INTRODUCTION

TO PSYCHOLOGY

CASTOS, Leslie C.
BSP-12005
Ms. Jonah Andrea D. Mapula, RPm

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 CHAPTER 6
LEARNING AND MEMORY

Learning Objectives:

• What is Learning?
• What are the different perspectives of Learning?
• What is memory and forgetting?
• What are the different types and storage of memory?

Have you ever wondered how the famous dog’s name Saver became the “wonder dog of the
Philippines” How about how little girls have their own likes and dislikes as young as 6 or 7 years
old? How about the inability to recall memories during infancy until 3 or 4 years old? All of these
examples and questions involves learning and memory.

LEARNING
It is defined as the process of acquiring new information which brings about a change in the
individual's way of responding as a result of practice or experiences.

Perspective on Learning

1. Associative Learning/Stimulus Response Theory emphasize the establishment and

strengthening of relationships between the stimulus (5) and the response and emphasize
the role of reinforcement in the learning.

Two forms of associative learning:

1.1 Classical Conditioning
Russian psychologist Ivan P. Pavlov
and American psychologist John B.
Watson are closely associated with
classical conditioning which is also
called Pavlovian or Respondent
Conditioning.

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Variables of Classical Conditioning

A. Unconditioned Stimulus (US) is any stimulus that has the ability to elicit a response
without previous training.

B. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) refers 'to the stimulus which initially does not elicit the
response under the study but comes to do so by being paired with the unconditioned
stimulus.

C. Unconditioned Response (UR) is the original response to an unconditioned stimulus

D. Conditioned Response (CR) is a·1earned response to a conditioned

stimulus.

Basic Laws of Classical Conditioning

A. Law of Excitation (Acquisition) - This applies when a previously neutral stimulus

acquires the property of eliciting the conditioned response.

B. Law of internal Inhibition (Conditioning Trial) - the conditioned response will not
be elicited if the conditioned stimulus is not simultaneously presented with the
unconditioned stimulus.

C. Law of Extinction- it occurs when the conditioned response is no longer elicited by

the conditioned stimulus because the conditioned stimulus is constantly presented
alone without the paired stimulus.

D. Law of External Inhibition (Spontaneous recovery)- excitatory or inhibitory

processes in conditioning can occur when new and distracting stimuli are presented
and then removed.

1.2 Operant Conditioning

1.2.1 Thorndike’s Connectionism Theory. Edward C. Thorndike spent much of his

academic career at Teacher’s College Columbia University in New York.

Thorndike’s Law of Learning

A. Law of Exercise – states that stimulus response (SR) connectionism is strengthened by

practice or repetition.

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 B. Law of Effect - states that the SR bonds or connections are strengthened by rewards or
satisfaction.
C. Law of Readiness - states that the SR bonds can be chained together to satisfy some goal
which will result in annoyance if blocked.

1.2.2 Instrumental/Operant Conditioning. It is the procedure in which behavior is

strengthened through reinforcement. It suggests the fact that the subject is instrumental to
obtaining the reinforcer.

Forms of Reinforcers:

• Reinforcement: Responses that are followed by "favorable" consequences

(reinforcing stimuli) are more likely to occur in the future.

• Punishment: Responses that are followed by "unfavorable" consequences (punishing

stimuli) are less likely to occur in the future.

Kinds of Reinforcer:

A. Primary Reward Conditioning- where the learned response is instrumental in

obtaining a biologically significant reward.

B. Escape Conditioning - is one where the organism learns a response that is

instrumental in getting out of a place one prefers not to be in.

C. Avoidance Conditioning - is a kind of learning where a response to a cue is

instrumental in avoiding a painful experience.

D. Secondary Reward Conditioning - is where there is instrumental behavior to get a

stimulus which has no biological utility itself but has in past been associated with a
biological significant stimulus.

2. Social Learning Theory. Albert Bandura and Richard Walter dispute the role of
reinforcement in learning. They view learning as occurring in the absence of reinforcement,
which gives emphasis on observing others and learning through imitation.

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3. Cognitive Learning Theory. The cognitive theory offers an alternative. Basically, this theory
focuses on the cognitive structures rather than on stimulus-response connections as the crucial
factors in learning.
a. Insight Learning Theory - Is a type of learning or problem solving which involves a
sudden restructuring or organizing of the organism's perceptual world into a new pattern
or gestalt that happens all-of-a-sudden through understanding the relationship's various
parts of a problem rather than through trial and error.
b. Sign Learning Theory - is defined as an acquired expectation that one stimulus will be
followed by another in particular context by pursuing signs to a goal, i.e., learning is
acquired through meaningful behavior.

Conditions Affecting Effective Learning:

1. Motivation
2. Mental set
3. Emotion
4. Rehearsal
5. Meaningfulness of Learning
6. Degree of Learning
7. Distributed and Massed Practice
8. Skills for Learning
9. Drugs and Stimulants
10. Experiential Background

Memory and Forgetting

Memories are stored diffusely throughout the structures of the brain. There are five (5) areas of
the brain that have been implicated in the storage of man’s memory: (1) Inferotemporal cortext;
visual perception of objects, (2) Amygdala; Emotional memories, (3) Prefrontal cortext; Sequence,

(4) Cerebellum; Sensorimotor skills, and (5) Striatum; Habit formation. Each part is responsible
for different kinds of memory and is characterized by memory system aspects.

Memory: It is the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information (Miranda, 2008).

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A functional memory system incorporates three aspects:

• Encoding - sensory information is encoded into the short-term memory.

• Storage/Consolidation - information may be consolidated into the long-term storage.
• Retrieval - stored information is retrieved.

Kinds of Memory:

1. Sensory memory which refers to the initial, momentary storage of information, lasting
only an instant. Information is recorded by the person's sensory system as a raw, non-
meaningful stimulus.

Types of Sensory Memory

A. Iconic memory, which reflects information from our visual system.
B. Echoic memory, which stores information coming from our ears.

2. Short-term memory holds information for 15 to 25 seconds. In this system, the

information is stored according to its meaning rather than as mere sensory stimulation.

3. Long-term memory. Information is stored in long-term memory on a relatively permanent

basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve.

Types of Long-Term Memory

A. Declarative Memory. It contains information on names, faces, dates, and the like.

A.1 Semantic Memory contains concepts and rules.

A.2 Episodic Memory - is the record of some personal experience.

B. Non-declarative Memory. It contains information that is gathered through psychomotor

activities like acquiring a skill or habit.

B.1 Procedural Memory- it is the memory that contains facts on how to do things. An
example is the skill of biking, taking a bath, eating.

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Principles Governing Memory Systems:

• Primacy effect: appears to be the result of subjects recalling items directly from a semantic
memory that enhance memory performance on items at the beginning of the presentation
sequence. It is due to the fact that the earliest items are now in the long-term memory, e.g.
on television game shows where people can win everything in a list of items they see, they
usually at least remember the first few items.
• Recency effect: refers to the enhanced memory performance on items at the end of the
presentation sequence. It is due to the fact that the most recent items are still in the short-
term memory or working memory, e.g. people tend to remember what they did in the last
hour? What about the last day? Last week? Year? or how about the last song syndrome?
• Maintenance rehearsal: repetition of information. It is only effective in the short-term
memory, e.g. memorizing repeatedly the cell number of your crush or a piece to be
performed.
• Elaborative rehearsal: it involves thinking about the materials in ways that may be related
to other information you know, e.g. relating the technical term into your daily habit.
• Retrieval cue: it involves explicit prompt or question to recall a particular piece of
information (Teh & Macapagal, 2009).

Encoding specificity: it involves memory retrieval when the cues during retrieval and
encoding are similar information (Teh & Macapagal, 2009). Example, when you trying to get a
knife in the kitchen.

When we learn something, it is stored in our memory. Now if that memory is needed, we tend to
recall the learned facts to be applied. Forgetting comes in, if there is failure to recall these facts.

The following are the theories/reasons why we forget:

1. Distributed practice: produces far better retrieval than massed practice (cramming).

2. Encoding Failure: unattended information is not encoded into the memory.

3. Memory Trace Decay: over time, if memory is not used, neuronal connection can decay.

4. Interference: other information interferes with accurate retrieval e.g. tip of the tongue.

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 a. Proactive: previously learned information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of a
newer information.

b. Retroactive: newly acquired information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of

older information.

Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: False memory produced by the learning of lists of
categorized and associative materials could be reduced by directed forgetting.

For both the categorized and associative lists, the rate of false recall increased upon the proportion
of "forget" (F) words. After removing the immediate recall test, Experiment 2 found that
intentionally forgetting a part of the studied list reduced false memory, whereas forgetting the
whole studied list did not. The results are discussed in terms of the list-level versus item-level
inhibition in semantic activation and the role of monitoring in reducing false memory (Shiow-lee,
2007).

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 CHAPTER 7
THINKING A THOUGHT PROCESS
Introduction

Thinking is a huge part of what makes humans superior and more capable than the other
forms of life in the environment. An individual is always engaged in thought all the time. Whether
it is thinking about what to eat for lunch, making sense of the unfamiliar words or concepts in a
book or daydreaming about what to do after class, it is said that an individual is always lost in
thought.

Thinking is a mental or a brain process which involves formation of imagery, letters

forming words, concepts or ideas. With a higher intelligence, an individual is given more ability
to manipulate these thoughts efficiently and effectively. Exploration. to this specific field has led
to a whole branch of Psychology called Cognitive Psychology as coined by Ulrich Neisser. This
is a more comprehensive study that delves with thought processes and the way people think and
process information.

Definition

The definition of thinking according to Freeman (1982) is any mental process including
everything from random associations and images to spectacular acts of creativities.

Thinking is not limited to abstract thought, imagery, creative endeavors, reasoning ability,
remembering, problem solving, and analytical thinking among other things.

The Thinking Process

Thinking as a brain activity. Thoughts triggered by something a person sees, hear, smell,
taste or touch. The sensation is relayed to the brain to be interpreted and analyzed. Take for
example a child who tries to swallow a sour candy, will he spit it out or just swallow it regardless
of what it tastes like to him. Another example is when a person smells a rotten food, is he going to
throw it away or still manage to eat it despite of its odor.

Thinking as a motor activity. Thinking can be associated with actions or motor activity
of the body. In some cases, bodily reactions occur simultaneously with thinking, but there are also
instances when a person will process the thought first before acting on it. Impulsive people are
very typical of this process. Since they are impulsive, they usually act in a matter of split second
after receiving the thought.

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Types of Thinking

1. Free associations relationships of ideas as cued by the external environment. For example:
color red is associated with love.

2. Fantasy these are free associations coming from the person's inner world of feelings,
desires and wishes. For example: Fantasizing that one is a princess in a Disney movie
because of her long and silky hair.

3. Delusional thinking type of thinking that is more focused than free association or fantasy
but it is not close to reality. Delusions are false beliefs which have no basis. They are
irrational thoughts but usually have specific meanings for the individual. For example:
Announcing to everyone that you are the Supreme Being and acting like one.

4. Creative thinking type of problem solving which involves extraordinary instead of

conventional solutions. For example: a person who likes to paint abstract paintings.

Elements of Thinking

• Imagery - Some people are inclined to think in pictures, or in imagery. They relate to past
experiences with visual representations in their minds. Problems or situations are solved
the by use of the imagination to picture out a plan of action. For example, a mother who is
going to the grocery to shop may try to recall the layout of the grocery store when making
her shopping list. Listing Items she encounters near the entrance first, followed by items
she will pass along the way, determining her shopping path.

• Conceptual Thinking - Ideas and abstract thought are represented in the mind through
symbols and associations, Intangible ideas which cannot be represented by concrete images
are molded into concepts. Concepts also help organize ideas. For example, if a student is
asked to memorize a great number of plants and their scientific names, he needs to arrange
them according to their characteristics whether they are fruit-bearing or not. In this way, it
will be easier for him to remember these concepts while studying all about plants.

• Verbal Thinking - Most people think with the use of words and speech. They talk to
themselves or utilize an inner voice that walks them through thought and mental activities.
Much of our thinking occurs in this form because we have learned to associate words with
images and concepts. This is the easiest way for humans to make sense of the world.

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CREATIVE THINKING

Graham Wallas' book Art of Thought (1926) presented five models of the creative process:

• Preparation-is preparation to work on a problem that focuses the individual's mind on the
problem.
• Incubation-it Involves internalizing the problem into the unconscious mind.
• Intimation-the person feels and anticipates that a solution is on its way and something good
is about to happen.
• Illumination-where the creative idea bursts forth from its preconscious processing into
conscious awareness.
• Verification-where the idea is consciously verified, elaborated, and then applied.

PROBLEM SOLVING

Problem solving is an activity of the brain which also involves visual motor coordination. in
solving a problem, people usually divide or categorize their goals by breaking it down into smaller
units to obtain the desired results.

Techniques Used in Problem Solving

1. Rule - proceeding to solve a problem entails certain rules or methods on how to tackle a
certain problem.

2. Planning - involves a means-end analysis of the problem. It also involves choosing an

action each step further to achieve a certain goal. Devising a strategy is very important in
problem solving. Some people use the top to bottom approach, some use the bottom to top
approach and also divide and conquer (breaking down a problem into smaller and
manageable parts) among others.

3. Trial and Error - entails testing the hypothesis whether the assumption made prior to
solving the problem is true. It may involve several trials until the right solution is achieved.

Factors that influence success in problem-solving:

1. Intelligence of the person may affect his problem-solving skills. Intelligent people can
solve a problem in less time as compared to an individual with average intelligence.

2. Motivation is also a factor because if it is low, performance or desire to achieve the goal
may be hampered.
3. Mindset is also affected because a person may already be conditioned to do or think
differently from what is being instructed upon him by a person in authority.

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 4. Training according to Scandura (1977) also affects his problem solving skills because
normally, his success depends on his experience. If a person has already developed a certain
skill, or has practiced the task a lot, it will no longer be difficult for him because he may
have conjured up his own strategy that is unknown to others.

Suggestions for Encouraging Creativity

1. Encourage divergent production in many media.

Do not limit creativity.

Go out of the box or out of the stereotype associated with creativity.

2. Reward creative efforts.

Token economy is a good way to reward a person so that the person may be motivated to
repeat the same behavior.

3. Foster a creative personality.

Encourage the person and do not criticize him especially in the initial stages.

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 CHAPTER 8
MOTIVATION
Introduction:

Motivation translated in Latin word movere means "to move." From there, people have
associated the word motivation to a lot of things. In the behavioral perspective, people try to
understand the meaning of each and every behavior that they exhibited and try to relate them to
the goals or direction where the person is heading. When it comes to business and industry,
motivation is necessary to keep workers satisfied in their respective work. Without motivation,
workers may not attend to their work because of lack of desire to be physically present in the
company. Dissatisfaction from salary or wages may also cause a worker to lose motivation to
accomplish anything. In job hiring, motivation of the applicant is also being questioned, that is
why they make inferences on the motive of the person.

Motivation may also include needs which are necessary for man's survival and is
considered a primary motive. On the other hand, wants may also be considered a motive because
it involves whims, desires and other things that is considered a secondary motive because a person
can live without it and it has nothing to do with his survival.

To illustrate, needs can be any of the following: water, food, air (oxygen). Without these,
a person cannot survive. Deprivation of any of the needs for a prolonged period of time could be
fatal and can lead to serious illnesses.

Wants can be in the form of money, shoes, cellphone or any kind of gadget. Deprivation
of any of these will not affect the person's survival but it could affect his behavior specifically his
mood if he does not obtain what he wants.

Salient features of Motivation

• It drives an individual to do or act upon something. Example: performing a task.

• Efforts are exerted by an individual to achieve desired goals or outcome. Example: a
student giving his 100% best in an exam to get good grades.
• Selection of desired instruments present in his surroundings that will help an individual
achieve his goals contribute to his motivation. Example: obtaining an award or a medal
encourages a person to do his best at all times.

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Motivation as a Cycle

Motivation can be considered cyclical because the process is repeated over a

duration of time. Upon satisfaction of a goal, a person may want or may need something
else. For example: One experiences hunger pangs in his stomach (motive), buying or
looking for food (behavior he is most likely to do) and eating (achieved goal). After eating,
satisfaction is felt. After a while, a new motive arises which is thirst so the same cycle is
repeated until satisfying his thirst is achieved.

After eating and drinking, sometimes, the body still craves for more, perhaps a
dessert (primary motive) or a nap or sleep (to restore the body's energy) or even to do house
chores (secondary motive).

A person is continually wanting so all his needs are never fully satisfied. Once a
need is satisfied, a new need arises that replaces the previous need. This is a never-ending
process experienced by a person on a day-to-day basis.

Classification of Motives

Motives can be classified into (1) physiological/primary motives, these motives are
necessary for man's survival; (2) psychological or social motives, which are necessary for
man's social being.

Under physiological motives, the examples are the following:

• need for food to supply body's nutrients (hunger)

• need for water (thirst)
• need for oxygen (air to breathe)
• need to maintain a balanced temperature of the body
• need to be free for physical pain or harm
• need for re-energizing the body (rest and sleep)
• need to regularly remove body waste through the process of defecation
• need for reproduction to continue the human race (sex drive).

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 Under psychological motives, the examples are the following:

• contentment (self-fulfillment in life)

• self-status (elevate oneself with pride or esteem)
• growth (maturity in decision-making)
• achievement (major accomplishment in life)
• happiness (over-all satisfaction and feelings of joy in life)

Motivational Theories

Motivation can be explained using several theories conceptualized by famous personalities. One
of those is Abraham Maslow who conceptualized the Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory.

Abraham Maslow is the eldest in the family, having six brothers and sisters. Their family
migrated from Russia to the United States to escape the harsh and socio-political conditions. He
completed his B.A. in Psychology in 1930 and pursued his master's degree a year later. He
continued to pursue his doctorate and completed it in 1934. He wrote a paper entitled A Theory of
Human Motivation in 1943 which was published in Psychological Review. He developed the
Hierarchy of Needs Model in the 1940s-1950s and from there on, his theory/model remains valid
in understanding human motivation, management training and personal development.

The needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance, ranging from the lowest need which
is the physiological needs (primary needs), to safety and security (social needs), love and
belongingness, esteem (ego) and lastly, self-actualization. This 5-level model is the original model
used by Maslow in 1943. It has been revised in 1970 and 1990. For the latest model, additional
levels were added which include cognitive needs, aesthetic needs and transcendence.

Fig 1: Original model of Hierarchy of Needs

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 • The physiological needs are shown at the bottom of the hierarchy (1) because they tend to
have the highest strength. It includes basic human needs like food, water and air. It also
includes the life-sustaining clothing and shelter. These needs must be satisfied first up to
the degree needed for the sufficient maintenance and operation of the human body. Once
this need becomes fulfilled, other levels of needs become important hence motivating and
dominating the behavior of the individual.
• When the physiological needs are satiated, the safety and security needs become
predominant. It is the need to be free from fear or any physical danger and deprivation of
physiological needs or simply, the need to preserve oneself (self-preservation). The
concern about providing food and shelter on a day-to-day basis is an example of safety
and security needs. If this is in danger, other things seem unimportant to the individual.
• Men are basically social beings therefore love and belongingness or his social needs
become dominant once physiological needs and safety needs are satiated. Acceptance to
various groups is always in the forefront of his daily activities. A person will always
strive for meaningful relations with other people.
• After a person's need to belong is satisfied, esteem needs emerge because he wanted to be
more than just a mere member of a group, he wanted to excel, to gain self-esteem as well
as to gain recognition from other people. Satisfaction of esteem needs may produce
feelings of self-confidence, self-pride, prestige or even a sense of power over other
people in his group.
• Once esteem needs are satisfied, self-actualization needs become more dominant. It is the
person's need to reach or maximize his potential. It could be a desire of a young mother
to be an ideal mother to her child, an athlete surpassing his limits in sports, or a soldier
putting his life in danger to save lives. Self-actualization may vary depending on the
person's needs.

Fig: 2 1990’s model (Hierarchy of Needs)

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William McDougal's Instinct Theory (1908)

Instinct or the innate behavior of an individual acts as a guide throughout his development.
It is basic for human survival to have such instincts because it allows him to follow a certain pattern
of behavior. Some people say that it is inborn or inherent for all individual. When a person is faced
with danger, survival instincts take over the behavior of the person. For example: When a person
is trapped on a deserted island with no tools for survival, he will try to find a way to look for food
and water if not, he will starve to death.

Clark Hull and Kenneth Spence's Drive Reduction Theory (1940)

The drive reduction theory explains that when a man's need is satisfied, the drive is reduced.
A person becomes tensed when his needs are not met or satisfied and in order to surpass this body
state, the needs must be reduced or lessened to a certain degree. For example: if a person is
deprived of sleep, he may not be able to focus on his task. Taking a nap will enable him rejuvenate
his energy and finish his task.

Incentive Theory

Rewards can be considered as a type of incentive and because of this, a person can be
motivated to do whatever it takes to get this. The incentive reinforces. the behavior of a person to
act accordingly. For example: For being the class. valedictorian, the student was given a four-year
full scholarship by the school.

Claude Bernard and Walter Cannon's Homeostatic Theory

Homeostatis originated from a Greek word homoios which means similar and statis
meaning standing still. Similar and standing still is synonymous with balance. Specifically, it is
the state of balance of an individual. In motivation, the body must maintain a specific state of
balance in order to function but if it starts to crave for something, the body becomes aroused. Once
the body is satisfied, it returns to its original state and therefore it will be balanced. For example:
if a person is thirsty, his body is in need of water. In order to reduce this drive, he must drink water
to quench his thirst.

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 CHAPTER 9
EMOTIONS
Introduction:

Have you ever felt angry that causes you to throw anything that your hands can grab on?
How about crying your heart out for too much sorrow? Have you experienced your heart
jumping for too much happiness? Today, are you feeling bored? Excited? Scared? Happy?

Emotions can lead to a lot of reactions and behavior. In the book "Mobydick" by Herman
Melville, the lead character played by Captain Ahab went to great lengths just to have his
revenge on the great white whale (named Mobydick). Captain Ahab was willing to sacrifice his
ship, the life of his crew and ultimately his life just so he could satisfy his longing for revenge.

The moral of the story of course is that revenge eventually consumes the person. The
source or the initiator will eventually harm people around him, hence, it is psychologically
healthier to just let go and refrain from carrying emotional baggage.

Emotions could also unintentionally lead to a great achievement. Look at the Taj Mahal
because of the great love of a Mughal emperor, as a sign of eternal love, a great infrastructure
was erected. Initially, it was a symbol of mourning but now, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
(circa, 1983).

When a person is coping with death, there is a proposed model or stages that the subject
passes through. This was initially postulated by Kubler-Ross and the acronym is DABDA.

DABDA stands for:

• denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance.

Though this is just a theoretical model, it simplifies human behavior when such is dealing
with the grim subject of death, because grief is one of the inevitable emotions that we all have to
experience sooner or later.

One of the most interesting topics about human psychology is emotions. In this chapter,
key concepts and theories about human emotion is presented.

Many researchers are now interested in exploring this aspect of the human process.

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Definitions of Emotions

• The etymological definition of EMOTION is emovere a latin word which means "to
move out."

• According to Woolfolk (2009), emotions are subjective reactions to experience that are
associated with physiological and behavioral changes.

• Feldman (2008) defined emotions as feelings that generally have both physiological and
cognitive elements and that influence behavior.

• Emotions are considered as the building blocks of personality.

Basic Emotions (Matlin, 1992)

FUNCTION

Fear

Anger

Disgust Rejection

Acceptance Reproduction

Surprise

Exploration

Figure 1: Plutchik's Model

Aspects of Emotions:

• Personal emotional experiences- characteristics of emotion which people consciously

feel, know and describe verbally.

• Physiological or bodily changes that occur during the emotion.

• Behavior of the person, how one acts and what one does.

• Motivational aspect
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 3 Ways in Which Emotions Vary:

• Intensity- shows through the distinction we make between grief and sadness, between
fear or panic, or annoyance and fury.
• Similarity- emotions have tones; another is reflected in our acceptance of the fact that
joy and disgust.
• Polarity- some emotions are opposite or polar to each other.

Functions of Emotions

Emotion is not just a phenomenon of a human experience - the evolution of human

beings occurred through understanding our own emotions. Moreover, we have emotions because
they are of significant importance in the survival of our species.

Feldman (2008) identified three major functions of emotions:

• Preparation for action- we are able to respond to changes in our environment because
our emotions enable us to prepare to respond to the stimulus in our surroundings. For
example, a person experiences fear to alert him of the possible danger in the
environment.
• Shaping future behavior one factor that shapes our future behavior is our emotion.
Constant exposure to stimuli that stir our emotions enables us to learn, relearn and
unlearn a certain behavior. Our personal emotional experiences help us decide what
appropriate behavior we can use in different situations.
• Helping us interact more effectively with others- As social beings we are interacting
with one another almost every time.
Understanding our own emotions and the emotions of others enables us to sympathize
or empathize with others.

Physiological Components of Emotion

Emotions are usually accompanied by physiological reactions. Listed below are the usual
physiological reactions of the body in emotions.

1. Dilation of the pupils

2. Breathing pattern changes in
3. Heart rate changes
4. Blood pressure usually rises
5. Muscle tremor and tension

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 6. Salivary secretion
7. Pilimotor response (goosebumps)
8. Galvanic skin response (skin conductance)

Types of Emotional Reactions

• Fear-one of the most troublesome emotional reactions. The most prominent. feelings
associated with fear are bodily sensations due to the activation of the autonomic nervous
system.
• Anger- the primary occasion for anger is when a goal seeking activity is hindered. When
a situation or other people unduly limit one's freedom of action, the restrained individual
is likely to become angry. Attacking is a possible reaction.
• Depression or grief- situations which cause depressive or grief reactions are similar to
those that produce anger. The major difference is that there is more of the element of
finality in depressive states than in angry situations.
• Love- mainly involves a focusing of strong positive feelings on a person. It can have a
sexual desire as an important component, although people can feel it without the sexual
element.

Theories of Emotions

There were several studies conducted and theories constructed to explain the process of emotion.

JAMES-LANGE Theory

Researchers William James and Carl Lange studied the origin of human emotions and our
emotional experiences. The concept of James and Lange about emotion is that we are having
emotional experiences as the result of the body's reactions to the environmental stimulation. To
elucidate, we experience emotions as a result of our physiological changes that produce specific
sensation (Feldman, 2008).

Fig. 2 James-Lane Theory of Emotion

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 FACIAL FEEDBACK Theory

A modern approach to the James-Lange theory, this emphasized on the facial

expressions. It is believed that the person's facial expressions hold the key in initiating the
experience of emotions. Facial expressions are not merely the outward expression of emotions
but they contribute to the emotion or feeling itself (Dela Pena, 2007).

CANNON-BARD Theory

Walter Cannon and Philip Bard proposed a different view on explaining the nature of
human emotions. Cannon and Bard believed that both physiological arousal and emotional
experience are produced simultaneously by the same stimulus (Feldman, 2008).

To elaborate further, Bard explained (Feldman, 2008) that in perceiving certain stimulus
which produces emotion, the thalamus initiates a response that signals the Autonomic Nervous
System (ANS) and a visceral response is produced. Also, the thalamus sends messages to the
cerebral cortex for the understanding of the emotional experiences. The thalamus plays a major
function in processing an emotional response or experience.

Fig. 3 Cannon-Bard Theory

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 SCHACHTER-SINGER Theory

Formulated by Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer, this theory emphasized that we
express emotions through a combination of physiological arousal and environmental cues.

To simplify, we experience emotion based on the physiological arousal and our

assessment on our current situation.

Fig. 4: Schachter and Singer Theory

LAZARUS Cognitive Mediational Theory

This theory states that it is the stimulus that causes emotional reaction. However, this emotional
reaction undergoes the process of cognitive appraisal mediatus or "to come between," which means
that before the actual physical arousal and emotional experience the person first interprets the
arousal before experiencing physiological and emotional experience (Ciccarelli and White, 2009).

Fig. 5: Lazarus Theory

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 CHAPTER 10
INTELLIGENCE
INTELLIGENCE

• Is an umbrella term that describes related abilities such as comprehension,

communication, reasoning, planning and problem solving.

THREE CATEGORIES OF THE DEFINITION OF INTELLIGENCE

A. Popular Concepts-ability to see relevant relationships in problem solving in people,

ability to acquire a wide variety of information rapidly and easily, ability to retain and
understand instruction, ability to reason well in a variety of media or to see more creative
possibilities in a particular situation.
B. Scientific Concepts-intelligence is conceptualized as a person's ultimate level of
functioning, defined by mechanical efficiency of his nervous system and determined by
both heredity and environmental factors.
C. Technical Concepts-defines intelligence operationally in terms of critical abilities
known as mental processes.

FACTORS AFFECTING INTELLIGENCE

1. BIOLOGICAL intelligence is somewhat dependent on an individual's brain structure and

the genes that shape brain development.

2. ENVIRONMENTAL- describes that the family's environmental factors substantially

affect intelligence.

THE THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

Howard Gardner proposes Multiple Intelligence to understand the concept of Intelligence. He

believed that individuals manifest a variety of intelligence.

1. SPATIAL refers to the ability to perceive forms and shapes accurately and ability
visualize with the mind's eye.

2. BODILY-KENISTHETIC controls of one's bodily motions and the capacity to handle

objects skillfully.

3. LOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL is the area that has to do with logic, abstractions,

reasoning and numbers.

4. LINGUISTIC this area has to do with words, spoken or written.

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 5. INTRAPERSONAL this area has to do with introspective and self-reflective capacities.

6. INTERPERSONAL this area has to do with interaction with others.

7. NATURALISTIC this area has to do with nature, nurturing and relating information to
one's natural surroundings.

8. MUSICAL this area has to do with sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones, and music.

9. EXISTENTIAL ability to contemplate phenomena or questions beyond sensory data,

such as the infinite and infinitesimal.

The theory's nine currently accepted intelligences are: (Slavin, 2009)

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Robert Sternberg proposes the theory that describes three fundamental aspects of
intelligence.

• Analytic intelligence comprises the mental processes through which intelligence is

expressed.
• Creative intelligence is necessary when an individual is confronted with a challenge.
• Practical intelligence is bound in a socio-cultural milieu and involves adaptation to,
selection of, and shaping of the environment to maximize fit in the context.

INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT TEST (IQ TEST)

is a score derived from one of several different standardized tests designed to assess
intelligence.

WELL-KNOWN IQ TESTS

1. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

2. Purdue Non-Language Test (PNLT)

3. RAVENS

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MENTAL RETARDATION

• Result of pathological process in the brain characterized by limitations in intellectual and

adaptive function (Synopsis of Psychiatry 9th edition).
• Appearing before adulthood, characterized by significantly impaired cognitive
functioning and deficits in two or more adaptive behaviors.

LEVELS OF MENTAL RETARDATION

1. Mild retardation

• IQ levels of 55 to 69.
• Mildly retarded children often go undiagnosed until they are well into their school years.
• They are often slower to walk, talk, and feed themselves than most other children. They
can learn practical skills, including reading and math, up to about the fourth to sixth
grade level.
• Mildly retarded adults usually build social and job skills and can live on their own.

2. Moderate retardation

• IQs ranging from 40 to 54.

• Children who are moderately retarded show noticeable delays in developing speech and
motor skills.
• Moderately retarded adults usually cannot live alone, but they can do some simple tasks
and travel alone in familiar places.

3. Severe retardation

• IQs ranging from 20 to 39.

• Their condition is likely to be diagnosed at birth or soon after.
• Adults who are severely mentally retarded may be able to follow daily routines and
perform simple tasks, but they need to be directed and live in a protected environment.

4. Profound retardation

• IQs of 0 to 24.
• Their condition is usually diagnosed at birth, and they may have other medical problems
and need nursing care.

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 • Children who are profoundly retarded need to be continuously supervised. These children
show delays in all aspects of development.
• They cannot take care of themselves and need complete support in daily living.

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 CHAPTER 11
PERSONALITY
Introduction:

Every time that there is a Manny Pacquiao fight, the influx of product endorsements
carrying Manny Pacquiao tends to increase. From a pain reliever to a fast-food restaurant to a
simple shampoo, his endorsements are far too many to enumerate. In fact, even his mother got
some product endorsements of her own without achieving anything significant other than being
the biological vessel that carried Mr. Pacquiao to fruition. Surprisingly, even the wife and mother
of Mr. Pacquiao is reaping dividends from the superstar status of Manny Pacquiao. From a Belo
endorsement to a condominium to beer, advertisers seem to get more creative in squeezing
whatever angle just to sell or push goods and services with the Pacquiao endorsement.

This has become such an oversell that eventually the Pacquiao marketing ploy would reach
a plateau, but at the moment, the ride is still going up. Such is even enough to propel Mr. Pacquiao
to a congressional seat despite the lack of education, formal training, and experience in legislation.
It is even common knowledge that the fellow dreams of being president someday and since this is
still a democratic country, every Wenald, Josie and Joy could dream on.

In politics, anything and everything is possible. Filipinos tend to cheer for an underdog,
and Manny Pacquiao is a classic example of an underdog. Before his meteoritic rise to fame and
fortune, naysayers and crab mentality were surely a daily fare. The issue however is not the failures
but the successes. In the last presidential contest, Pacquiao endorsed a certain candidate with such
an endorsement, hundreds (and even thousands of votes) were guaranteed. With a single nod, a
simple raise of the hand, delivered in a repeated paid advertisement, such is bound to deliver at
least half a million votes.

But what makes Manny Pacquiao different from other individuals? What makes him an
individual that makes him capable of selling tons of products while a simple Francisco or Diego
is unable to achieve?

Such could be deduced as personality.

PERSONALITY is defined as a set of traits and characteristics that an individual possess that also
make him unique. Just as there is no two individuals are alike, there are also no two personalities
that are identical.

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 Etymologically, the word personality comes from the Latin word persong which connotes
a mask. In a stage play, actors used to wear different masks to denote a different character that
they are portraying.

There are a lot of theoretical models that explain the rudiments of personality namely,

1. Psychoanalytic Theories

2. Humanistic Theories

3. Biological

4. Behaviorist

5. Social Learning Theory

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES

This explains human behavior in terms of the interaction of various components of

personality.

Sigmund Freud was the founder of this school. Freud drew on the physics of his day
(thermodynamics) to coin the term psychodynamics. Based on the idea of converting heat into
mechanical energy, he proposed that psychic energy could be converted into behavior. Freud's
theory places central importance on dynamic, unconscious psychological conflicts.

Freud divides human personality into three significant components: the id, ego, and super-ego.

• The id acts according to the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification of its
needs regardless of the external environment;
• the ego then must emerge in order to realistically meet the wishes and demands of the id in
accordance with the outside world, adhering to the reality principle. Finally,
• the superego (conscience) inculcates moral judgment and societal rules upon the ego, thus
forcing the demands of the id to be met not only realistically but morally. The superego is
the last function of the personality to develop, and is the embodiment of parental/social
ideals established during childhood. According to Freud, personality is based on the
dynamic interactions of these three components (Carver, & Scheier, 2004).

The channeling and releasing of sexual (libidal) and aggressive energies, which ensues
from the Eros (sex; instinctual self-preservation) and Thanatos (death; instinctual self-annihilation)
drives respectively, are major components of his theory (Carver, & Scheier, 2004).

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 It is important to note that Freud's broad understanding of sexuality included all winds of
pleasurable feelings experienced by the human body.

Freud proposed five psychosexual stages of personality development. He believed adult

personality is dependent upon early childhood experiences and largely determined by age five
(Carver, & Scheier, 2004). Fixations that develop during the infantile stage contribute to adult
personality and behavior.

One of Sigmund Freud's earlier associates, Alfred Adler, did agree with Freud that early
childhood experiences are important to development, and believed birth order may influence
personality development. Adler believed the oldest was the one that set high goals to achieve to
get the attention they lost back when the younger siblings were born.

He believed the middle children were competitive and ambitious possibly so they are able
to surpass the first-born's achievements, but were not as much concerned about the glory. Also, he
believed that the last born would be more dependent and sociable but will always be the baby. He
also believed that the only child loves being the center of attention and matures quickly, but in the
end fails to become independent.

Heinz Kohut thought similarly to Freud's idea of transference. He used narcissism as a

model of how we develop our sense of self. Narcissism is the exaggerated sense of oneself in which
is believed to exist in order to protect one's low self-esteem and sense of worthlessness.

Kohut had a significant impact on the field by extending Freud's theory of narcissism and
introduced what he called the "self-object transferences" of mirroring and idealization. In other
words, children need to idealize and emotionally "sink into" and identify with the idealized
competence of admired figures such as parents or older siblings. They also need to have their self-
worth mirrored by these people. These experiences allow them to thereby learn the self-soothing
and other skills that are necessary for the development of a healthy sense of self.

Another notable figure in the world of personality theory was Karen Horney. She is
credited with the development of the "real self" and the "ideal self." She believes all people have
these two views of their own self. The "real self" is how you really are with regards to personality,
values, and morals; but the "ideal self" is a construct you apply to yourself to conform to social
and personal norms and goals. The ideal self would be "I can be successful, I am CEO material;"
and real self would be "I just work in the mail room, with not much chance of high promotion."
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HUMANISTIC THEORIES

It is emphasized that people have free will and they play an active role in determining
how they behave. Accordingly, humanistic psychology focuses on subjective experiences of
persons as opposed to forced, definitive factors that determine behavior.

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers were proponents of this view, which is based on the
"phenomenal field" theory of Combs and Snygg (1949).

Maslow spent much of his time studying what he called "self-actualizing persons," those
who are "fulfilling themselves and doing the best they are capable of doing." Maslow believes all
who are interested in growth move towards self-actualizing (growth, happiness, satisfaction)
views. Many of these people demonstrate a trend in dimensions of their personalities.

Characteristics of self-actualizers according to Maslow include the four key

dimensions:

1. Awareness maintaining constant enjoyment and awe of life. These individuals often
experience a "peak experience." He defined a peak experience as an "intensification of
any experience to the degree where there is a loss or transcendence of self." A peak
experience is one in which an individual perceives an expansion of his or herself, and
detects a unity and meaningfulness in life. Intense concentration on an activity one is
involved in, such as running a marathon, may invoke a peak experience.

2. Reality and problem centered they have the tendency to be concerned with "problems"
in their surroundings.

3. Acceptance/Spontaneity they accept their surroundings and what cannot be changed.

4. Unhostile sense of humor/democratic they do not like joking about others, which can
be viewed as offensive. They have friends of all backgrounds and religions and hold very
close friendships.

Maslow and Rogers emphasized a view of the person as an active, creative, experiencing
human being who lives in the present and subjectively responds to current perceptions,
relationships, and encounters. They disagree with the dark, pessimistic outlook of those in the
Freudian psychoanalysis ranks, but rather view humanistic theories as positive and optimistic
proposals which stress the tendency of the human personality toward growth and self-
actualization.

This progressing self will remain the center of its constantly changing world - a world
that will help mold the self but not necessarily confine it. Rather, the self has opportunity for
maturation based on its encounters with this world. This understanding attempts to reduce the
acceptance of hopeless redundancy.
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 Humanistic therapy typically relies on the client for information of the past and its effect
on the present, therefore the client dictates the type of guidance the therapist may initiate. This
allows for an individualized approach to therapy.

Rogers found patients differ in how they respond to other people. Rogers tried to model a
particular approach to therapy- he stressed the reflective or empathetic response. This response
type takes the client's viewpoint and reflects back his or her feeling and the context for it.

An example of a reflective response would be, "It seems you are feeling anxious about
your upcoming marriage." This response type seeks to clarify the therapist's understanding while
also encouraging the client to think more deeply and seek to fully understand the feelings they
have expressed.

BIOLOGICAL THEORIES

The earliest thinking about possible biological bases of personality grew out of the case
of Phineas Gage.

In an 1848 accident, a large iron rod was driven through Gage's head, and his personality
apparently changed as a result although descriptions of these psychological changes are usually
exaggerated.

Graphic by Damasio et al. showing how the tamping iron may have damaged both frontal lobes
(A 2004 study by Ratiu and colleagues suggests the damage was more limited).

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 Patients with brain damage have been difficult to find and study. In the 1990s, researchers
began to use Electroencephalography (EEG), Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and more
recently functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), which is now the most widely used
imaging technique to help localize personality traits in the brain.

One of the founders of this area of brain research is Richard Davidson of the University of
Wisconsin-Madison. Davidson's research lab has focused on the role of the prefrontal cortex (PFC)
and amygdala in manifesting human personality. In particular, this research has looked at
hemispheric asymmetry of activity in these regions.

Neuropsychological experiments have suggested that hemispheric asymmetry can affect

an individual's personality (particularly in social settings) for individuals with NLD (non-verbal
learning disorder), which is marked by the impairment of nonverbal information controlled by the
right hemisphere of the brain. One integrative, biopsychosocial approach to personality and
psychopathology, linking brain and environmental factors to specific types of activity, is the
hypostatic model of personality, created by Codrin Stefan Tapu (2001).

BEHAVIORIST THEORIES

Psychologists explain personality in terms of the effects external stimuli have on behavior.
It was a radical shift away from Freudian philosophy. This school of thought was developed by B.
F. Skinner who put forth a model which emphasized the mutual interaction of the person or "the
organism" with its environment. Skinner believed children do bad things because the behavior
obtains attention that serves as a reinforcer. For example: a child cries because the child's crying
in the past has led to attention. These are the response, and consequence. The response is the child
crying, and the attention that child gets is the reinforcing consequence.

According to this theory, people's behavior is formed by processes such as operant

conditioning. Skinner put forward a "three term contingency model" which helped promote
analysis of behavior based on the "Stimulus - Response Consequence Model" in which the critical
question is: "Under which circumstances or antecedent 'stimuli' does the organism engage in a
particular behavior or 'response,' which in turn produces a particular 'consequence'?"

Richard Herrnstein extended this theory by accounting for attitudes and traits. An attitude
develops as the response strength (the tendency to respond) in the presence of a group of stimuli
becomes stable. Rather than describing conditionable traits in non-behavioral language, response
strength in a given situation account for the environmental portion. Herrstein also saw traits as
having a large genetic or biological component as do most modern behaviorists.

Ivan Pavlov is another notable influence. He is well known for his classical conditioning
experiments involving dogs. These physiological studies led him to discover the foundation of
behaviorism as well as classical conditioning.

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SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES

In this theory, behavior is explained as guided by cognitions (e.g. expectations) about the
world, especially those about other people. Cognitive theories are theories of personality that
emphasize cognitive processes such as thinking and judging.

Albert Bandura, a social learning theorist, suggested that the forces of memory and
emotions worked in conjunction with environmental influences. Bandura was known mostly for
his "Bobo Doll experiment."

During these experiments, Bandura videotaped a college student kicking and verbally
abusing a bobo doll. He then showed this video to a class of kindergarten children who were getting
ready to go out to play. When they entered the play room, they saw bobo dolls, and some hammers.
The people observing these children at play saw a group of children beating the doll. He called
this study and his findings observational learning, or modeling.

Many examples of approaches to cognitive styles are listed by Baron (1982). These include
Witkin's (1965) work on field dependency, Gardner's (1953) discovering people had a consistent
preference for the number of categories they used to categorize heterogeneous objects, and Block
and Petersen's (1955) work on confidence in line with discrimination judgments. Baron relates
early development of cognitive approaches of personality to ego psychology.

More central to this field have been:

• Self-efficacy work, dealing with confidence people have in abilities to do tasks (Bandura,
1997).
• Locus of control theory (Lefcourt and Rotter 1966) dealing with different beliefs people
have about whether their worlds are controlled by themselves or by external factors.
• Attributional style theory (Abramson and Seligman 1978) dealing with different ways in
which people explain events in their lives. This approach builds upon locus of control, but
extends it by stating we also need to consider whether people attribute to stable causes or
variable causes, and to global causes or specific causes.

Numerous scales have been developed to assess both attributional style and locus of control.
Locus of control scales include those used by Rotter and later by Duttweiler, the Nowicki and
Strickland (1973) Locus of Control Scale for Children and various locus of control scales
specifically in the health domain, most famously that of Kenneth Wallston and his colleagues, The
Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale.

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 Attributional style has been assessed by the Attributional Style Questionnaire, the
Expanded Attributional Style Questionnaire, the Attributions Questionnaire, the Real Events
Attributional Style Questionnaire and the Attributional Style Assessment Test.

Walter Mischel (1999) has also defended a cognitive approach to personality. His work
refers to "Cognitive Affective Units," and considers factors such as encoding of stimuli, affect,
goal-setting, and self-regulatory beliefs. The term "Cognitive Affective Units" shows how his
approach considers affect as well as cognition.

PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Erikson's theory encompasses the entire life cycle and recognizes the impact of society,
history and culture on personality. He is best known for his concept of IDENTITY CRISIS. This
idea may have stemmed from a personal identity crisis he experienced at a young age.

Stage 1: TRUST versus MISTRUST

(From Birth to 1 year)

Optimism and confidence in the environment and the self is established when parents are
responsive to the child's needs. Lack of care from the parents and other significant adults may
result to feelings of separation and abandonment.

Stage 2: AUTONOMY versus SHAME and DOUBT

(From 1 to 3 years)

Independence and pride in accomplishment and self-control is present when the child is
given the time to experience situations and learn from himself. Shame and doubt may manifest in
the child's behavior by being secretive and devious.

Stage 3: INITIATIVE versus GUILT

(From 3 to 5 years)

Sense of direction, responsibility and purpose from the parents encourage the child from
doing things on his own.

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Stage 4: INDUSTRY versus INFERIORITY

(From 5 to 12 years)

The child develops a sense of industry and pleasure in work and competence, in playing
games and in completing school projects.

Stage 5: IDENTITY versus ROLE CONFUSION

(Adolescence)

This stage marks the child's feeling of uniqueness and establishes a role in accordance with
what the society expects. On the other hand, the person may endure from confusion of roles
because of the difficulty in transition from adolescence to adulthood which could lead to feelings
of emptiness and anxiousness.

Stage 6: INTIMACY versus ISOLATION

(From 18-40 years)

It is the stage where a person displays the ability to form relationships that combines love
and sex.

Stage 7: GENERATIVITY versus STAGNATION

(From 40-65 years)

Middle stage is the time when a person seeks stability, creativity and productiveness. A
person who was not given a chance to show that he could supervise and care for someone may
establish a feeling of STAGNATION - a feeling that one is no longer useful to the society or to
the younger generation.

Stage 8: INTEGRITY versus DESPAIR

(65 and older)

The stage of late adulthood is the time for acceptance of one's mortality, and seeing one's
life as meaningful.

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 CHAPTER 12
ADJUSTMENT AND MENTAL HEALTH

Introduction:

Recently, there was a scandalous suicide committed by a very powerful man. He was a
former AFP Chief of Staff, a former Secretary of Defense, a former Secretary of Interior and
Local Government, a former Secretary of Energy and a former Secretary of Environment and
Natural Resources. With all the accolades, prestige and presumed wealth, why would someone in
that position of power commit suicide? With so many honors and adjectives attached to his
name, what stressor could possibly lead him to commit suicide?
Prior to his suicide, his close friends revealed that the powerful man was already
depressed. With scandals left and right destroying his name, his institution and his country, he
was having difficulty sleeping, a marked change in appetite as well as extreme feeling of
sadness, worthlessness and despair.

Any decent student of psychology would be able to notice the red flag right away, such
symptoms are classic examples of clinical depression.

Had the depression been identified right away, General Angelo Reyes. could still be alive
today.

Adjustment and Mental Health

Mental Hygiene strictly speaking refers to the branch of psychology that deals and
studies mental health while Mental Health refers to the state of well-being of an individual.
Between the two, mental hygiene is bigger in scope while the usage of the term mental health
connotes the state of wellness. Now, this could be physical wellness, spiritual wellness and
psychological wellness.

When someone blocks one's objective or when one's plan is foiled, the resulting feeling is
considered as frustration. Since the wants and desires of man will always be unlimited, the
dissatisfaction leads to frustration (Estoque, et al. 2006).

A frustration could either be a personal frustration or environmental frustration. A

personal frustration denotes an extreme dissatisfaction with oneself while an environmental
frustration could connote an extreme dissatisfaction with the external conditions outside the

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person (i.e. surrounding environment and circumstances).

Defense Mechanism and Frustrations The main function of a defense mechanism is to assist the
individual to adopt and cope with whatever situation he found himself in. Defense mechanism by
itself is not bad, what is alarming is the use of different ploys to attain a feeling of balance and
adjustment. Dr. Sigmund Freud enumerated a number of defense mechanisms:

1. Repression this is also known as motivated forgetting. This is the process of excluding
distressing thoughts, feelings and experiences from consciousness.

2. Projection this is an act where a person attributes unacceptable thoughts, feelings and
behaviors to others.

3. Displacement this behavior refers to the emotion/impulse that is redirected from a

threatening source to a less threatening source.

4. Rationalization this is simply known as the behavior of offering excuses for whatever
perceived shortcoming or failure.

5. Reaction Formation the subject does the opposite of what he is feeling (i.e. a person
threatened by his sexuality becomes a crusader against pornography).

6. Regression this refers to the behavior of reverting back to an earlier developmental level
(e.g. an adult who cries like a child to get what he wants re: infantile behavior).

7. Sublimation this refers to adaptive actions taken by an individual to hide an impulse that
is deemed unacceptable to a socially approved behavior.

8. Denial-refusal to face and accept reality.

In addition, the following are commonly added to the list of defense mechanisms:

1. Fantasy-imaginary achievements in daydreams.

2. Compensation - this refers to the behavior of covering a weakness by replacing it with a

desirable trait.

3. Identification - increased feeling of worth by identifying with another person or

institution.
4. Undoing-atonement or penance for a certain act or behavior.

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