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The Role of the Venetian Cities in the Evolution of the Modern Urban Centers
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15th International Conference on “Cultural Heritage and New Technologies“ Vienna, 2010

The Role of the Venetian Cities in the Evolution of the Modern Urban
Centers of Crete
Apostolos SARRIS / Coral ARGUELLES / Dayton DYKSTRA

Laboratory of Geophysical-Satellite Remote Sensing & Arhaeo-environment, Institute for Mediterranean

Studies, Foundation for Research and Technology, Hellas (F.O.R.T.H.), Rethymnon, Greece

Abstract: The particular study aims to examine the interplay of the archaeological monuments in the
evolution of the urban centers of the three main cities of Crete (Herakleion, Rethymnon, Chania). To achieve
the particular goals a wealth of information retrieved from historical maps, modern statistical and cadastral
databases has been fused together through various geo-information technologies. Bibliographic references
were able to compose a database from where timelines of city-growth were extracted making feasible the
comparison of the cities from Venetian times through their present layout, manifesting the changes of the
urban matrix of the different cities in Crete. Thus it was also possible to examine the residues of the original
Venetian architecture that remains intact until today and how the roles of the cities changed over time.
In this process, new technologies like AutoCAD, GIS, and ADOBE applications contributed accordingly to
fully understand and visualize how these cities were and how they were transformed until today. The
evolution of the Venetian cities was based on the densification and expansion of the original city centers,
consisting of public and private buildings, public spaces, military facilities and free surface. It became
obvious that although the three cities followed a similar trajectory of evolution, complementing each other in
the relatively even distribution of population and civil roles, their current situation has been differentiated with
direct consequences to the promotion of the Venetian architectural monuments. More specifically, with the
pass of time, Chania and Rethymnon preserved their historical city centers and are still functioning as open-
air museums, while Herakleion suffered a radical change in its urban planning, representing a more typical
example of a “transformed archaeological city”.
Finally, with this analytical approach conclusions can be extracted that allow to propose a specific non-
aggressive urban planning, regeneration of public spaces and conservation of the remaining architectural
heritage to improve its present status of the main cities of Crete.

Keywords: urban evolution, venetian centers, Crete, GIS, CAD.

Introduction
The preservation of monuments in historical centers has played a crucial role in the evolution of the modern
urban cities. The architectural monuments have become landmarks for the citizens and attractions for the
tourists, capturing the attention of visitors with direct consequences in the economic and cultural activities of
a city. On the other hand, the need for preservation of the monuments has created a number of obstacles in
the free growth and expansion of the cities themselves. In order to comprehend today's situation and the
plan of these metropolitan (in local scale) centers that enclose a historical dimension in their expansion, it is

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important to study the past parameters that allowed the evolution of these centers and their transformation in
larger urbanized clusters.
The concept of urbanization can be approached through a number of methods, but still it is significant to
establish the relation of the expansion of the urban centers with their past in terms of the evidence provided
through the standing monuments, excavations and the study of ancient sources and maps. The decoding
and evaluation of historical documentation is critical for the examination of the evolution of the urban design
at different time frameworks. It is the only way that we could try to understand how historical centers have
affected the actual development of the cities and how they could become a motor for their further
development, allowing an innovation or regeneration of the urban centers.

Historical Remarks. The Cities of Crete

The major cities of Crete evolved in a complementary way since from the time of their establishment they
followed a common trajectory. The strategic geographical location of the particular settlements has been
manifested even from prehistoric times and continued to play a critical role in the following historical periods.
Following the Classical and Roman periods, the island of Crete went under the Byzantine control which was
interrupted for a small period during the Arab occupation. The establishment of the Venetians came in the
early 13th century, fusing the Byzantine Mediterranean traditions with the Western culture of the
Renaissance. The Venetians followed a similar direction for the establishment of their centers that acted as
satellites under the authoritative power of Venice (GRATZIOU 2010, GEORGOPOULOU 2001).
Venetian Candia (now Herakleion), became the capital of Crete (named also Candia as a whole island)
during the Venetian period, remaining the political, military, commercial, social and intellectual centre
throughout the five centuries of Venetian rule and one of the most important urban centers of the Eastern
Mediterranean. This kind of prosperity gave rise to the development of a Veneto-Cretan urban society that
promoted arts and was responsible for the Cretan Renaissance of the 16th century. Venice introduced also
architectural elements of metropolitan character as it is obvious from both public buildings (such as Ducal
Palace, Loggia, Basilica of Saint Mark) and private houses. This kind of prosperity attracted more population
and increased the size of the city. In 1462 and under the threat of the Ottomans, a new fortification wall was
constructed according to the principles of the bastion front system to provide defense to the expanded
suburbs of the city and the harbor installations were reinforced. The city fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1669
after 22 years of siege, who demolished part of the walls to enter a ruined city that had been severely
damaged by cannon shots. Partial restoration of the Venetian public buildings and transformation of the city's
identity followed, accompanied by a socio-economic decay. After the deliberation of the island of Crete,
Herakleion suffered more damages by a strong earthquake in 1856 and the German bombardment during
the Battle of Crete (1941) which caused great destruction to the city (about a third of it was destroyed during
the bombardments) and had to be rebuilt to a great extent. Herakleion became the capital of Crete in 1971.
Chania followed a similar course of expansion. By the time that Chania was liberated in 961 AD by the
Byzantines, fortifications were constructed around Kastelli Hill, close to the harbor. Today only the western
part of the Byzantine walls remains, along with a small section in Sifakas Street. In 1204 the Venetians
annexed Crete and by 1252 they decided to reinforce the fortification walls using four bastions, towers and

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an outer moat. At the same time they also constructed shipyards (arsenals) and improved the harbor, which
was used as a first stop before reaching Candia. A construction of aqueduct and cisterns contributed to
sustain the rising population of the city which has risen to 8,000 citizens. In this way, Chania became an
important commercial center, adopting a number of Venetian architectural elements. A large section of the
Venetian city was destroyed after its fall to the Ottoman Turks in 1645. The Venetian walls were reinforced
and the architecture adopted the new customs of the east converting churches into mosques with tall
minarets, while baths and fountains were also constructed. After the liberation of Crete in 1898, a major
destruction of the city came from regular bombardments of the German Luftwaffe, which fortunately was not
able to destroy completely the nucleus of the old city. Contrary to Herakleion, only small sections of the
Venetian walls are preserved today, although the Venetian town plan is much better retained. Initially, after
the deliberation of Crete, Chania became the capital of Crete until 1971, when the administrative power was
reassigned to Herakleion.
Squeezed in between Herakleion and Chania, Rethymno began its period of growth when the Venetian
authority of the island decided to establish an intermediate commercial base station that could facilitate the
need of the island also in the mainland. Similarly to the rest of the cities, the flourishing conditions helped to
attract more population and necessitated the construction of new fortifications around the venetian castle
(Fortezza). The Venetian castle, together with other public architectural buildings (e.g. the Great Gate
(megali porta, Porta Guora), the Piazza Rimondi (Rimondi square) and the Venetian Loggia) are well
preserved even today. Most of the Venetian town plan of the 16th century, consisting of arched doorways,
stone staircases, the small Venetian harbor and narrow streets, is still preserved in the city of Rethymno.

Historical Transformations – Methodological Tools

Historical monuments play a critical role in the evolution of the urban centers of the cities. Their preservation
constitutes a living archive of memories and testimonies. They evolve to landmarks for the domestic life of
the citizens and through them the past becomes alive. On the other hand, the way and degree of
preservation of the historical monuments influences the general evolution of the city. There are cases, like
Venice, where the historical landscape is almost completely preserved and the past architecture is used
even today for the present activities of the citizens. In the particular case, a new city was constructed outside
the limits of the older, having no interaction or relation with the past architectural monuments. In contrast, the
cities of Crete evolved within and around the historical centers, as it has happened with most European
cities. Part of the Venetian architecture was destroyed, other buildings were preserved, while others were
transformed to new modern constructions. Whatever the case, the old centers did not remain static or
"frozen", but instead they evolved to entities that could facilitate the needs of the modern citizens and at the
same time they also preserved part of their historical features that could provide a different way of
development through tourism and the organization of cultural events. Most important of all is also the
modification of old architecture in order to adopt modern activities. In this way, consciously or unconsciously,
the cities transformed their entity depending on the needs of the citizens and the cultural values of its period.
In order to examine the transformation of the cities a number of resources have been used. The location of
the survived archaeological monuments were revealed either from the partially preserved monuments or the

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information exposed by old maps and archives. Reconnaissance and salvage excavations have also brought
to light a number of monuments, some of which have been either retained or they have been covered again
in order to proceed with the construction works. Other times, the use of geophysical prospection methods
has made possible to map the underlying monuments or find the extension of already preserved monuments
(PAPADOPOULOS and SARRIS 2010, PAPADOPOULOS et al. 2009). All the above information has been
employed in order to create a geographical database that can indicate the evolution of the historical centers
through a time line. A series of more than 25 maps and plots (e.g. BOSCHINI 1651, MEISNER 1642, DE
WIT 1620, HOMANN 1716, a.o.) depicting the outline of the architectural features and the expansion of the
cities through different periods has been scanned, georeferenced to the today's plan of the cities and
digitized in thematic layers that represent different categories of urban space (Fig. 1). The importance of
using different historical maps underlies in the fact that the various cartographers gave attention and
emphasized different kinds of details. Having the different layers of geographic information, it was possible to
investigate the transformation of the cities in various periods in terms of their extension, the density and
function of buildings with respect to their location, and examine the way they exploited the landscape (Fig.
2). In this way, it was possible to deviate from static models that are usually employed for capturing the past
settings of the urban environments (Fig. 3 & 4). Geographical Information Systems were employed for
studying the temporal changes of space and its architectural elements (either being preserved or brought to
light by geophysical prospection techniques and subsequent excavations). Virtual reconstructions of
buildings, even with low rendering, became capable of providing a more realistic representation of the
changes and transformations of the urban matrix. The information of old maps can augment our
understanding of the historical development of the towns and cities across many urban details, in a way that
written history alone cannot do.

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Fig. 1 – Superposition of georeferenced historical maps on the modern cadastral plan of the cities of Chania (up), Rethymno (middle)
and Herakleion (down). The process was repeated for a series of maps of different periods and digitization of the most prominent
monuments and architectural features followed in order to indicate the changes in the usage of space along the various historical
periods compared to today.

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Fig. 2 – Time line evolution of the expansion of the city of Candia (Herakleion) from the 9th to the 15th century A.D., indicating also the
differentiation of the function of the buildings.

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Fig. 3 – Preserved monuments of the Venetian and Ottoman period in the historical centers of Chania (above), Rethymno (middle) and
Herakleion (below). A lot of the monuments of the Venetian period (blue & yellow) were reused during the Ottoman period (green). A
few of them were also destroyed (red) in the latest phase of urbanization of the cities. The Venetian walls are well preserved in Chania
and Herakleion. On the other hand, the Venetian city plan is still preserved in the historical center of Rethymno. The above maps are
accessible at the portal: digitalcrete.ims.forth.gr.

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Fig. 4 – Above: A model of the mid 17th ce. Venetian Candia existing at the Historical Museum of Crete at Herakleion
(http://www.historical-museum.gr/en/index.html). Middle: Partial 3D reconstruction of historical buildings at the center of Rethymno,
overlaid on the recent layout of the Old city. Below: Part of the monuments exposed across the St. Peter Basilica at the coastal front of
Herakleion (Sof. Venizelou Avenue), following the results of the geophysical investigations.

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Analysis Results
A complementary character of the urban evolution was followed in all three cities of Crete, using similar
construction elements. The cities evolved and expanded in a proportional scale but in a different way.
Clearly, the layout and plan of the cities influenced their future evolution.
The main roads of Herakleion followed either a curvature similar to the one of the fortification walls or they
were constructed with a direction outwards the shoreline (Fig. 3 & 4). Similar was the situation with Chania,
but still there were a number of streets that were running in a parallel direction with the coastline. On the
other hand, the main transportation corridors for Rethymno were parallel to the coastline. The particular road
plan continued even today as it is reflected from the whole development of the cities, even outside the
historical centers. In Herakleion, the old town was facing inland and not towards the sea for reasons of
defense. Even today, modern Herakleion is the only city that has turned its back to the sea. In contrast,
Chania and even more Rethymno were directly linked to the sea, since the nucleus of their defense was
constructed upon hills (Kastelli and Fortezza correspondingly) close to the coast. Even today they have
exploited fully the seafront with most of the tourist activities and shops located along it.
As a capital of Crete, Herakleion experienced a large scale expansion and concentrated a large portion of
the population within its municipal layout. The city expanded around the venetian fortifications without
planning and increased in size through the centuries. The 114 ha Candia of the 17th century expanded over
an area of ca. 24 ha in 2010, increasing its population from 34,000 to about 125,000 people. Similar was the
growth of Chania and Rethymno which extended over an area of 38ha and 30ha correspondingly hosting a
population of 8,000 and 5,200 people accordingly in the late 17th century. In all historical periods, expansion
of the cities was around the Venetian walls that acted as a pole of attraction for the whole population and
administration purposes. It was only during the last century, that population pressure lead to a more disperse
expansion of the urban fabric.
Normalizing all data to the smaller values of Rethymno, the analogies that existed in the late Venetian period
seem to have been maintained even today reflecting the complementary role of the three cities (Table 1). On
the other hand, small variations of these ratios are representative of the evolutionary differentiations that
each city has followed. For example, in terms of the extension of the city plan it seems that Herakleion,
followed by Chania, pursued a more accelerated pace than Rethymno (a ratio of 1:2:5 in 2010 compared to
1:1.5:4 in the 17th century). Similar are the analogies in the variation of the population in the three cities for
the two different chronological periods. Furthermore, as a consequence of the urban spatial inflation, the
nuclear character of the Venetian cities became looser today. Even if the historical centers of all cities are
densely populated, the total built surface as a percentage of the total area coverage decreased in all cases:
From 33%, 42%, 39% --> 24%, 30%, 21% for Rethymno, Chania and Herakleion correspondingly. However
this is not a reflection of the situation within the historical centers of the three cities, since the city with the
least preserved monuments (Herakleion) is much more densely constructed than the rest of the cities where
there is a larger number of preserved monuments.

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17th century Extension Free space Built surface

Rethymno 30 Ha 20 Ha 10 Ha

Chania 38 Ha 22 Ha 16 Ha

Herakleio 114 Ha 69 Ha 45 Ha

2010 Extension Free space Built surface

Rethymno 531 Ha 401 Ha 130 Ha

Chania 1083Ha 757Ha 326 Ha

Herakleio 2389Ha 1873Ha 516 Ha

Ratios Extension Built Space

Venetian Period (17th ce.) 1 : 1.5 : 4 1 : 1.5 : 4.5

Today 1:2:5 1 : 2.5 : 4

Table 1 – Data concerning the extension, free space and built surface of the three main cities of Crete in the Venetian (17th ce.) period
and today (2010).

The preservation of the Venetian and Ottoman architectural monuments created a number of open areas
that today constitute the lung of the cities. It is the places that comprise some of the most well known
landmarks of the cities, meeting places, parks, areas of green (e.g. the walls of Herakleion, the castles of
Fortezza and Firka at Rethymno and Chania correspondingly, a.o.) or even areas that are under protection
from modern development plans, where citizens and tourists gather on purpose to avoid the usual traffic and
noise of the modern city. Just to focus to the city of Rethymno, whose historical center remains one of the
best preserved compared to the rest of the cities, fusing at the same time the Venetian, Ottoman and Cretan
architectural influences. The small Venetian harbour of Rethymnon, with its 13th century Venetian mole and
the Ottoman lighthouse, is still one of the main attractions of the city. It was still in use up to a few decades
ago and today hosts a number of tourist stores that draw the attention of the visitors. The Rimondi Fountain,
constructed in 1626, is located in the heart of the old town of Rethymno and it is still in operation and
constitutes the center of the activities of the old center. The Venetian Loggia, today hosting the
Archaeological Receipts Fund of the Ministry of Culture, is one of the most well preserved venetian buildings
of the 16th century that used to be a meeting place for the Venetian mobility. A church of the Augustinian
Priory, dedicated to the Virgin, was converted to Nerantze Mosque, which today hosts the Municipal Odeon.
The one-aisled basilica of Saint Frangiskos church, built in the Venetian period, was converted to a
poorhouse during the Ottoman period and most of the complex has been destroyed. Although there are no
detailed plans of the basilica, geophysical investigations (ERT and GPR) that were carried out in the area
(currently the yard of the old Turkish school that still operates as a primary school) outlined the extent of the
complex and its compartments (PAPADOPOULOS et al. 2008). Following the geophysical investigations and

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excavations in the particular area which is next to the Nerantze Mosque, the largest section of the yard
became one of the new large squares of the old center of Rethymno and the point of reference for a number
of cultural events. Finally, the Great Gate, being the main entrance to the old city and almost the only
remaining feature of the venetian walls that were demolished after the Ottomans took over the city, leads to
the central Four Martyrs square of modern Rethymno.

Final Remarks
Today the roles of the cities of Crete have changed completely compared to that of the past, but the
influence of the monuments has been cumulative. However, the expansion of the cities followed a parallel
direction through all the periods, and in cases where the old center remained as much intact from modern
interventions, it retained its attraction not only in the tourist period but also in everyday life activities. The
extensions of the cities tried to keep apart the old and new sections of them, especially in Rethymno and
Chania, where the old centers were retained to a large degree. On the other hand, in Herakleion the new
architecture invaded the old neighborhoods and hided to a large degree the isolated monuments (Fig. 5).
The architectural losses that the Cretan cities suffered were not the same in the three cities. As a result the
perception of them is totally different in each one of them. The strategic location of Herakleion in Crete and
also in the central Aegean promoted it to one of the largest cities of Greece (the fourth in population).
Unfortunately, the city's monuments and artistic heritage were severely damaged by natural disasters and
wars, more than the cases of Chania and Rethymno. As a consequence of this and the absence of planning
in the post-2nd WW period, the reconstruction of Herakleion was carried out without following the main plans
of the Venetian center, but instead it followed an anarchist plan with constructions erected both within the
historical center and around the venetian walls. Soon, the brutal wave of the expansion of the city had to
face the trend of rediscovering the old values of the city that were hinted in the surviving monuments and
architecture.
Still, the adoption of the historical architecture and monuments in the modern activities of the cities has
played a essential role in the perception of the monuments from the citizens themselves. Even in Herakleion,
the fortification walls are hosting main roads (Fig. 5), museums and tourist points, sport centers, new public
buildings, a.o. Large venetian houses are hosting cultural centers, administration departments or commercial
facilities. Most important of all, the existing monuments provide free open space for the citizens to move and
for the city to breath.
Having gone through a number of historical phases, the cities of Crete did not remain intact. Some
monuments were destroyed, other were preserved or renovated. Monuments were transformed to satisfy the
present needs. Generally speaking, the cities did not remain in a "frozen" state, but instead they evolved
using the modern architectural trends (even sometimes without a precise design planning), adopting at the
same time, consciously or unconsciously, the retained historical architecture. This allowed a free expression
of the evolution of the city, keeping in its own way the continuity and ties with the past.
The problem of fusion between the modern architecture and the historical monuments has been the subject
of numerous discussions, without however to be possible to conclude on a single direction of action
(HORLER 1975). Progress against tradition? Construction works and innovative architecture against

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protection of the monuments? The past against the present and the future? These kind of dilemmas are
actually fake as we realize that they are not contradictory to each other since they mark continuation in time
and space. The presence of monuments and historical architecture does not merely reflects the links with the
past, but it also demarcates the continuity of a living organism, in which citizens coexist and constitute basic
elements of it. Monuments need not to be isolated, but instead to become an integral part of everyday life
activities. Neither to exist in frozen districts and/or be unreachable to the citizens. Bringing monuments and
historical buildings close to the people is possible to revitalize not only whole sectors of a city, but alter the
general character of it, as well as the attitude of the citizens. In this way, monuments will not be considered
as an obstacle to development, but instead as the motor for a more holistic promotion of the urban
environment.
“In vain, great-hearted Kublai, shall I attempt to describe Zaira, city of high bastions. I could tell you how
many steps make up the streets rising like stairways, and the degree of the arcades' curves, and what kind
of zinc scales cover the roofs; but I already know this would be the same as telling you nothing. The city
does not consist of this, but of relationships between the measurements of its space and the events of its
past … As this wave from memories flows in, the city soaks it up like a sponge and expands. A description of
Zaira as it is today should contain all Zaira's past. The city, however, does not tell its past, but contains it like
the lines of a hand, written in the corners of the streets, the gratings of the windows, …” Italo Calvino,
Invisible Cities.

Fig. 5 – Details from a number of preserved Venetian monuments that exist around the city of Herakleion. Apart from isolated private
houses (left), there are also monumental structures such as the fortification walls (upper right) and the port facilities (lower right). It is
monuments like this that provide the character and identity of the city.

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