Punctuation

Punctuation is the tool that allows us to organize our thoughts and make it easier to review and
share our ideas. The standard English punctuation is as follows: period, comma, apostrophe,
quotation, question, exclamation, brackets, braces, parenthesis, dash, hyphen, ellipsis, colon, and
semicolon. Below is an explanation of some punctuation that is commonly misused.
Comma,
Commas are primarily used to aid in clarity and to join two independent clauses with a conjunction.
They set off introductory phrases and set off series. They also are used to separate independent
and dependent clauses. The Oxford comma is the inclusion of a comma before coordinating
conjunction in a series.
Examples:
I enjoyed the singers, and I loved the dancers.
At the beginning of the performance, two dancers appeared from behind the curtain.
Even though the auditorium was packed, the audience remained silent.
I had eggs, toast, and orange juice.
Commas can also be used to note an interjection in a sentence.
Example:
The criminal said the judge was an idiot.
The criminal, said the judge, was an idiot.
The criminal is speaking in the first sentence. The judge is speaking in the second.
Apostrophe ‘
Apostrophes are used to mark possession and to mark contractions. They are also used to denote a
quotation mark in material that is already being quoted.
Examples:
It was James’ car that the drunk driver hit.
“James said, ‘If you come any closer I’ll call the police.'”
Quotation ” “
Quotation marks are used to inform a reader either of something that was spoken or something that
is being directly copied from another work. Quotes should also be placed around a word if it is
used in a specific context or otherwise bears special attention. In informal applications, quotations
can also be used to denote something that is ironic.
Examples:
Lydia said, “Is this my prom dress?”
Dr. Shruti claims, “The use of violence against women in India is on the rise.”
Question and Exclamation? !
Question and exclamation marks are used to note interrogative and exclamatory sentences. Neither
of these punctuation marks are commonly used in academic writing. In general, a writer should
not be shouting at the reader in formal writing. The lack of conversation makes any question
rhetorical, and revising the question in a statement would be the better course.
Hyphen –
Hyphens are most commonly used to pair compound words. Throw-away, high-speed-chase,
merry-go-round, user-friendly
Dash –
Dashes are generally not in common use but denote a tangent within a thought. There are two kinds
of dashes, an “en” dash and an “em” dash. En dashes essentially are the same glyph as hyphens
but fill a different purpose. Em dashes are longer, an easy way to remember is that an en dash is
the length of an “n” and an Em dash is the length of an “m”.
Example:
I think that my dog is a genius — but doesn’t everybody think their pet is?
Dashes are able to substitute for commas and semicolons in the right situation. They can replace
commas to note non-essential information or semicolon to note an example. Despite, and because
of this versatility dashes should not be frequently employed in your writing. The multitude of
applications make dashes easy to overuse taking away from, rather than adding to clarity in your
writing.
Note: Dashes can either connect to the surrounding words or be separated by a space, it is an issue
of style, be sure to ask your professors if they have a preference.
Parenthesis (), Brackets [], Braces {}
Parenthesis note non-essential information that could be skipped without altering the meaning of
a sentence. Brackets are most commonly employed in academic writing within a quotation where
the writer is omitting or explaining something. In either case, the writer places a bracket within the
quote [explains or places an ellipsis and] closes the bracket to continue the quote.
Braces are used quite rarely and are employed to essentially make a list within a list.
Examples:
Cora (the woman who lives down the street from Jane) works as a paralegal.
Professor Brown claims, “She [the novel’s central character] is an example of a strong African-
American woman.”
Before I go on vacation I need to pack my bags {clothes, toiletries and shoes}, unplug the TV, and
close all of the windows.
Ellipsis …
Ellipsis marks the omission of a word or words. If the omission includes the end of a sentence the
glyph has four dots (….) instead of three.
Colon :
Colons make the statement: note what follows. Whatever information that follows the colon must,
in some way, explain, prove, or describe what ever came before it. To properly employ a colon,
ensure that the clause that follows the mark is able to stand on its own (unless it is a list). Because
whatever comes before the colon must be a complete sentence, your writing after the colon is not
required to be.
Example:
The Bridgekeeper asked me three questions: what is your name, what is your quest, what is your
favorite color.
Semicolon;
A semicolon can be used to join two related main clauses.
Example:
James Left a mess at his desk after he left work; Sarah had to clean it up.
Another way to employ a semicolon to join two related main clauses is to include a conjunctive
adverb such as: however, moreover, nevertheless, furthermore, consequently, or thus. Conjunctive
adverbs can also be used with a comma.
Example:
James left a mess at his desk after he left work; consequently, Sarah had to clean it up.
The simplest way to deal with two independent main clauses is to make two sentences. If the topic
of the two sentences are not related, or if one (or both) of the sentences are already long, joining
them could make the sentence too long and be a burden on the reader.
One of the most common applications of semicolons is as a substitute for commas in a list in which
commas are required for the things listed.
Example:
It’s as easy as a,b,c; 1,2,3; doe, rae, mi.
Modifiers: Comparisons
Adjectives and adverbs have comparative and superlative forms. The comparative form is used
to compare two things. The superlative form is used to compare more than two things. Most
adjectives and adverbs use an -er ending in the comparative form and an -est ending in the
superlative form.
When using a comparative or superlative form of an adjective or an adverb, it is very important
to complete the comparison made in the sentence. For example, do not write: My pie tastes
better. Instead, write: My pie tastes better than yours. By completing the comparison, you have
shown the reader that you are comparing, rather than just explaining, what one is more or less.
Ex. 2.6. Pretty (adjective), prettier (comparative), prettiest (superlative)
Ex. 2.7. Good (adjective), better (comparative), best (superlative)
Create the comparative and superlative forms of the following adjectives.
Old, _________ (comparative), _________ (superlative)
Sharp, _________ (comparative), _________ (superlative)
Create a sentence using the comparative or superlative form of an adjective given above or
create one of your own comparisons using an adjective or adverb. Be sure to complete the
comparison by using than.
Another form incorporates the use of more/most or less/least before the adjective or adverb.
Ex. 2.8. Creative (adjective), more creative (comparative), most creative (superlative)
Fill in the comparative and superlative form below using more/most and less/least.
Frequently (adverb), ______________ (comparative), ______________ (superlative)
Often (adverb), ______________ (comparative), ______________ (superlative)
More examples:
I ran hard today. (Hard is the adverb which modifies ran)
I ran harder today than I did yesterday. (Hard is in the form of a comparative adverb. It is
comparing two ideas. How hard I ran today is compared with how hard I ran yesterday.)
Of all the days I have run this week I ran hardest on Wednesday. (Hardest is in the form of a
superlative adverb. It is comparing more than two ideas. How hard I ran on each day of the week
is being compared.)
Create a sentence of your own using a comparative adjective or adverb. Be sure to complete the
comparison by using than. Created by Cindy Montgomery
Capitalization Rules
Capitalization is the writing of a word with its first letter in uppercase and the remaining letters
in lowercase. Experienced writers are stingy with capitals. It is best not to use them if there is
any doubt.
Rule 1. Capitalize the first word of a document and the first word after a period.
Rule 2. Capitalize proper nouns—and adjectives derived from proper nouns.
Examples:
the Golden Gate Bridge
the Grand Canyon
a Russian song
a Shakespearean sonnet
a Freudian slip
With the passage of time, some words originally derived from proper nouns have taken on a life,
and authority, of their own and no longer require capitalization.
Examples:
herculean (from the mythological hero Hercules)
quixotic (from the hero of the classic novel Don Quixote)
draconian (from ancient-Athenian lawgiver Draco)
The main function of capitals is to focus attention on particular elements within any group of
people, places, or things. We can speak of a lake in the middle of the country, or we can be more
specific and say Lake Michigan, which distinguishes it from every other lake on earth.
Capitalization Reference List
Brand names
Companies
Days of the week and months of the year
Governmental matters
Congress (but congressional), the U.S. Constitution (but constitutional), the Electoral College,
Department of Agriculture. Note: Many authorities do not capitalize federal or state unless it is
part of the official title: State Water Resources Control Board, but state water board; Federal
Communications Commission, but federal regulations.
Historical episodes and eras
the Inquisition, the American Revolutionary War, the Great Depression
Holidays
Institutions
Oxford College, the Juilliard School of Music
Manmade structures
the Empire State Building, the Eiffel Tower, the Titanic
Manmade territories
Berlin, Montana, Cook County
Natural and manmade landmarks
Mount Everest, the Hoover Dam
Nicknames and epithets
Andrew "Old Hickory" Jackson; Babe Ruth, the Sultan of Swat
Organizations
American Center for Law and Justice, Norwegian Ministry of the Environment
Planets
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, but policies vary on capitalizing earth,
and it is usually not capitalized unless it is being discussed specifically as a planet: We learned
that Earth travels through space at 66,700 miles per hour.
Races, nationalities, and tribes
Eskimo, Navajo, East Indian, Caucasian, African American
Religions and names of deities
Note: Capitalize the Bible (but biblical). Do not capitalize heaven, hell, the devil, satanic.
Special occasions
the Olympic Games, the Cannes Film Festival
Streets and roads
Lowercase Reference List
Here is a list of categories not capitalized unless an item contains a proper noun or proper
adjective (or, sometimes, a trademark). In such cases, only the proper noun or adjective is
capitalized.
Animals
antelope, black bear, Bengal tiger, yellow-bellied sapsucker, German shepherd
Elements
Always lowercase, even when the name is derived from a proper noun: einsteinium, nobelium,
californium
Foods
Lowercase except for brand names, proper nouns and adjectives, or custom-named
recipes: Tabasco sauce, Russian dressing, pepper crusted bluefin tuna, Mandy's Bluefin Surprise
Heavenly bodies besides planets
Never capitalize the moon or the sun.
Medical conditions
Epstein-Barr syndrome, tuberculosis, Parkinson's disease
Minerals
Plants, vegetables, and fruits
poinsettia, Douglas fir, Jerusalem artichoke, organic celery, Golden Delicious apples
Seasons and seasonal data
spring, summertime, the winter solstice, the autumnal equinox, daylight saving time
Rule 3. A thorny aspect of capitalization: where does it stop? When does the Iraq war become
the Iraq War? Why is the legendary Hope Diamond not the Hope diamond? Everyone
writes New York City, so why does the Associated Press Stylebook recommend New York state?
There aren't always easy formulas or logical explanations. Research with reference books and
search engines is the best strategy.
In the case of brand names, companies are of little help, because they capitalize any word that
applies to their merchandise. Domino's Pizza or Domino's pizza? Is it Ivory Soap or Ivory soap,
a Hilton Hotel or a Hilton hotel? Most writers don't capitalize common nouns that simply
describe the products (pizza, soap, hotel), but it's not always easy to determine where a brand
name ends. There is Time magazine but also the New York Times Magazine. No one would argue
with Coca-Cola or Pepsi Cola, but a case could be made for Royal Crown cola.
If a trademark starts with a lowercase word or letter (e.g., eBay, iPhone), many authorities advise
capitalizing it to begin a sentence.
Example: EBay opened strong in trading today.
Rule 4. Capitalize titles when they are used before names, unless the title is followed by a
comma. Do not capitalize the title if it is used after a name or instead of a name.
Examples:
The president will address Congress.
Chairman of the Board William Bly will preside at the conference.
The chairman of the board, William Bly, will preside.
The senators from Iowa and Ohio are expected to attend.
Also expected to attend are Senators Buzz James and Eddie Twain.
The governors, lieutenant governors, and attorneys general called for a special task force.
Governor Fortinbrass, Lieutenant Governor Poppins, and Attorney General Dalloway will
attend.
NOTE
Out of respect, some writers and publishers choose to capitalize the highest ranks in government,
royalty, religion, etc.
Examples:
The President arrived.
The Queen spoke.
The Pope decreed.
Many American writers believe this to be a wrongheaded policy in a country where,
theoretically, all humans are perceived as equal.
Rule 5. Titles are not the same as occupations. Do not capitalize occupations before full names.
Examples:
director Steven Spielberg
owner Helen Smith
coach Biff Sykes
Sometimes the line between title and occupation gets blurred. One example is general
manager: is it a title or an occupation? Opinions differ. Same with professor: the Associated
Press Stylebook considers professor a job description rather than a title, and recommends using
lowercase even before the full name: professor Robert Ames.
However, titles replacing someone's first name are generally capitalized.
Example: Here comes Professor Ames.
Rule 6a. Capitalize a formal title when it is used as a direct address. The more formal the title,
the more likely it is to be capitalized.
Examples:
Will you take my temperature, Doctor?
We're sorry to report, Captain, that we're headed for choppy waters.
That's what you say, mister.
Good afternoon, sweetheart.
Rule 6b. Capitalize relatives' family names (kinship names) when they immediately precede a
personal name, or when they are used alone in place of a personal name.
Examples:
I found out that Mom is here.
You look good, Grandpa.
Andy and Opie loved Aunt Bee's apple pies.
However, these monikers are not capitalized when they are used with possessive nouns or
pronouns; when preceded by articles such as a, an, or the; when they follow the personal name;
or when they do not refer to a specific person.
Examples:
I found out that my mom is here.
Joe's grandpa looks good.
He's the father of her first child.
The James brothers were notorious robbers.
There's not one mother I know who would allow that.
Rule 6c. Capitalize nicknames in all cases.
Examples:
Meet my brothers, Junior and Scooter.
I just met two guys named Junior and Scooter.
Rule 7. Capitalize specific geographical regions. Do not capitalize points of the compass.
Examples:
We had three relatives visit from the West.
Go west three blocks and then turn left.
We left Florida and drove north.
We live in the Southeast.
We live in the southeast section of town.
Most of the West Coast is rainy this time of year. (referring to the United States)
The west coast of Scotland is rainy this time of year.
Some areas have come to be capitalized for their fame or notoriety:
Examples:
I'm from New York's Upper West Side.
I'm from the South Side of Chicago.
You live in Northern California; he lives in Southern California.
Rule 8. In general, do not capitalize the word the before proper nouns.
Examples:
We visited the Grand Canyon.
They're fans of the Grateful Dead.
In special cases, if the word the is an inseparable part of something's official title, it may be
capitalized.
Example: We visited The Hague.
Rule 9. It is not necessary to capitalize city, town, county, etc., if it comes before the proper
name.
Examples:
the city of New York
New York City
the county of Marin
Marin County
Rule 10a. Always capitalize the first word in a complete quotation, even midsentence.
Example: Lamarr said, "The case is far from over, and we will win."
Rule 10b. Do not capitalize quoted material that continues a sentence.
Example: Lamarr said that the case was "far from over" and that "we will win."
Rule 11. For emphasis, writers sometimes capitalize a midsentence independent clause or
question.
Examples:
One of her cardinal rules was, Never betray a friend.
It made me wonder, What is mankind's destiny?
Rule 12. Capitalize the names of specific course titles, but not general academic subjects.
Examples:
I must take history and Algebra 101.
He has a double major in European economics and philosophy.
Rule 13. Capitalize art movements.
Example: I like Surrealism, but I never understood Abstract Expressionism.
Rule 14. Do not capitalize the first item in a list that follows a colon.
Example: Bring the following: paper, a pencil, and a snack.
For more on capitalization after a colon, go to "Colons," Rules 1, 3, and 4.
Rule 15. Do not capitalize "the national anthem."
Rule 16a. Composition titles: which words should be capitalized in titles of books, plays, films,
songs, poems, essays, chapters, etc.? This is a vexing matter, and policies vary. The usual advice
is to capitalize only the "important" words. But this isn't really very helpful. Aren't all words in a
title important?
The following rules for capitalizing composition titles are virtually universal.
Capitalize the title's first and last word.
Capitalize all adjectives, adverbs, and nouns.
Capitalize all pronouns (including it).
Capitalize all verbs, including all forms of the state of being verbs (am, is, are, was, will be, etc.).
Capitalize no, not, and the interjection O (e.g., How Long Must I Wait, O Lord?).
Do not capitalize an article (a, an, the) unless it is first or last in the title.
Do not capitalize a coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor, but, for, yet, so) unless it is first or last
in the title.
Do not capitalize the word to, with or without an infinitive, unless it is first or last in the
title.
Otherwise, styles, methods, and opinions vary; for instance, certain short conjunctions
(e.g., as, if, how, that) are capped by some, lowercased by others.
A major bone of contention is prepositions. The Associated Press Stylebook recommends
capitalizing all prepositions of more than three letters (e.g., with, about, across). Other
authorities advise lowercase until a preposition reaches five or more letters. Still others say not to
capitalize any preposition, even big words like regarding or underneath.
Hyphenated words in a title also present problems. There are no set rules, except to always
capitalize the first element, even if it would not otherwise be capitalized, such as to in My To-go
Order (some would write My To-Go Order). Some writers, editors, and publishers choose not to
capitalize words following hyphens unless they are proper nouns or proper adjectives (Ex-
Marine but Ex-husband). Others capitalize any word that would otherwise be capped in titles
(Prize-Winning, Up-to-Date).
Rule 16b. Many books have subtitles. When including these, put a colon after the work's
title and follow the same rules of composition capitalization for the subtitle.
Example: The King's English: A Guide to Modern Usage
Note that A is capitalized because it is the first word of the subtitle.
Suppose you are reviewing a book whose title on the cover is in capital letters: THE STUFF OF
THOUGHT. Beneath, in smaller capital letters, is the subtitle, LANGUAGE AS A WINDOW
INTO HUMAN NATURE. All sides would agree that the main title should be written, The Stuff of
Thought. But depending on which capitalization policy you choose, the subtitle might be any of
the following:
Language As a Window Into Human Nature
Language as a Window Into Human Nature
Language As a Window into Human Nature
Language as a Window into Human Nature
Any title of more than two words can be a challenge. How would you capitalize a title such
as not yet rich? Since the first and last word in any title are always capitalized, the only
question is whether to cap yet. In this case, yet is an adverb, and adverbs are always
capped. So make it Not Yet Rich.
Now suppose the title is rich yet miserable. This time yet is one of the seven coordinating
conjunctions (the others are and, or, nor, but, for, and so). Since coordinating conjunctions are
not capitalized in titles, the right answer is Rich yet Miserable.
Here are two correctly capitalized titles: Going up the Road and Going Up in a Balloon. In the
first title, up is a preposition, and short prepositions are not capitalized. In the second title, Up is
an adverb and should be capped.
Along the same lines, compare the following three titles: I Got It off the Internet, Please Put It
Off for Today, and I Hit the Off Switch. In the first example, the preposition off is lowercase. But
the word must be capped in the second example because put off, meaning "to postpone," is a
two-word phrasal verb (a verb of two or more words). One-word verbs, helping verbs, and
phrasal verbs are always capitalized. Off is also capped in the third sentence because the word
functions as an adjective in that title, and adjectives are always capitalized.
Although the seven coordinating conjunctions are not capitalized, you may have noticed
there are many more than seven conjunctions in English. Most of these are
called subordinating conjunctions, because they join a subordinate clause to a main clause.
Familiar examples include as, although, before, since, until, when.
There are three approaches to capping subordinating conjunctions: capitalize them all, lowercase
them all, or capitalize them if they are words of four letters or more. Take your pick.
Capitalizing composition titles is fraught with gray areas. Pick a policy and be consistent.