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habitual attendant, ask his permission to do the duties. If he does not allow it
when asked, they can be done when the opportunity offers. When he does them,
three tooth-sticks should be brought, a small, a medium and a big one, and two
kinds of mouth-washing water and bathing water, that is, hot and cold, should be
set out. Whichever of these the teacher uses for three days should then be brought
regularly. If the teacher uses either kind indiscriminately, he can bring whatever is
available.
71. Why so many words? All should be done as prescribed by the Blessed One in
the Khandhakas as the right duties in the passage beginning: “Bhikkhus, a pupil
should perform the duties to the teacher [101] rightly. Herein, this is the right
performance of duties. He should rise early; removing his sandals and arranging
his robe on one shoulder, he should give the tooth-sticks and the mouth-washing
water, and he should prepare the seat. If there is rice gruel, he should wash the
dish and bring the rice gruel” (Vin I 61).
72. To please the teacher by perfection in the duties he should pay homage in the
evening, and he should leave when dismissed with the words, “You may go.” When
the teacher asks him, “Why have you come?” he can explain the reason for his
coming. If he does not ask but agrees to the duties being done, then after ten days
or a fortnight have gone by he should make an opportunity by staying back one
day at the time of his dismissal, and announcing the reason for his coming; or he
should go at an unaccustomed time, and when asked, “What have you come for?”
he can announce it.
73. If the teacher says, “Come in the morning,” he should do so. But if his stomach
burns with a bile affliction at that hour, or if his food does not get digested owing
to sluggish digestive heat, or if some other ailment afflicts him, he should let it be
known, and proposing a time that suits himself, he should come at that time. For if
a meditation subject is expounded at an inconvenient time, one cannot give attention.
This is the detailed explanation of the words “approach the good friend, the
giver of a meditation subject.”
74. Now, as to the words, one that suits his temperament (§28): there are six kinds of
temperament, that is, greedy temperament, hating temperament, deluded
temperament, faithful temperament, intelligent temperament, and speculative
temperament. Some would have fourteen, taking these six single ones together
with the four made up of the three double combinations and one triple combination
with the greed triad and likewise with the faith triad. But if this classification is
admitted, there are many more kinds of temperament possible by combining greed,
etc., with faith, etc.; therefore the kinds of temperament should be understood
briefly as only six. As to meaning the temperaments are one, that is to say, personal
nature, idiosyncrasy. According to [102] these there are only six types of persons,
that is, one of greedy temperament, one of hating temperament, one of deluded
temperament, one of faithful temperament, one of intelligent temperament, and
one of speculative temperament.
75. Herein, one of faithful temperament is parallel to one of greedy temperament
because faith is strong when profitable [kamma] occurs in one of greedy

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temperament, owing to its special qualities being near to those of greed. For, in an
unprofitable way, greed is affectionate and not over-austere, and so, in a profitable
way, is faith. Greed seeks out sense desires as object, while faith seeks out the
special qualities of virtue and so on. And greed does not give up what is harmful,
while faith does not give up what is beneficial.
76. One of intelligent temperament is parallel to one of hating temperament
because understanding is strong when profitable [kamma] occurs in one of hating
temperament, owing to its special qualities being near to those of hate. For, in an
unprofitable way, hate is disaffected and does not hold to its object, and so, in a
profitable way, is understanding. Hate seeks out only unreal faults, while
understanding seeks out only real faults. And hate occurs in the mode of
condemning living beings, while understanding occurs in the mode of condemning
formations.
77. One of speculative temperament is parallel to one of deluded temperament
because obstructive applied thoughts arise often in one of deluded temperament
who is striving to arouse unarisen profitable states, owing to their special qualities
being near to those of delusion. For just as delusion is restless owing to perplexity,
so are applied thoughts that are due to thinking over various aspects. And just as
delusion vacillates owing to superficiality, so do applied thoughts that are due to
facile conjecturing.
78. Others say that there are three more kinds of temperament with craving, pride,
and views. Herein craving is simply greed; and pride18 is associated with that, so
neither of them exceeds greed. And since views have their source in delusion, the
temperament of views falls within the deluded temperament.
79. What is the source of these temperaments? And how is it to be known that
such a person is of greedy temperament, that such a person is of one of those
beginning with hating temperament? What suits one of what kind of temperament?
80. Herein, as some say,19 the first three kinds of temperament to begin with have
their source in previous habit; and they have their source in elements and humours.
Apparently one of greedy temperament has formerly had plenty of desirable tasks
and gratifying work to do, or has reappeared here after dying in a heaven. And one

18. Mána, usually rendered by “pride,” is rendered here both by “pride” and “conceit.”
Etymologically it is derived perhaps from máneti (to honour) or mináti (to measure). In
sense, however, it tends to become associated with maññati, to conceive (false notions,
see M I 1), to imagine, to think (as e.g. at Nidd I 80, Vibh 390 and comy.). As one of the
“defilements” (see M I 36) it is probably best rendered by “pride.” In the expression
asmi-mána (often rendered by “the pride that says ‘I am’”) it more nearly approaches
maññaná (false imagining, misconception, see M III 246) and is better rendered by the
“conceit ‘I am,’” since the word “conceit” straddles both the meanings of “pride” (i.e.
haughtiness) and “conception.”
19. “‘Some’ is said with reference to the Elder Upatissa. For it is put in this way by
him in the Vimuttimagga. The word ‘apparently’ indicates dissent from what follows”
(Vism-mhþ 103). A similar passage to that referred to appears in Ch. 6 (Taisho ed. p. 410a)
of the Chinese version of the Vimuttimagga, the only one extant.

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of hating temperament has formerly had plenty of stabbing and torturing and
brutal work to do or has reappeared here after dying in one of the hells or the nága
(serpent) existences. And one [103] of deluded temperament has formerly drunk a
lot of intoxicants and neglected learning and questioning, or has reappeared here
after dying in the animal existence. It is in this way that they have their source in
previous habit, they say.
81. Then a person is of deluded temperament because two elements are
prominent, that is to say, the earth element and the water element. He is of hating
temperament because the other two elements are prominent. But he is of greedy
temperament because all four are equal. And as regards the humours, one of greedy
temperament has phlegm in excess and one of deluded temperament has wind in
excess. Or one of deluded temperament has phlegm in excess and one of greedy
temperament has wind in excess. So they have their source in the elements and the
humours, they say.
82. [Now, it can rightly be objected that] not all of those who have had plenty of
desirable tasks and gratifying work to do, and who have reappeared here after
dying in a heaven, are of greedy temperament, or the others respectively of hating
and deluded temperament; and there is no such law of prominence of elements
(see XIV.43f.) as that asserted; and only the pair, greed and delusion, are given in
the law of humours, and even that subsequently contradicts itself; and no source
for even one among those beginning with one of faithful temperament is given.
Consequently this definition is indecisive.
83. The following is the exposition according to the opinion of the teachers of the
commentaries; or this is said in the “explanation of prominence”: “The fact that
these beings have prominence of greed, prominence of hate, prominence of delusion,
is governed by previous root-cause.
“For when in one man, at the moment of his accumulating [rebirth-producing]
kamma, greed is strong and non-greed is weak, non-hate and non-delusion are
strong and hate and delusion are weak, then his weak non-greed is unable to prevail
over his greed, but his non-hate and non-delusion being strong are able to prevail
over his hate and delusion. That is why, on being reborn through rebirth-linking
given by that kamma, he has greed, is good-natured and unangry, and possesses
understanding with knowledge like a lightning flash.
84. “When, at the moment of another’s accumulating kamma, greed and hate are
strong and non-greed and non-hate weak, and non-delusion is strong and delusion
weak, then in the way already stated he has both greed and hate but possesses
understanding with knowledge like a lightning flash, like the Elder Datta-Abhaya.
“When, at the moment of his accumulating kamma, greed, non-hate and delusion
are strong and the others are weak, then in the way already stated he both has
greed and is dull but is good-tempered20 and unangry, like the Elder Bahula.

20. Sìlaka—”good-tempered”—sukhasìla (good-natured—see §83), which = sakhila

(kindly—Vism-mhþ 104). Not in PED.

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“Likewise when, at the moment of his accumulating kamma, the three, namely,
greed, hate and delusion are strong and non-greed, etc., are weak, then in the way
already stated he has both greed and hate and is deluded. [104]
85. “When, at the moment of his accumulating kamma, non-greed, hate and
delusion are strong and the others are weak, then in the way already stated he has
little defilement and is unshakable even on seeing a heavenly object, but he has
hate and is slow in understanding.
“When, at the moment of his accumulating kamma, non-greed, non-hate and
non-delusion are strong and the rest weak, then in the way already stated he has
no greed and no hate, and is good-tempered but slow in understanding.
“Likewise when, at the moment of his accumulating kamma, non-greed, hate
and non-delusion are strong and the rest weak, then in the way already stated he
both has no greed and possesses understanding but has hate and is irascible.
“Likewise when, at the moment of his accumulating kamma, the three, that is,
non-hate, non-greed, and non-delusion, are strong and greed, etc., are weak, then
in the way already stated he has no greed and no hate and possesses understanding,
like the Elder Mahá-Saògharakkhita.”
86. One who, as it is said here, “has greed” is one of greedy temperament; one
who “has hate” and one who “is dull” are respectively of hating temperament and
deluded temperament. One who “possesses understanding” is one of intelligent
temperament. One who “has no greed” and one who “has no hate” are of faithful
temperament because they are naturally trustful. Or just as one who is reborn
through kamma accompanied by non-delusion is of intelligent temperament, so
one who is reborn through kamma accompanied by strong faith is of faithful
temperament, one who is reborn through kamma accompanied by thoughts of
sense desire is of speculative temperament, and one who is reborn through kamma
accompanied by mixed greed, etc., is of mixed temperament. So it is the kamma
productive of rebirth-linking and accompanied by someone among the things
beginning with greed that should be understood as the source of the temperaments.
87. But it was asked, and how is it to be known that “This person is of greedy
temperament?” (§79), and so on. This is explained as follows:
By the posture, by the action,
By eating, seeing, and so on,
By the kind of states occurring,
May temperament be recognized.
88. Herein, by the posture: when one of greedy temperament is walking in his
usual manner, he walks carefully, puts his foot down slowly, puts it down evenly,
lifts it up evenly, and his step is springy.21
One of hating temperament walks as though he were digging with the points of his
feet, puts his foot down quickly, lifts it up quickly, and his step is dragged along.

21. Ukkuþika—”springy” is glossed here by asamphuþþhamajjhaí (“not touching in the

middle”—Vism-mhþ 106). This meaning is not in PED.

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One of deluded temperament walks with a perplexed gait, puts his foot down hesitantly,
lifts it up hesitantly, [105] and his step is pressed down suddenly.
And this is said in the account of the origin of the Mágandiya Sutta:
The step of one of greedy nature will be springy;
The step of one of hating nature, dragged along;
Deluded, he will suddenly press down his step;
And one without defilement has a step like this.22
89. The stance of one of greedy temperament is confident and graceful. That of one
of hating temperament is rigid. That of one of deluded temperament is muddled,
likewise in sitting. And one of greedy temperament spreads his bed unhurriedly, lies
down slowly, composing his limbs, and he sleeps in a confident manner. When woken,
instead of getting up quickly, he gives his answer slowly as though doubtful. One of
hating temperament spreads his bed hastily anyhow; with his body flung down he
sleeps with a scowl. When woken, he gets up quickly and answers as though annoyed.
One of deluded temperament spreads his bed all awry and sleeps mostly face
downwards with his body sprawling. When woken, he gets up slowly, saying, “Hum.”
90. Since those of faithful temperament, etc., are parallel to those of greedy
temperament, etc., their postures are therefore like those described above.
This firstly is how the temperaments may be recognized by the posture.
91. By the action: also in the acts of sweeping, etc., one of greedy temperament
grasps the broom well, and he sweeps cleanly and evenly without hurrying or
scattering the sand, as if he were strewing sinduvára flowers. One of hating
temperament grasps the broom tightly, and he sweeps uncleanly and unevenly
with a harsh noise, hurriedly throwing up the sand on each side. One of deluded
temperament grasps the broom loosely, and he sweeps neither cleanly nor evenly,
mixing the sand up and turning it over.
92. As with sweeping, so too with any action such as washing and dyeing robes,
and so on. One of greedy temperament acts skilfully, gently, evenly and carefully.
One of hating temperament acts tensely, stiffly and unevenly. One of deluded
temperament acts unskilfully as if muddled, unevenly and indecisively. [106]
Also one of greedy temperament wears his robe neither too tightly nor too
loosely, confidently and level all round. One of hating temperament wears it too
tight and not level all round. One of deluded temperament wears it loosely and in
a muddled way.
Those of faithful temperament, etc., should be understood in the same way as
those just described, since they are parallel.
This is how the temperaments may be recognized by the actions.
93. By eating: One of greedy temperament likes eating rich sweet food. When
eating, he makes a round lump not too big and eats unhurriedly, savouring the
various tastes. He enjoys getting something good. One of hating temperament likes
eating rough sour food. When eating he makes a lump that fills his mouth, and he

22. See Sn-a 544, A-a 436.

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eats hurriedly without savouring the taste. He is aggrieved when he gets something
not good. One of deluded temperament has no settled choice. When eating, he
makes a small un-rounded lump, and as he eats he drops bits into his dish, smearing
his face, with his mind astray, thinking of this and that.
Also those of faithful temperament, etc., should be understood in the same way
as those just described since they are parallel.
This is how the temperament may be recognized by eating.
94. And by seeing and so on: when one of greedy temperament sees even a slightly
pleasing visible object, he looks long as if surprised, he seizes on trivial virtues,
discounts genuine faults, and when departing, he does so with regret as if unwilling
to leave. When one of hating temperament sees even a slightly unpleasing visible
object, he avoids looking long as if he were tired, he picks out trivial faults, discounts
genuine virtues, and when departing, he does so without regret as if anxious to
leave. When one of deluded temperament sees any sort of visible object, he copies
what others do: if he hears others criticizing, he criticizes; if he hears others praising,
he praises; but actually he feels equanimity in himself—the equanimity of
unknowing. So too with sounds, and so on.
And those of faithful temperament, etc., should be understood in the same way
as those just described since they are parallel.
This is how the temperaments may be recognized by seeing and so on.
95. By the kind of states occurring: in one of greedy temperament there is frequent
occurrence of such states as deceit, fraud, pride, evilness of wishes, greatness of
wishes, discontent, foppery and personal vanity. 23 [107] In one of hating
temperament there is frequent occurrence of such states as anger, enmity,
disparaging, domineering, envy and avarice. In one of deluded temperament there
is frequent occurrence of such states as stiffness, torpor, agitation, worry, uncertainty,
and holding on tenaciously with refusal to relinquish.

23. Siòga—”foppery” is not in PED in this sense. See Vibh 351 and commentary.
Cápalya (cápalla)—”personal vanity”: noun from adj. capala. The word “capala” comes
in an often-repeated passage: “saþhá máyávino keþubhino uddhatá unnalá capalá mukhará
…” (M I 32); cf. S I 203; A III 199, etc.) and also M I 470 “uddhato hoti capalo,” with two
lines lower “uddhaccaí cápalyaí.” Cápalya also occurs at Vibh 351 (and M II 167). At M-
a I 152 (commenting on M I 32) we find: capalá ti pattacìvaramaóðanádiná cápallena yuttá
(“interested in personal vanity consisting in adorning bowl and robe and so on”), and
at M-a III 185 (commenting on M I 470): Uddhato hoti capalo ti uddhaccapakatiko c’eva hoti
cìvaramaóðaná pattamaóðaná senásanamaóðaná imassa vá pútikáyassa keláyanamaóðaná ti
evaí vuttena taruóadárakacápallena samannágato (“‘he is distracted—or puffed up—and
personally vain’: he is possessed of the callow youth’s personal vanity described as
adorning the robe, adorning the bowl, adorning the lodging, or prizing and adorning
this filthy body”). This meaning is confirmed in the commentary to Vibh 251. PED
does not give this meaning at all but only “fickle,” which is unsupported by the
commentary. CPD (acapala) also does not give this meaning.
As to the other things listed here in the Visuddhimagga text, most will be found at M
I 36. For “holding on tenaciously,” etc., see M I 43.

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In one of faithful temperament there is frequent occurrence of such states as

free generosity, desire to see Noble Ones, desire to hear the Good Dhamma, great
gladness, ingenuousness, honesty, and trust in things that inspire trust. In one of
intelligent temperament there is frequent occurrence of such states as readiness to
be spoken to, possession of good friends, knowledge of the right amount in eating,
mindfulness and full awareness, devotion to wakefulness, a sense of urgency about
things that should inspire a sense of urgency, and wisely directed endeavour. In
one of speculative temperament there is frequent occurrence of such states as
talkativeness, sociability, boredom with devotion to the profitable, failure to finish
undertakings, smoking by night and flaming by day (see M I 144—that is to say,
hatching plans at night and putting them into effect by day), and mental running
hither and thither (see Ud 37).
This is how the temperaments may be recognized by the kind of states occurring.
96. However, these directions for recognizing the temperaments have not been handed
down in their entirety in either the texts or the commentaries; they are only expressed
according to the opinion of the teachers and cannot therefore be treated as authentic.
For even those of hating temperament can exhibit postures, etc., ascribed to the greedy
temperament when they try diligently. And postures, etc., never arise with distinct
characteristics in a person of mixed temperament. Only such directions for recognizing
temperament as are given in the commentaries should be treated as authentic; for this
is said: “A teacher who has acquired penetration of minds will know the temperament
and will explain a meditation subject accordingly; one who has not should question
the pupil.” So it is by penetration of minds or by questioning the person, that it can be
known whether he is one of greedy temperament or one of those beginning with
hating temperament.
97. What suits one of what kind of temperament? (§79). A suitable lodging for one of
greedy temperament has an unwashed sill and stands level with the ground, and
it can be either an overhanging [rock with an] unprepared [drip-ledge] (see Ch. II,
note 15), a grass hut, or a leaf house, etc. It ought to be spattered with dirt, full of
bats,24 dilapidated, too high or too low, in bleak surroundings, threatened [by lions,
tigers, etc.,] with a muddy, uneven path, [108] where even the bed and chair are full
of bugs. And it should be ugly and unsightly, exciting loathing as soon as looked
at. Suitable inner and outer garments are those that have torn-off edges with threads
hanging down all round like a “net cake,”25 harsh to the touch like hemp, soiled,
heavy and hard to wear. And the right kind of bowl for him is an ugly clay bowl
disfigured by stoppings and joints, or a heavy and misshapen iron bowl as
unappetizing as a skull. The right kind of road for him on which to wander for
alms is disagreeable, with no village near, and uneven. The right kind of village for
him in which to wander for alms is where people wander about as if oblivious of
him, where, as he is about to leave without getting alms even from a single family,
people call him into the sitting hall, saying, “Come, venerable sir,” and give him

24. Jatuká—”a bat”: not in PED. Also at Ch. XI. §7.

25. Jalapúvasadisa—”like a net cake”: “A cake made like a net” (Vism-mhþ 108); possibly
what is now known in Sri Lanka as a “string hopper,” or something like it.

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gruel and rice, but do so as casually as if they were putting a cow in a pen. Suitable
people to serve him are slaves or workmen who are unsightly, ill-favoured, with
dirty clothes, ill-smelling and disgusting, who serve him his gruel and rice as if
they were throwing it rudely at him. The right kind of gruel and rice and hard
food is poor, unsightly, made up of millet, kudusaka, broken rice, etc., stale buttermilk,
sour gruel, curry of old vegetables, or anything at all that is merely for filling the
stomach. The right kind of posture for him is either standing or walking. The object
of his contemplation should be any of the colour kasióas, beginning with the blue,
whose colour is not pure. This is what suits one of greedy temperament.
98. A suitable resting place for one of hating temperament is not too high or too
low, provided with shade and water, with well-proportioned walls, posts and steps,
with well-prepared frieze work and lattice work, brightened with various kinds of
painting, with an even, smooth, soft floor, adorned with festoons of flowers and a
canopy of many-coloured cloth like a Brahmá-god’s divine palace, with bed and
chair covered with well-spread clean pretty covers, smelling sweetly of flowers,
and perfumes and scents set about for homely comfort, which makes one happy
and glad at the mere sight of it.
99. The right kind of road to his lodging is free from any sort of danger, traverses
clean, even ground, and has been properly prepared. [109] And here it is best that
the lodging’s furnishings are not too many in order to avoid hiding-places for
insects, bugs, snakes and rats: even a single bed and chair only. The right kind of
inner and outer garments for him are of any superior stuff such as China cloth,
Somára cloth, silk, fine cotton, fine linen, of either single or double thickness, quite
light, and well dyed, quite pure in colour to befit an ascetic. The right kind of bowl
is made of iron, as well shaped as a water bubble, as polished as a gem, spotless,
and of quite pure colour to befit an ascetic. The right kind of road on which to
wander for alms is free from dangers, level, agreeable, with the village neither too
far nor too near. The right kind of village in which to wander for alms is where
people, thinking, “Now our lord is coming,” prepare a seat in a sprinkled, swept
place, and going out to meet him, take his bowl, lead him to the house, seat him on
a prepared seat and serve him carefully with their own hands.
100. Suitable people to serve him are handsome, pleasing, well bathed, well
anointed, scented26 with the perfume of incense and the smell of flowers, adorned
with apparel made of variously-dyed clean pretty cloth, who do their work carefully.
The right kind of gruel, rice, and hard food has colour, smell and taste, possesses
nutritive essence, and is inviting, superior in every way, and enough for his wants.
The right kind of posture for him is lying down or sitting. The object of his
contemplation should be anyone of the colour kasióas, beginning with the blue,
whose colour is quite pure. This is what suits one of hating temperament.
101. The right lodging for one of deluded temperament has a view and is not shut
in, where the four quarters are visible to him as he sits there. As to the postures, walking
is right. The right kind of object for his contemplation is not small, that is to say, the
size of a winnowing basket or the size of a saucer; for his mind becomes more confused

26. Surabhi—”scented, perfume”: not in PED; also at VI.90; X.60 and Vism-mhþ 445.

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in a confined space; so the right kind is an amply large kasióa. The rest is as stated for
one of hating temperament. This is what suits one of deluded temperament.
102. For one of faithful temperament all the directions given for one of hating
temperament are suitable. As to the object of his contemplation, one of the
recollections is right as well.
For one of intelligent temperament there is nothing unsuitable as far as concerns
the lodging and so on.
For one of speculative temperament an open lodging with a view, [110] where
gardens, groves and ponds, pleasant prospects, panoramas of villages, towns and
countryside, and the blue gleam of mountains, are visible to him as he sits there, is
not right; for that is a condition for the running hither and thither of applied thought.
So he should live in a lodging such as a deep cavern screened by woods like the
Overhanging Rock of the Elephant’s Belly (Hatthikucchipabbhára), or Mahinda’s
Cave. Also an ample-sized object of contemplation is not suitable for him; for one
like that is a condition for the running hither and thither of applied thought. A
small one is right. The rest is as stated for one of greedy temperament. This is what
suits one of speculative temperament.
These are the details, with definition of the kind, source, recognition, and what
is suitable, as regards the various temperaments handed down here with the words
“that suits his own temperament” (§60).
103. However, the meditation subject that is suitable to the temperament has not
been cleared up in all its aspects yet. This will become clear automatically when
those in the following list are treated in detail.
Now, it was said above, “and he should apprehend from among the forty
meditation subjects one that suits his own temperament” (§60). Here the exposition
of the meditation subject should be first understood in these ten ways: (1) as to
enumeration, (2) as to which bring only access and which absorption, (3) at to the
kinds of jhána, (4) as to surmounting, (5) as to extension and non-extension, (6) as
to object, (7) as to plane, (8) as to apprehending, (9) as to condition, (10) as to
suitability to temperament.
104. 1. Herein, as to enumeration: it was said above, “from among the forty
meditation subjects” (§28). Herein, the forty meditation subjects are these:
ten kasióas (totalities),
ten kinds of foulness,
ten recollections,
four divine abidings,
four immaterial states,
one perception,
one defining.
105. Herein, the ten kasióas are these: earth kasióa, water kasióa, fire kasióa, air
kasióa, blue kasióa, yellow kasióa, red kasióa, white kasióa, light kasióa, and
limited-space kasióa.27

27. “‘Kasióa’ is in the sense of entirety (sakalaþþhena)” (M-a III 260). See IV.119.

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CHAPTER III Taking a Meditation Subject

The ten kinds of foulness are these: the bloated, the livid, the festering, the cut-
up, the gnawed, the scattered, the hacked and scattered, the bleeding, the worm-
infested, and a skeleton.28
The ten kinds of recollection are these: recollection of the Buddha (the
Enlightened One), recollection of the Dhamma (the Law), recollection of the Sangha
(the Community), recollection of virtue, recollection of generosity, recollection of
deities, recollection (or mindfulness) of death, mindfulness occupied with the body,
mindfulness of breathing, and recollection of peace. [111]
The four divine abidings are these: loving-kindness, compassion, gladness, and
equanimity.
The four immaterial states are these: the base consisting of boundless space, the
base consisting of boundless consciousness, the base consisting of nothingness,
and the base consisting of neither perception nor non-perception.
The one perception is the perception of repulsiveness in nutriment.
The one defining is the defining of the four elements.
This is how the exposition should be understood “as to enumeration.”
106. 2 As to which bring access only and which absorption: the eight recollections—
excepting mindfulness occupied with the body and mindfulness of breathing—
the perception of repulsiveness in nutriment, and the defining of the four elements,
are ten meditation subjects that bring access only. The others bring absorption.
This is “as to which bring access only and which absorption.”
107. 3. As to the kind of jhána: among those that bring absorption, the ten kasióas
together with mindfulness of breathing bring all four jhánas. The ten kinds of
foulness together with mindfulness occupied with the body bring the first jhána.

28. Here ten kinds of foulness are given. But in the Suttas only either five or six of this
set appear to be mentioned, that is, “Perception of a skeleton, perception of the worm-
infested, perception of the livid, perception of the cut-up, perception of the bloated.
(see A I 42 and S V 131; A II 17 adds “perception of the festering”)” No details are
given. All ten appear at Dhs 263–64 and Paþis I 49. It will be noted that no order of
progress of decay in the kinds of corpse appears here; also the instructions in Ch. VI
are for contemplating actual corpses in these states. The primary purpose here is to
cultivate “repulsiveness.”
Another set of nine progressive stages in the decay of a corpse, mostly different
from these, is given at M I 58, 89, etc., beginning with a corpse one day old and ending
with bones turned to dust. From the words “suppose a bhikkhu saw a corpse thrown
on a charnel ground … he compares this same body of his with it thus, ‘This body too
is of like nature, awaits a like fate, is not exempt from that’”(M I 58), it can be assumed
that these nine, which are given in progressive order of decay in order to demonstrate
the body’s impermanence, are not necessarily intended as contemplations of actual
corpses so much as mental images to be created, the primary purpose being to cultivate
impermanence. This may be why these nine are not used here (see VIII.43).
The word asubha (foul, foulness) is used both of the contemplations of corpses as
here and of the contemplation of the parts of the body (A V 109).

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