Key Words

Psychological Egoism is the theory that people are always motivated by self-interest, even when it may
appear that they are acting selflessly.

Etiquette refers to the customary code of polite behavior in society or among a particular group.

Technique is a method or way of doing something, often related to the arts or to a particular skill or
field.

Normative refers to the study or understanding of what is considered normal or typical behavior or
belief according to societal standards.

Positive Law is the body of laws and regulations established by government and enforced by regulatory
agencies, as opposed to natural law or moral law.

Morality refers to principles concerning the distinction between right and wrong or good and bad
behavior.

Descriptive refers to the concept of describing or understanding something as it is, without making
judgments about it.

Cultural Relativism is the idea that a person's beliefs, values, and practices should be understood based
on that person's own culture, and not be judged according to the standards of another culture.

Aesthetics is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature and appreciation of beauty, art, and
taste.

Divine Command Theory is the belief that what is morally right or wrong is determined by what God
commands.

Key Words

Greatest Happiness: A concept in utilitarianism, the ethical theory that the best action is the one that
maximizes overall happiness or well-being. The greatest happiness principle holds that actions are right
in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of
happiness.

Moral right: A moral or ethical principle, as in a code of conduct.

Intent: The purpose or goal of an action; the state of mind with which an act is done.
Higher Pleasure: A concept introduced by philosopher John Stuart Mill, who argued that some pleasures
(such as those derived from intellectual and moral activities) are more valuable than others (such as
physical or sensual pleasures).

Pleasure: A feeling of enjoyment, satisfaction, or happiness.

Base Pleasure: Pleasure derived from basic or physical activities, such as eating, drinking, or physical
intimacy.

Legal Rights: Rights that are recognized and protected by the law.

Utility: The measurement of usefulness or value, often used in ethical theories like utilitarianism to
determine whether an action is morally right based on the amount of overall happiness or well-being it
produces.

Hights: This term has multiple possible meanings. It could be a misspelling of "rights" or it may relate to
something else in a specific context.

Antice: Potentially a misspelling, there is no recognized term "antice" in the context provided.

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Are all pleasures commemuratie? Can they be evaluated on a single scale? Can some goods, lhe
friendships, be balanced against other goods, like money?

No, not all pleasures are commensurate and they cannot be evaluated on a single scale. Some goods,
like friendships, can be balanced against other goods, like money, as they represent different values and
priorities in life.

2. Millenarium by arguing for higher pleasures. Which pleasures are higher?

Mill argues for higher pleasures, such as intellectual, artistic, and moral pleasures, as being superior to
lower, physical pleasures.

3. Mill proposes that "higher pleasures are those preferred by the majority of people Do you agree that
agree that this is a good way of distinguishing between higher and lower pleasures? Can a well informed
majority prefer higher pleasures?

Mill's proposal that higher pleasures are those preferred by the majority of people may not always be a
good way of distinguishing between higher and lower pleasures. A well-informed majority may or may
not prefer higher pleasures, and personal preferences can vary widely.
4. Does utilitarianium questions individual rights? What if violating the civil rights of a minority increases
the sum total of pleasure of the majority?

Utilitarianism does question individual rights to some extent, as it prioritizes the greatest happiness for
the greatest number of people. However, violating the civil rights of a minority to increase the sum total
of pleasure for the majority is a contentious ethical question and may not always be justifiable.

5. Do you agree that happiness in the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain, and that all actions
are directed toward pleasure?

Not all actions are solely directed toward pleasure, and happiness is not purely linked to the pursuit of
pleasure and the avoidance of pain. Individuals may also seek fulfillment, meaning, and purpose in their
actions, which are not always associated with pleasure.

6 Are alt pleasures comparable, even objectionable pleasures? What if the majority derives pleasure
from being sexnet?

Not all pleasures are necessarily comparable, and objectionable pleasures may not align with societal or
moral norms. The majority deriving pleasure from something does not necessarily make it morally
acceptable.

7. In it justifiable to build a basketball court because there are basketball fans, than to build a hospital
because there are fewer sick people?

Both building a basketball court and a hospital have their own justifications, but in the context of social
welfare and wellbeing, building a hospital may be considered more justifiable as it addresses a more
critical need for healthcare.

8 When is it justifilable to torture suspected criminals?

It is generally not justifiable to torture suspected criminals, as it violates human rights and ethical
principles. Due process and the rule of law should be followed to ensure justice is served while
upholding human rights.

Key Words
Aesthetics: The branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of art, beauty, and taste, as well as the
creation and appreciation of beauty and artistic expression.

Ethics: The branch of philosophy that deals with questions about what is morally right and wrong, good
and bad, and how individuals and societies should behave.

Morality: The principles and beliefs concerning right and wrong, good and bad behavior, and the values
that guide individuals in their actions and decisions.

Etiquette: The customary code of polite behavior in society or among members of a particular
profession or group. It involves standards of respect, courtesy, and consideration for others.

Technique: The method or set of methods used in a specific field of study or activity, such as art, music,
or sports.

Descriptive: Pertaining to a statement, theory, or approach that describes or explains how things are in
the world without expressing any value judgments.

Normative: Pertaining to a statement or theory that prescribes what ought to be the case, often in the
realm of ethics and morality.

Positive Law: Laws that are enacted and enforced by a legitimate political authority, such as a
government or a legal system, and are enforceable by the state.

Divine Command Theory: The ethical theory that states that moral values are based on the commands
or will of a divine being or God.

Cultural Relativism: The idea that an individual's beliefs and activities should be understood based on
that individual's own culture, and that no culture's beliefs are superior to others.

Subjectivism: The philosophical position that holds that the truth of ethical claims depends on the
attitudes or beliefs of individuals or groups.

Psychological Egoism: The theory that individuals are always motivated by self-interest and that genuine
altruism is impossible.

Ethical Egoism: The theory that individuals ought to act in their self-interest, and that it is possible and
desirable for individuals to act in ways that benefit themselves.

Study Questions
1. Identify a list of (at obligations we are expected to fulfill, (bi prohibitions we are required to respect,
and (o ideals we are encouraged to meet. Discuss whether these are ethical in nature or not.

(a) Obligations: Some examples of obligations we are expected to fulfill include taking care of our
families, being honest and trustworthy, and contributing to the well-being of society as a whole. These
obligations are ethical in nature as they involve doing what is morally right and fulfilling our
responsibilities to others.

(b) Prohibitions: Prohibitions may include actions such as stealing, lying, and harming others. These
prohibitions are also ethical in nature as they involve respecting the rights and well-being of others.

(c) Ideals: Ideals may include striving for excellence, being compassionate towards others, and
promoting equality and justice. These ideals are also ethical in nature as they involve aspiring towards a
higher moral standard and promoting the well-being of others.

2. Are clothes a matter of pure aesthetic taste, or does it make sense for clothes to become a subject in
a discussion of ethics? Why? How about other forms of adornment, such as tattoos and piercings?

Clothes and other forms of adornment can certainly be a subject of ethical discussion. How we choose
to dress and present ourselves can reflect our values, beliefs, and respect for others. For example,
wearing clothing that is made ethically (i.e., without exploiting labor or harming the environment) can
be seen as a responsible and ethical choice.

Similarly, tattoos and piercings can also be a matter of ethical consideration. For some, tattoos and
piercings may hold cultural or religious significance, and respecting these meanings is an ethical
consideration. Additionally, the decision to get a tattoo or piercing may also involve considerations of
informed consent, bodily autonomy, and self-expression, which are ethical considerations.

KEY WORDS

Idea of the Good: A concept in philosophy, particularly in the works of Plato, representing the ultimate
form of goodness and truth that serves as the basis for all other forms and ideas.
Material Cause: In Aristotle's philosophy, the material cause is the physical substance or matter that
something is made of.

Final Cause: Also known as the telos, the final cause is the purpose or goal for which something exists or
is done.

Potency: In philosophy, potency refers to the potential to become or do something, as opposed to

Human Law: The set of laws and regulations created by humans for governing a society or community.

Natural Law: The idea that there are fundamental principles of morality and justice that are inherent in
human nature and can be known through reason.

Formal Cause: In Aristotelian philosophy, the formal cause is the specific form or pattern that something
follows, which gives it its particular characteristics.

Efficient Cause: The agent or force that brings something into being or initiates change.

Act: In philosophy, an act refers to a specific action or behavior that is performed by an agent.

Eternal Law: In theology, the eternal law is the divine order that governs the universe and is known by
God.

Divine Law: The laws and commands given by God, particularly in religious traditions, as a guide for
human conduct

Study Questions

1. Are there other ways that the word "natural" is used behaving? How do these approaches compare to
the theory of Aquinas? to justify a particular way of

The word 'natural' is often used to justify a particular way of behaving in the sense of following instincts
or innate tendencies. This approach compares to the theory of Aquinas in that it aligns with the idea of
human nature and the natural inclinations of individuals. Additionally, the concept of natural rights, such
as the right to life and liberty, is often used as a basis for justifying certain behaviors.

2 Can you think of human laws that are proper extensions of the natural law? Explain how this is so. Can
you think of oatare proplaws that violate the natural law? Explain how this is so.

Human laws that are proper extensions of the natural law may include laws that protect the right to life,
liberty, and property, as these align with the natural inclinations and rights of individuals. On the other
hand, laws that violate the natural law may include those that infringe on basic human rights, such as
laws allowing for slavery or discrimination.

3. Are there other forms of harm-short of killing another person-that may be taken as a violation of the
natural inclination to preserve one's being? Justify your answer.

Other forms of harm that may be taken as a violation of the natural inclination to preserve one's being
could include physical and emotional abuse, as well as actions that hinder an individual's ability to thrive
and flourish.

4. Are there current scientific developments-for example, in biology-that challenge

There are current scientific developments in biology, such as advancements in genetic engineering and
biotechnology, that challenge traditional understandings of nature presented by Aquinas. These
developments raise questions about the ethical implications of altering natural processes and the
potential consequences for human nature and the natural order. the understanding of nature presented
by Aquinas?

5. Is it possible to maintain a natural law theory without believing in the divine source? Why or why
not?

It is possible to maintain a natural law theory without believing in the divine source, as the theory can be
grounded in reason and natural human inclinations. However, without a belief in a divine source, the
foundations and justifications for natural law may vary and be based on different philosophical or ethical
frameworks.

Study Questions

1. How can you be a genuine Filipino if you do not follow Filipino customs?

In terms of being a genuine Filipino, it is important to recognize that identity is complex and
multifaceted. Following Filipino customs can certainly be a part of embracing one's Filipino identity, but
it is not the only defining factor. One can still be genuinely Filipino while not strictly adhering to all
customs, as long as they hold a strong connection to Filipino culture, history, and values.

2. What is the distinction between a religious notion of sin and the philosophical understanding of
immoral or unethical acts? morality,

The distinction between a religious notion of sin and the philosophical understanding of immoral or
unethical acts lies in the different perspectives and beliefs that underpin each concept. The religious
notion of sin is often tied to specific religious beliefs and doctrines, and the consequences of sin may be
understood in terms of divine judgment or spiritual consequences. On the other hand, philosophical
understandings of immoral or unethical acts are often based on rational and moral reasoning, ethical
principles, and the impact of actions on individuals and societies.

3. How realistic is Kohlberg's ideal of the highest stage of post-conventional from human

Kohlberg's ideal of the highest stage of post-conventional morality is an aspirational concept that
emphasizes individual autonomy, ethical principles, and a commitment to justice and human rights.
While it provides a framework for understanding moral development, it is important to acknowledge
that individuals may not always reach this highest stage, and the attainment of post-conventional
morality may vary depending on cultural, social, and personal factors. It is a lofty and perhaps idealistic
goal, and the reality of moral development may be more nuanced and context-dependent.

4. Savediently the human condition is one of finitude, how will you know that you are sufficiently
informed when you finally make your moral judgment?

If the human condition is one of finitude, it means that our knowledge and understanding are limited
and finite. In the context of making moral judgments, it is important to recognize that our understanding
of a situation or issue may not be exhaustive. However, being sufficiently informed for moral judgment
requires a deep consideration of relevant information and perspectives, critical thinking, and an
awareness of our own limitations. It involves being open to new information, listening to different
viewpoints, and constantly reevaluating our positions. Ultimately, moral judgment involves making the
best decision with the information and understanding that we have, recognizing that it may not be
perfect or complete.

5. If a global ethic is currently emerging, does this mean that the true meaning of morality changes over
time? Please explain your answer.

The emergence of a global ethic does not necessarily mean that the true meaning of morality changes
over time, but it indicates a shift in our understanding and consideration of ethical principles on a global
scale. While the core principles of morality, such as compassion, justice, and respect for human dignity,
may remain constant, the application and interpretation of these principles can evolve as societies,
cultures, and global interactions change. The emergence of a global ethic reflects an increasing
recognition of interconnectedness and shared moral values across diverse cultures and societies. Thus,
while the fundamental principles of morality may endure, the specific ethical considerations and
challenges can evolve in response to changing global circumstances.

6. Is there a difference between one's ethical responsibility toward fellow humans and toward

There is certainly a difference between one's ethical responsibility toward fellow humans and other
living beings. Ethical responsibility toward fellow humans often involves considerations of justice,
fairness, respect for human rights, and the promotion of well-being within human society. On the other
hand, ethical responsibility toward other living beings encompasses broader issues such as
environmental stewardship, sustainability, and the ethical treatment of animals. While there may be
overlaps and interconnectedness between these responsibilities, they also entail distinct considerations
and ethical frameworks.

Key Words

Cross-Point: The concept of cross-point refers to the interaction or intersection of various elements or
ideas, often used to describe the meeting point of different disciplines, perspectives, or principles.

Culture and Cultural Relativism: Culture refers to the collection of beliefs, customs, and behaviors that
are characteristic of a particular group of people. Cultural relativism is the idea that cultural practices
and beliefs should be assessed and understood from the perspective of that culture, rather than through
the lens of one's own cultural norms.
Emotions and Feelings: Emotions refer to a complex state of feeling that results in physical and
psychological changes, while feelings are the subjective experiences and interpretations of those
emotions.

Environment: The environment refers to the physical, biological, and social surroundings in which a
person, animal, or plant lives, and which influences and is influenced by their actions.

Ethical Responsibility: Ethical responsibility involves the obligation of an individual or group to act in
morally acceptable ways, taking into account the impacts of their actions on others and the
environment.

Global Community: The global community refers to the interconnectedness of people, cultures, and
economies worldwide, often with shared systems of governance, communication, and trade.

Informed Decision-Making: Informed decision-making refers to the process of making choices based on
a thorough understanding of the relevant information, considering the potential consequences, and
taking into account cultural, ethical, and emotional factors.

Moral Agent: A moral agent is a person who has the capacity to make moral judgments and take actions
based on their understanding of right and wrong.

Moral Development and Maturity: Moral development and maturity refer to the process through which
individuals' ethical understanding and decision-making skills evolve and become more sophisticated
over time.

Religion: Religion is a system of beliefs, practices, and values that often involve a belief in a higher
power or powers, and that typically provides a framework for ethical and moral understanding.

Self: The self refers to the individual as a distinct, autonomous entity, including their personal identity,
thoughts, feelings, and experiences. It encompasses one's self-awareness, perceptions, and sense of
uniqueness.

Society: Society refers to a group of individuals who share a common culture, traditions, and
institutions, and who interact with each other within a structured social order. It includes the collective
set of norms, values, and practices that shape the behavior and relationships of its members.

Key Words

Rational Will: The ability of a person to make decisions and choices based on reason and understanding.

Agency: The capacity of a person to act independently and make their own choices.

Duty: A moral or legal obligation to act in a certain way or to fulfill specific responsibilities.
Maxim: A principle or rule that governs an individual's actions or decisions.

Universalizability: The concept that moral principles or actions should apply universally to all people.

Autonomy versus Heteronomy: Autonomy refers to the ability of an individual to make their own
decisions and govern themselves, while heteronomy refers to being governed by external forces or
influences.

Arbitrium Brutum versus Free Choice: Arbitrium brutum refers to arbitrary or random decision-making,
while free choice refers to the ability to make decisions based on personal will and reason.

Substantive versus Formal Moral Theory: Substantive moral theories focus on the content of ethical
principles and actions, while formal moral theories are concerned with the structure and logic of moral
reasoning.

Rational Permissibility: The acceptance of an action or decision based on rational justification or

Enlightenment Morality versus Paternalism: Enlightenment morality promotes individual autonomy

Key Words

Greatest Happiness - The principle that actions are morally right to the extent that they promote the
greatest amount of happiness or pleasure for the greatest number of people.

Utility - The measure of the happiness or satisfaction that an action or decision produces.

Moral Right - A justified claim or entitlement to act or be treated in a certain way based on ethical or
moral principles.

Higher Pleasures - According to utilitarianism, the pleasures that result from intellectual, moral, or
spiritual pursuits, seen as superior to more physical or sensual pleasures.

Pleasure - A feeling of happiness, satisfaction, or enjoyment.

Base Pleasure - Basic or simple pleasures, often associated with physical or sensual gratification.

Intent - The purpose or goal that a person has in mind when doing something, often considered in moral
or legal contexts.
Rights - Entitlements or claims that individuals have to certain freedoms, opportunities, or treatment,
often protected by law or moral principles.

Justice - The quality of being fair, moral, and impartial, often involving the distribution of resources and
opportunities in society.

Legal Rights - Entitlements or protections that are recognized and enforced by law, often ensuring
individuals' freedoms, property, and fair treatment.

Study Questions

1. In what way does a rational will distinguish a human being from an animal insote the animal is only
sentient?

A rational will distinguishes a human being from an animal because it allows for the capacity to make
decisions based on reason and logic, rather than solely on instinct or impulse. This means that humans
have the ability to consider and weigh consequences and make choices based on understanding and
rational thought, whereas animals may only act based on their immediate sensations or desires.

2. What is the difference between autonomy and heteronomy? What does autoro have to do with free
will in contrast to animal impulse?

Autonomy refers to the ability to make independent, self-governing decisions, while heteronomy
involves being influenced or controlled by external factors or authority. Autonomy is related to free will
because it allows individuals to make choices based on their own reasoning and values, rather than
being driven purely by instinct or external influence.

3. How does the method called universalizability work? What are the steps to test action is rationally
permissible?

The method of universalizability works by asking whether a particular action can be consistently applied
to all individuals in similar circumstances. The steps to test if an action is rationally permissible involve
considering the consequences and implications of the action, and determining whether it would be
acceptable for anyone facing the same situation to act in the same way.
4. What is meant by enlightenment morality as opposed to paternalism? Why deontology a kind of
enlightenment morality?

Enlightenment morality is based on the idea that individuals have the capacity for reason and can make
their own moral decisions, whereas paternalism involves imposing restrictions or making decisions on
behalf of others for their own supposed benefit. Deontology, as a kind of enlightenment morality,
emphasizes the importance of moral rules and principles that are based on reason and universally
applicable, rather than on external authority or paternalistic control.

Key Words

Character: In philosophical terms, character refers to the collection of traits and qualities that make up
an individual's moral and ethical identity. It encompasses a person's values, beliefs, habits, and behavior,
as well as their overall moral disposition.

Telos: Telos is a concept in philosophy, particularly in Aristotelian thought, that refers to the inherent
purpose or end goal of a thing or a being. It is the ultimate objective or fulfillment that something is
naturally inclined or designed to achieve.

Virtue: Virtue refers to a positive and morally good quality or trait that enables a person to act in an
ethical and admirable manner. This can include qualities such as honesty, courage, compassion, and
integrity.

Mesotes: In virtue ethics, mesotes refers to the idea of moderation or the "middle path." It suggests
that virtue lies in finding a balanced middle ground between excess and deficiency in one's actions and
behavior.

Vices: Vices are negative or morally harmful qualities or traits that lead to unethical or harmful behavior.
Examples of vices include dishonesty, cowardice, cruelty, and greed.

Arete: Arete, in its ancient Greek context, refers to the concept of excellence or virtue. It embodies the
idea of fulfilling one's potential and living up to the highest standards of moral and personal excellence.

Virtue Ethics: Virtue ethics is a philosophical approach to ethics that emphasizes the importance of
developing and embodying virtuous traits and qualities in order to live a morally good and fulfilling life.
It focuses on the character and moral integrity of individuals rather than rules or consequences.
Practical Wisdom: In Aristotle's ethics, practical wisdom, or phronesis, refers to the ability to make
sound and virtuous moral judgments in specific and concrete situations. It involves the capacity to
discern what is morally right and to act accordingly in real-life circumstances.

Eudaimonia: Eudaimonia is a central concept in Aristotelian ethics, referring to human flourishing or

Study Questions

1. What is moral virtue? What is intellectual virtue?

Moral virtue refers to the traits and qualities that enable a person to act in a morally good and ethical
manner. This includes virtues such as honesty, integrity, courage, and compassion. Intellectual virtue, on
the other hand, refers to the traits and qualities that enable a person to think and reason well. This
includes virtues such as wisdom, open-mindedness, curiosity, and intellectual humility.

2 What is the difference between moral and intellectual virtue? Explain.

The main difference between moral and intellectual virtue is that moral virtue pertains to a person's
character and actions, while intellectual virtue pertains to a person's ability to think and reason well. In
other words, moral virtue relates to how a person behaves, whereas intellectual virtue relates to how a
person thinks and reasons.

3. Identify some Filipino traits and categorize each as virtue (middle) or vices (excess or deficiency).
Place them in a table.

Filipino traits and their categorization as virtues or vices:

- Bayanihan (community spirit) - virtue

- Utang na loob (debt of gratitude) - virtue

- Pakikisama (camaraderie) - virtue

- Bahala na (fatalistic attitude) - vice (deficiency)

- Hiya (sense of shame) - virtue

4. How is a person's character formed according to Aristotle?

According to Aristotle, a person's character is formed through a combination of nature and nurture. He
believed that a person's innate qualities and disposition interact with their upbringing, education, and
life experiences to shape their character. He also emphasized the importance of habituation and moral
education in developing virtuous character.

5. Who do you think possesses a moral character in your community? Explain your

In my community, I believe that the local barangay captain possesses a moral character. This is because
he is known for his integrity, transparency, and commitment to serving the community's best interests.
He consistently acts ethically and responsibly in his role, demonstrating moral virtue in his actions and
decisions.