmingway, and Stephen King are a few examples.

PURSUIT OF THE AMERICAN DREAM

Another feature associated with American Literature is the exploration of the American Dream. Numerous
stories are associated with and depict the American dream in both prose and poetry.

THE GREAT GATSBY

 ● Written by Scott Fritzgerald
● Published in 1925
● Tragedy, Realism, Modernism, Social Satire
● The Great Gatsby is a story about the impossibility of recapturing the past and also the difficulty of
altering one’s future.

THE GREAT GATSBY

“Let us learn to show our friendship for a man when he is alive and not after he is dead.”

“You see I usually find myself among strangers because I drift here and there trying to forget the sad things
that happened to me.”

“Reserving judgements is a matter of infinite hope.”

“Life starts all over again when it gets crisp in the fall.”