Practices, Rituals, and Symbols

Within Buddhist devotion there are many practices and rituals, including
everyday rites. There are, however, also rites to mark particularly important
life events and passages, such as births, deaths, weddings, and so forth.

Prayer, Meditation, and Worship

Meditation
Meditation is an essential aspect of all Buddhist sects and schools. As with
other aspects of Buddhism, there is great variety in the practice of meditation.
Nonetheless, all meditation involves mental focus and the utilization of various
techniques and tools for achieving the necessary mental focus and control.
These tools and techniques may include the reciting of mantras, chanting,
visualization, following one’s breathing, or simply watching the mind.
How and where meditation occurs is often a very individual choice for
Western and other lay Buddhists. Some use special mats and cushions on
the floor, but it can be done while sitting on a chair, walking, or even lying
down. It is also incorporated into everyday activities. Meditation is practiced
at home and in places of ceremonial significance, such as temples and shrines.
Meditation is also part of Buddhist ceremonies and pujas that can include
chanting, reciting sutras, and making symbolic offerings of food, incense, and
other items to the Buddha, often represented in statue or picture form on a
shrine.
Following the Buddha’s example, meditation is a major aspect of Buddhist
practice. Meditation serves various purposes, such as clearing the mind so
that negative thoughts of anger or hatred can be replaced with positive ones of
loving-kindness and peace, or to help free oneself from desire.
Through frequent meditation, Buddhists hope to develop insight and wisdom
so that they can see the true nature of things. There are different forms and
purposes of Buddhist meditation, each with its own techniques and tools. Two
major types of meditation are samatha and vipassana or developing tranquility
and insight respectively.
Q Samatha (calming/tranquility meditation) is intended to help the individual
to calm the mind by focusing on one object, feeling, or idea.
Q Vipassanā (insight meditation) is intended to help the individual to see the
truth about reality and develop the wisdom that leads to enlightenment.
The two detailed discourses in the Pali Canon, which describe meditative
practice, are the Anapanasati Sutta (The Discourse on Mindfulness of Breathing)
and the Satipatthana Sutta (The Discourse on the Four Foundations of
Mindfulness).

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 Generally, Buddhists believe that they need to become proficient at samatha
meditation prior to attempting vipassana meditation.
Common tools and techniques to aid meditation include the following:
Q Concentrating on breathing helps the person become alert, focused, and
calm.
Q Meditating on metta (loving kindness) helps to develop good will towards
others and all creatures.
Q Reciting or chanting a mantra (a sacred syllable, word, or verse) helps one
meditate.
Q Using an image, sculpture, or picture of a Buddha or bodhisattva helps one
visualize the image in their mind.
Q Walking meditation involves walking barefoot, focusing on the way the foot
touches the ground, coordinating one’s breathing and walking, and keeping
one’s eyes focused a short way in front without distraction can bring about
mindfulness and calm.
Q Mindfulness meditation involves becoming aware of one’s body and mind
and developing a lucid awareness.
One of the goals of meditation may be to achieve Right Mindfulness, one of the
steps of the Noble Eightfold Path. It is a way of developing calmness, insight,
and compassion. Such meditation is ultimately intended to achieve the wisdom
that leads one to enlightenment.
The Buddha, as the image of Buddha-nature, has many forms. In Mahayana
traditions there are also representations of bodhisattvas—beings who have
achieved an enlightened state, but have chosen not to leave the world of
samsara in order to help all other beings do so. Some Buddhists construct
small shrines at home to help their practice of meditation and to remind them
of the buddhist ideals and precepts used in their daily lives.
Buddhists do not worship The Buddha as a god, but they do show deep
reverence for him and his teachings through study, meditation, and prayer.
Buddhists don’t believe it necessary to go to a special place to worship or to
congregate with others to do so. A Buddhist may choose to worship at home or
at a temple.
Buddhists will designate a specific room or place within the home just for
worship. Usually a statue of Buddha, candles, and incense burners will be
found somewhere in the room or space reserved for worship.
Buddhist temples are quite diverse in shape, size, and settings. They symbolize
the five elements: air, earth, fire, water, and wisdom. Each temple will,
however, feature at least one image or icon of Buddha within the temple and
the grounds.
Worship takes many forms and is reflective of the diversity of Buddhist
schools and traditions. Generally, worshippers in temples in Buddhist

136 Buddhism: A Supplemental Resource for Grade 12 World of Religions: A Canadian Perspective
 countries sit barefoot on the floor and face the shrine or Buddha icon and
chant, while, in Canada and other western countries, they may sit in chairs or
pews in some temples. Monks and nuns will also chant religious texts and the
worshippers will listen and join in on prayers. Sometimes the chants will be
accompanied by musical instruments.

Mantras
The word mantra is a Sanskrit term that means a thought behind a speech or
action. Mantras are common to Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism.
A mantra is a word, a syllable, a phrase, or a set of phrases used in meditation
and rituals that is spoken once or repeated over and over again (either aloud
or silently in a person’s mind). Most Buddhist mantras are based on significant
teachings of The Buddha and bodhisattvas. There are many different types of
mantras used by different cultures and schools of Buddhism around the world.
Many mantras exist, but some of the most common ones or those thought to be
the most powerful include the following:
Q The Shakyamuni Mantra—Om Muni Muni Mahamuni Shakyamuniye Svaha—
may be translated as “I invoke the Universal sound, Buddha nature and the
wise one, wise one of the Shakyans, hail to thee!” This mantra pays respect
to Siddhartha Gautama. By using the Shakyamuni Mantra, Buddhists seek to
encourage the development of their own Buddha nature.
Q The Avalokiteshvara Mantra—Om Mani Padme Hum—may be translated as
“I now invoke the Universal sound, the jewel, the goal of Enlightenment,
love, and compassion, lotus wisdom, and a pure indivisible unity of wisdom
with practice.” This mantra is often used in Tibetan Buddhism and is chanted
to ask for the blessings of Chenrezig. Chenrezig is a famous Buddhist
bodhisattva revered for his compassionate nature. By using this mantra, the
person seeks to cultivate and spread compassion in themselves and others.
Q The Heart Mantra—Gate Gate Para Gate Parasam Gate Bodhi Svaha—is the
final verse from “The Heart of the Prajna Paramita Sutra,” often called
“The Heart Sutra” or “The Great Heart of Wisdom Sutra.” This mantra may
be translated as “Going, going, going on beyond, always going on beyond,
always becoming Buddha.” By reciting this mantra, Buddhists aspire to
understand the essence of the Heart Sutra and awaken the aspiration of
attaining Buddhahood.
Q The Green Tara Mantra—Om Tare Tuttare Ture Soha—may be translated as
“I invoke the Universal sound and the Green Tara to bring deliverance from
suffering and delusion, paving the way for compassion and Enlightenment.
I offer this prayer to Green Tara.” The bodhisattva Green Tara (the mother
of liberation) is called on to help and offer assistance in times of need.
Buddhists often use this mantra to overcome challenges and difficulties in
relationships.
Q White Tara Mantra—Om Tare Tuttare Ture Mama Ayuh Punya Jnana Pustim
Kuru Soha Om—is associated with longevity, good health, and compassion. It

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 is often chanted with positive intentions for the good of someone else in
mind—Om Tare Tuttare Ture Mama Ayuh Punya Jnana Pustim Kuru Soha Om—
and can be translated as, “I invoke the Universal sound Tare: And the White
Tara Tuttare: to bring deliverance from suffering and delusion Ture: And
bring instead compassion and Enlightenment Mama: To myself and to…
Ayuh: Long life and longevity Punya: Merit from living life ethically and
with good intention Jnana: Wisdom Pustim: Abundance, wealth, and good
things Kuru: Like the auspicious land North of the Himalayas Soha: I offer
this prayer to White Tara.”

Figure 43: Buddhists worshipping at temple in Thailand

Q The Medicine Buddha Mantra—Tayata Om Bekanze Maha Bekanze Radza

Samudgate Soha—may be translated as “I now invoke the Universal sound
to release the pain of illness, release the pain and darkness of delusion,
and achieve supreme spiritual heights. I offer this prayer to the Medicine
Buddha.” This Buddhist mantra is believed to help alleviate physical pain,
encourage personal growth, and facilitate Enlightenment.
Q The Amitabha (Amida) Buddha Mantra—Namu Amida Butsu or Namo
Amituofo—is used by Pure Land Buddhists such as the Jodo Shinshu school
to chant their homage to Amitabha (Amida) Buddha who is known as
the Budddha of infinite light or of infinite life. By chanting the Amitabha
Buddha mantra, they call on his help to be reborn in the blissful Pure Land
where they can reside until they have attained enlightenment.

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 Physical Prayer Aids
Buddhist prayer beads or malas are traditionally used to count the number of times
a mantra is recited, the breaths while meditating, the prostrations, or the repetitions
of a Buddha’s name. They are similar to other forms of prayer beads used in
various other religions.
Traditionally, there would be 108 beads, each signifying one of the mortal desires
of humankind. This number is attributed to the Mokugenji (soapberry seed) Sutra,
which recounts how Shakyamuni Buddha instructed King Virudhaka to make
such beads and recite the Three Jewels of Buddhism. Malas are typically made
with 18, 27, 54, or 108 beads. A decorative tassel is sometimes attached to the beads,
flanked by talismans or amulets depending local traditions and customs.
Mantras may also be printed or etched on a prayer wheel and repeated by spinning
the wheel. Tibetan Buddhists, in particular, use prayer wheels containing prayers
and mantras. These are turned while chanting and it is believed that the prayer or
mantra is repeated each time the wheel turns. Prayer wheels can be small ones that
may be carried with a person or large ones, some up to nine-feet high found in
monasteries.
Prayers are also written on flags and hung up on a line. Buddhists believe the
prayer is repeated every time the wind blows.
These physical prayer devices are very common in Tibetan Buddhism and other
communities.

Worship in Temples
On full-moon days and special days, Buddhists may choose to visit a temple,
a monastery, or other Buddhist gathering places and join others in meditation,
prayers, dharma teachings, or other events.
Temples are centres for meditation, study, and worship for the whole community.
There are as many forms of Buddhist worship and rituals as there are schools of
Buddhism.
Worship in Mahayana tradition takes the form of devotion to Buddha and to
Bodhisattvas. Worshippers may sit on the floor barefoot facing an image of Buddha
and chanting. They will listen to monks chanting from religious texts, perhaps
accompanied by instruments, and take part in prayers.
Worship in the temple includes chanting the Three Refuges and Precepts and the
scriptures, giving offerings in front of an image of The Buddha, lighting candles,
burning incense, meditating, and listening to sermons.
The most important part of a Buddhist temple is the shrine room, which contains
one or more Buddharupas (Sanskrit/Pali term for statues or models of beings who
have obtained Buddhahood, including the historical Buddha). A shrine refers to any
place where an image of The Buddha is used in worship. Many Buddhists also have
shrines at home.

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 Before entering a temple or shrine, Buddhists may participate in purification
rituals. In Japan, the ritual of temizu, the cleansing of one’s hands and mouth
with flowing water is common. It is the first thing to be done upon entering a
temple or a shrine prior to praying and meditating. Based on the teachings of
Buddhism, the purification process is to help the person have “pure body, pure
speech, and pure mind” as The Buddha did.
Buddhist temples also generally use incense/smoke for purification. In
addition, before entering the temple or shrine room, people take off their shoes
as a sign of respect and also to keep the floors clean. Visitors to the temple are
expected to dress modestly, often in white, in Theravada countries. They bow
in front of the Buddharupa and sit with their feet tucked under (it is considered
rude to point the soles of one’s feet towards someone else). Worship usually
begins with reciting the Three Refuges.
Bhikkhus or Bhikshunis may read or recite sutras, or give a sermon that explains
their relevance to daily life.
Buddhist practice and rituals often require offerings at temples, shrines, or
monasteries. It is common to place bowls of water and other food offerings
before the Buddharupa on a raised platform or altar. The offering bowl has a
symbolic meaning in Buddhism. It is there to hold gifts to Buddhist deities
offered by the practitioner and community. In Tibetan Buddhism, seven
offering bowls are typically placed on the altar and contain seven offerings,
including drinking and cleansing water, flowers, light, perfume, and food.
Theravada Buddhists often give offerings of candles, flowers, prayer beads,
and incense. Mahayana Buddhists also bring gifts but their primary purpose
is to demonstrate devotion to Buddha and bodhisattvas.
In Theravada Buddhism, lay persons traditionally were not expected to
meditate or know the Buddhist scriptures. This was the responsibility of the
monks and nuns in the Sangha. The laity gained merit by supporting the
Sangha and living their lives in reverence and devotion which they expressed
through worship and ethical living.
Another common feature of Buddhist worship and practices is to visit stupas
which may be located near a temple or at auspicious or special places. When
visiting a stupa they will walk clockwise around it while reciting a mantra or a
prayer, and concentrating on the importance of The Buddha for their lives.

140 Buddhism: A Supplemental Resource for Grade 12 World of Religions: A Canadian Perspective
 Importance of Symbolism in Public Worship
There is much symbolism in Buddhist worship, from the place of worship itself
to the artifacts used in worship. The table below shows the symbolic meaning
of various elements.

Symbol Meaning
Shape of stupa or temple Stupas represent The Buddha’s enlightened mind.
A stupa incorporates five basic geometric shapes
corresponding to the five elements—earth, water, fire,
air, and wisdom.
Buddharupa placed Shows honour that is due to The Buddha
higher than worshippers
Different images of The Reflects different meanings (e.g. a raised hand, palm
Buddha outwards, means fearlessness, while hands laying one on
the other in the lap means meditation)
Tray of flowers Shows impermanence—that all things fade and die
Number of flowers One flower, for example, shows the unity of all things;
three flowers, the three jewels
Lighted candles Represents the light of The Buddha’s teaching, or the
enlightenment which worshippers are seeking
Burning incense Represents devotion and fills the room with sweet
fragrance, as The Buddha’s teaching has spread
throughout the world
Bowls of water/offering Shows that The Buddha is treated as an honoured guest
bowls for food and gifts and express reverence and respect
Taking off shoes/bowing Shows respect to The Buddha

Attitudes Regarding Public Worship

Although most Buddhists think that private worship can be as important
as formal public worship, most do participate in forms of public worship,
usually at a temple. Public worship brings Buddhists together as a community,
provides them opportunities to learn more about the scriptures, and helps
develop their practice of meditation. As well, the social aspect of being in the
company of other happy devoted people will be uplifting and beneficial to the
individual.
There will also be special occasions such as full-moon days and festivals that
draw Buddhists to temples. In addition, many Buddhists visit a temple when
important personal and family milestones occur or when something important
happens in their lives for which they are grateful.

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 Private Worship
Private worship involves showing reverence and devotion to The Buddha
and to bodhisattvas, but does not involve worshipping them. Buddhists do not
consider The Buddha to be a god.
Private worship helps a person to develop good mental states, so that they can
escape the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth and gain enlightenment.

Worship in the Home

Lay people often have a shrine room in their home that contains an image of
The Buddha or other deities, candles, flowers, an incense burner, and food
offerings. Forms of worship vary, but many Buddhists begin and end each day
reciting the Three Refuges and the Five Precepts.
Lay people also pray and meditate before the Buddharupa or bodhisattvas.
Prayers may include requests for a good rebirth.
As in public worship, the home shrine contains many symbolic objects.
Buddhists may also use mala beads in private worship to help count the
repetitions of mantras when meditating or praying.
All Buddhists consider worship in the home important for ‘merit-making’ and
for developing the qualities of compassion and wisdom needed to achieve
nirvana.

Rites of Passage
In Buddhism there are four milestones in one’s life that are usually celebrated:
one’s birth, becoming a monk or nun, marriage, and death. However, the
celebration of these may vary according to the different schools, nations, and
cultures.

Birth
Generally there are no specific birth rites or rituals that are performed across
the Buddhist world. Although birth rites and practices vary from one country
and culture to another, Buddhist celebration of a birth may involve three
primary rituals, which include Blessing, Naming Ceremony, and Dedication
Ceremony.
During the Dedication Ceremony, the parents promise to commit themselves
to ensure the well-being of the child.
The significance of the naming ceremony is to help the child grow up in
good health and live a long and full life. In naming ceremonies, the Bhikkhus
(monk) give the child their name. In Sri Lanka and other Theravada countries,

142 Buddhism: A Supplemental Resource for Grade 12 World of Religions: A Canadian Perspective
 when a baby is born, monks may be invited to the house where they prepare
a horoscope for the baby based on the time of birth. From the details of the
horoscope, they decide the first name of the baby. In Tibet, a monk will visit
the home and a naming ceremony will take place after about ten days. The
baby does not leave the home for the first month, after which it may be taken
to the local monastery. In Japan, as in Tibet, there is a naming ceremony at
home about one week after the birth, and on the child’s first visit to the temple
the parents are presented with a scroll for recording the child’s life events.
The birth of a child is generally celebrated at the local temple.
Q In Tibet, when a baby is born, the parents put flags on the roof of their house
and, after a few days, friends and relatives gather at the house bringing gifts
of food and clothes. The baby does not leave the home for the first month,
after which it may be taken to the local monastery.
Q In Sri Lanka and other Theravada countries, within one month of the birth,
the parents take the baby to the local temple and put him or her in front of
the statue of The Buddha. They ask for the blessings of the Three Refuges—
the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha. The parents make an offering to the
temple in thanksgiving for the child.
When the parents present the child in the temple, they are introducing the
new child to Buddha, and showing that they want their child to grow up
understanding the Buddhist tradition and the Four Noble Truths—and to be
able to put the Noble Eightfold Path into practice.
Other practices related to the birth of a child include
Q Some Buddhists, such as those in Thailand, tie sacred threads around the
baby’s wrists to greet the spirit Khwan who is believed to look after babies.
When the baby is one month old, a monk may shave the baby’s hair.
Q In Japan, a few days after a birth, the newborn’s room is purified.

Death
Death and the grieving process associated with death are especially significant
and important for all religious traditions and faiths.
Buddhists do not believe in the reincarnation of individual identities. Rather,
it is not one’s soul but the person’s dharma, which is cast into a new life.
Buddhists believe that death is simply a transition stage, albeit an important
one, between one’s present life and the next life. A Buddhist would normally
do their best to help a dying person attain a good rebirth by ensuring that the
quality of their final moments of consciousness are peaceful and as free of fear
as possible. This is best achieved if the family members or visitors stay serene
and calm, and help the dying person recollect their good actions. Often, a
dying Buddhist will ask to see a Buddhist monk or nun of their own tradition
to give them encouragement, spiritual support, and chant Buddhist scriptures

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 or blessings. Dying Buddhists may request that all pain killers or other drugs,
which could impair clarity of mind, be stopped shortly before death.
Because of this and because of the restriction on their participating in parties
and the like, funerals are the only major life rite in which Buddhist monks and
nuns are actively involved.
Buddhist funerals are not completely sad occasions, as Buddhists believe
that the dead person has passed into the next rebirth and, hopefully, will
experience a happier and more fulfilled life. After a Buddhist has died, his or
her relatives will often perform acts of generosity or religious observance in
their name and dedicate the power of that goodness to the well-being of the
deceased. For example, the family hopes to improve the future birth of the
deceased person through prayer and offering food to the monks.
Ceremonies are held for the benefit of the deceased person but also for the
benefit of friends and family left behind. There may be a sermon which will
emphasize the Buddhist teachings of impermanence (anicca) and non-self
(anatta) and of the inevitability of death. The ceremony will also be concerned
with developing merit which will then be transferred to the deceased person
so that it can benefit them in their new circumstances.
Buddhist funeral observances are, to a large degree, based on Indian customs.
For example, the cremation of The Buddha’s body and the subsequent
spreading of the ashes are told in the Mahaparinibbana-sutta (Sutta on the Great
Final Deliverance). Early Chinese travelers to India described the cremations
of especially venerated monks. After the cremation of such monks, the ashes
and bones were collected and a stupa was built over them. The large number of
stupas which may be found near many monasteries attest to the fact that such
practices were widely followed. Cremation was also common for other monks
and lay persons.
Buddhism does not, however, prescribe any specific preparation of the corpse
or type of funeral so these will vary depending on the school and cultural
traditions. The bodies of great Tibetan lamas, such as the Dalai and Panchen
lamas, are placed in stupas in poses of meditation. Cremation is common
in many countries, but Chinese Buddhists generally prefer the burial of the
corpse. Burial is also common in Sri Lanka.
In Tibet, and other parts of China and Mongolia, because of the rocky
mountainous landscape and the scarcity of wood, it is not easy to bury a
corpse. As such, the preference is for the body to be cremated or for a “Sky
burial” to occur. In a “sky burial” the corpse is placed on a mountain to
decompose while exposed to the elements or to be eaten by scavenging
animals, especially carrion birds such as vultures. This is regarded as a lesson
in impermanence for the deceased person in the bardo state and for the

144 Buddhism: A Supplemental Resource for Grade 12 World of Religions: A Canadian Perspective
 relatives, and it is also considered to be a final act of generosity whereby the
dead person helps feed the vultures.
The ashes of the deceased are sometimes kept or enshrined in a Buddhist
temple or monastery. Buddhist funeral services are usually performed by
Buddhist monks or nuns.
Life in Buddhism never ends: although one’s body may no longer live, the soul
lives on forever and ever, reincarnating in an endless cycle of rebirths, unless
one achieves nirvana or enlightenment.

Death in Theravada Buddhism

Buddhists in Theravada countries believe that rebirth takes place immediately
after one’s death.

Figure 44: Coffin being readied for Cremation—In Buddhism the deceased may be cremated but they may also be
buried. There is great diversity in the funeral practices of different Buddhist cultures, there are also many similarities.
This image is from a series of photos taken at cremations in Laos and Thailand as part of the ‘Bristol Buddhist Death
Project’, University of Bristol.

In Sri Lanka, a Theravada country, at the funeral the family will give the
monks cloth for making new robes. The funeral ceremony will include
chanting of verses about impermanence. About a week after the person has
died, monks will come to the family home to deliver a sermon. Thereafter, at

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 three months and at one year, there will be special merit-making ceremonies
for the benefit of the deceased person.
When Buddhists in Mahayana countries are dying, someone whispers the
name of The Buddha into their ear so that this is the last thing the person
hears before they die. After death, relatives wash the body. They then place the
body in a coffin surrounded by wreaths and candles. The funeral often takes
place a few days after the death to allow the first bardo state to happen. This is
the time when the dead person becomes conscious of being dead and the next
form of rebirth is decided. Buddhists in Mahayana countries think that rebirth
takes up to 49 days (7 weeks) after death.
In Tibet, a Mahayana country, as a person dies and for 49 days afterwards, they
will have detailed guidance read to them from an appropriate text. In Tibetan,
Mongolian, and Chinese lamaseries, a lama sometimes recites the famous
Bardo Thodol (commonly referred to in English as The Tibetan Book of the Dead).
During this period, the dead person is understood to be going through a series
of confused intermediate bardo states, and is capable of being influenced.
In other schools, prayers are offered for the deceased at different stages after
death, sometimes 30 days or a year later. For example, in the New Kadampa
Tradition Buddhist centres, they hold monthly ‘Powa Ceremonies’ for those
that recently died. The Powa Ceremony (see www.southwestfolklife.org/wp-
content/uploads/2015/04/gen_kelsang_lingpur.pdf for a description) is a ritual
practice drawn from the Buddhist Tantras and brings together members of the
community to offer prayers and other offerings on the behalf of the deceased.
It is believed that the Powa Ceremony helps the deceased person attain a
higher rebirth.

Ordination of a Monk or Nun

Early in Buddhism, as was noted earlier, the Sangha include both bhikkhus/
monks and bhikkhunis/nuns and both live by the Vinaya, a set of rules. To be
ordained as a monk, or nun, the teachings of Buddha must be followed and
practiced.
Until recently, however, it was only within Mahayana Buddhism that the
lineages of female monastics survived and were prevalent in countries such as
China, Hong Kong, Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam.
In the Theravada tradition, some scholars believe that the bhikkhuni lineage
became extinct in the 11th to 13th centuries and that no new bhikkhunis could
be ordained since there were no bhikkhunis left to give ordination. For example,
the leadership of the Theravada bhikkhu Sangha in Burma and Thailand
do not believe that the full ordination of bhikkhunis is possible. One may not
be ordained as a Theravada Buddhist nun or bhikkhuni in Thailand and the
Council has issued a national warning that any monk who ordains female
monks will be punished. However, based on the spread of the bhikkhuni lineage

146 Buddhism: A Supplemental Resource for Grade 12 World of Religions: A Canadian Perspective
 to countries like China, Taiwan, Korea, Vietnam, Japan, and Sri Lanka, other
scholars support the ordination of Theravada bhikkhunis.
Consequently, it has only been in the last decade or two that a few women
have taken the full monastic vows in the Theravada and Vajrayana schools.
As indicated earlier, women are seen as being as equally capable of realizing
nirvana as men. According to Buddhist scriptures, Buddha created the first
order of bhikkhunis at the request of his aunt and foster-mother Mahapajapati
Gotami, who became the first ordained bhikkhuni.
Nevertheless, due to historical practices, teachings, and interpretations,
there are differences between bhikkhus/monks and bhikkhunis/nuns in terms
of roles and standing. Bhikkhunis are required to take extra vows, the Eight
Garudhammas, and are subordinate to and reliant upon the bhikkhu order. In
places where the bhikkhuni lineage was historically missing or has died out, due
to hardship, alternative forms of renunciation developed.
Attitudes and practices with respect to the ordination of nuns is changing. In
1996, through the efforts of Sakyadhita International Association of Buddhist
Women, the Theravada bhikkhuni order was revived when eleven Sri Lankan
women received full ordination in Sarnath, India. The ordination was done
by Dodangoda Revata Mahathera and the late Mapalagama Vipulasara
Mahathera of the Maha Bodhi Society in India with assistance of monks and
nuns of the Jogye Order of Korean Seon.
In July of 2007, at the International Congress on Buddhist Women’s Role in
the Sangha, Buddhist leaders and scholars of all traditions met in Hamburg,
Germany to work toward a worldwide consensus on the re-establishment of
bhikshuni ordination. Delegates, bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, Vinaya masters and
elders from traditional Buddhist countries, and Western-trained Buddhist
scholars attended. The Congress Summary Report states that all delegates
“were in unanimous agreement that Mulasarvastivada bhikshuni ordination
should be re-established,” and cites the Dalai Lama’s full support of bhikkhuni
ordination.
The Congress was seen by the organizers as a major step towards the equality
and liberation of Buddhist women (nuns). To help establish the Bhikshuni
Sangha (community of fully ordained nuns) where it does not currently exist
has also been declared one of the objectives of Sakyadhita, as expressed at its
founding meeting in 1987 in Bodhgaya, India.

Ordination Ceremonies and Practices

The significance of becoming a monk is to escape the cycle of rebirth and
death. The teachings of Buddha teach monks to live the ways that lead to
a happier world and overcome the world’s imperfections and sufferings.
Admission to the sangha involves two distinct phases or acts as follows:

Buddhism: A Supplemental Resource for Grade 12 World of Religions: A Canadian Perspective 147
 Q pabbajja (lower ordination), which consists of renunciation of secular life and
acceptance of monastic life as a novice
Q upasampada (higher ordination), official consecration as a monk
The evolution of ordination practices is not entirely clear. It is believed that in
early times the two acts likely took place at the same time. Later, the Vinaya
ruled that upasampada, or full acceptance into the monastic community, should
not occur before the age of 20. Thus, if the pabbajja ceremony took place as early
as age 8, it would mean that a monk could only be fully ordained after 12 years
of training. As well, ordination cannot occur without the permission of the
candidate’s parents.
Many rituals are practiced during ordination. In the Theravada Tradition, the
rite established in ancient Buddhism remains essentially unchanged. To be
accepted the candidate shaves his hair and beard and dons the yellow robes
of the monk. He then bows to the abbot or senior monk, to whom he makes
his request for admission to the monastery. He then seats himself with legs
crossed and hands folded, pronouncing three times the formula of the Triple
Refuge—“I take refuge in the Buddha, I take refuge in the dhamma, I take
refuge in the sangha.”
He repeats after the officiating monk the Ten Precepts and vows to observe
them. Thereafter, in the presence of at least ten monks (fewer in some cases),
the candidate is questioned in detail by the abbot—as to the name of the master
under whom he studied, whether he is free of faults and defects that would
prevent his admission, and whether he has committed any infamous sins, is
diseased, is mutilated, or is in debt. The abbot, when satisfied, thrice proposes
acceptance of the petition; the chapter’s silence signifies consent. Theravada
nuns ordination is essentially the same, although their ordination required the
presence of monks in order to be recognized as valid.
Mahayana Buddhism added new rituals to the ceremony of ordination
prescribed by the Pali Vinaya. The declaration of the Triple Refuge is still a
central assertion, but special emphasis is placed on the candidate’s intention to
achieve enlightenment and his undertaking of the vow to follow the bodhisattva
path. As well, the presence of five monks is required for the ordination.
These usually are the head monk of the monastery, a monk who guards the
ceremony, a master of secrets (the esoteric teachings, such as mantras), and two
assisting officiants.
In the Vajrayana tradition, the esoteric content requires a more complex
consecration ceremony. In addition to other ordination rites, preparatory
study, and training in yoga, the Tantric neophyte receives abhiseka (Sanskrit:
“sprinkling” of water). This initiation takes several forms, each of which has
its own corresponding vidya (wisdom) rituals and esoteric formulas and is
associated with one of the five Celestial Buddhas or Dhyani-Buddhas. The
initiate meditates on the vajra (thunderbolt) as a symbol of Vajrasattva Buddha
(the Adamantine Being), on the bell as a symbol of the void, and on the mudra

148 Buddhism: A Supplemental Resource for Grade 12 World of Religions: A Canadian Perspective
 (ritual gesture) as “seal.” The intent of the initiation ceremony is to produce an
experience that anticipates the moment of death. The candidate emerges reborn as
a new being, a state marked by his receipt of a new name.
Many persons stay as monks or nuns for several years, becoming more mature
in their attitude to life. They may leave the monastery and monastic life to get
married and have a family. Many Buddhists value the monastic tradition as it
shapes their character and stops them from becoming too easily distracted by the
passing things of life.
Some Buddhists will stay in the monastery for their whole life in the hope that
their dedication will result in them reaching nirvana.

Ordination of Nuns or Bhikkhuni

(For detailed ordination requirements for women, see the online book, Women in Buddhism by Chatsumarn
Kabilsingh (Ordained as Dhammananda Bhikkhuni in Sri Lanka) www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/qanda-women.pdf)

In Buddhism, a bhikkhuni (Pali) or bhiksuni (Sanskrit) is a fully ordained female

monastic. Both bhikkhunis and bhikkhus live by the Vinaya, a set of rules laid out by
the Buddha. Until fairly recently, the lineages of female monastics survived only in
Mahayana Buddhism and therefore nuns were only prevalent in countries such as
China, Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam. Increasingly, over the last few decades, there
has been a trend towards more women taking the full monastic vows in the
Theravada and Vajrayana schools of Buddhism. This has caused some debate in the
community, and more conservative Theravada and Vajrayana members may not
recognize contemporary bhikkuni ordinations as being valid.
In Mahayana
Buddhism, the
basic requirements
for ordination as a
bhikkhuni are similar
to that of monks
and the ordination
has four steps. First
the person must
make a commitment
to follow the Five
Precepts. The next
step is to enter the
pabbajja (pravrajya)
or monastic way
of life, which
includes wearing
Figure 45: Nuns with Bodhisattva Day Offerings of flowers and incense, Tharlam
the monastic’s
Monastery of Tibetan Buddhism, Boudha, Nepal
robes. Following,
the adoption of a
monastic way of life, one can become a sramaneri or novitiate. The last and final
step is to take the full vows of a bhikkhuni.

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 Female monastics are required to follow special rules that male monastics do not,
the Eight Garudhammas. The origin of the Eight Garudhammas is not clear and is
subject to much debate as discussed earlier in the section on the role of women in
Buddhism. As well, there is some diversity with respect to the specific vows and
rules that nuns must follow among different schools.
The traditional appearance of ordained nuns is nearly identical to that of male
monks, including a shaved head, shaved eyebrows, and the wearing of saffron
coloured robes. In a few countries, nuns wear dark chocolate coloured robes or
sometimes the same colour as monks.
In some schools of Buddhism, such as the Jodo Shinshu Hongwanji-ha of Japan,
the ordination requirements and rituals are the same for men and women and
are performed at the Honzan or mother temple. To become an ordained priest,
one has to complete the requirements for a Tokudo ordination. Tokudo-Shiki is the
formal ordination ceremony that a follower takes in becoming a priest or nun.
To be ordained, several years of intensive study by the candidate are required.
During the ceremony, the follower receives tonsure (teido), the ceremonial
shaving of his/her hair. The follower also receives a dharma name (kaimyo). After
ordination and further study, a minister needs to receive their kyoshi certification.
Some Buddhist schools, particularly in the West, have simplified or changed
their ordination rituals and requirements for women. For example, in the New
Kadampa Buddhist Tradition, ordained women have to change three things;
their appearance (cut their hair and don special robes), their names, and their
minds. Renunciation monks and nuns have the same vows and tradition,
which include the five precepts mentioned earlier plus five more: to practice
contentment, to reduce their desire for worldly pleasure, to abandon meaningless
activities, to practice the three higher trainings of moral discipline, and to
practice concentration and wisdom.
In countries where full ordination is not available to them, women have
traditionally volunteered to take limited vows to live as renunciants. These
women attempt to lead a life following the teachings of the Buddha. They
observe eight to ten of the precepts, but do not follow exactly the same codes as
bhikkhunis. They do not receive official endorsement or the educational support
offered to monks. Some cook while others practise and teach meditation.
Theravada women renunciants who are not fully ordained wear white or pink
robes. These women are known by various names, including dasa sil mata in Sri
Lanka, thilashin in Burma, maechi in Thailand, guruma in Nepal and Laos, and
siladharas at the Amaravati Buddhist Monastery in England.

150 Buddhism: A Supplemental Resource for Grade 12 World of Religions: A Canadian Perspective
 Marriage
For Buddhists, marriage is not a religious institution, it is a social one.
Marriage is not required of individuals for religious reasons, but it is accepted
as an important element of life. It is viewed as helping the couple uphold one
of the Five Precepts that tells Buddhists to avoid sexual misconduct by being
content.
Marriages are celebrated differently due to the diversity of beliefs among
Buddhists in different countries and cultures. For example, in some countries,
monks do not participate in wedding ceremonies due to the belief that they
will bring bad luck to the wedded couple. However, in most countries, monks
attend marriage ceremonies and are welcomed. Details of marriage ceremonies
usually reflect the cultures of the country in which they take place.
In general, monks are forbidden to attend celebrations, especially where there
might be alcohol.

Buddhist Marriage Ceremonies

In Buddhist countries, the marriage ceremony is likely to be held in the
home, a hall, or in a specially built pavilion. There is no marriage ceremony
held at a temple; although, a monk or a lay teacher may be invited after the
marriage ceremony to offer a blessing on the marriage. This will include
specific blessings chanted by the monk and maybe a short sermon, probably
on marriage.
In some sects, during the marriage ceremony, a Sacred Thread Ritual is done
where both the groom and bride attach a thread from their heads and when
the speech passage completes, the thread is cut. After the thread is cut, the
string is kept by many relatives for three days to ensure the couple will receive
good luck.

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