Nursery Raising, Planting Techniques and

Plantation Management of Climate Resilient

Mangrove Species in Bangladesh

Nursery of Heritiera fomes

@ Amit Kumar/UNDP
Published by
Integrating Community-based Adaptation into Afforestation and Reforestation (ICBAAR)
Programmes in Bangladesh
Bangladesh Forest Department
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
Date of publication: June 2020
Authors
Mahmood Hossain
Professor
Forestry and Wood Technology Discipline
Khulna University, Khulna, Bangladesh
Sanjoy Saha
Senior Scientific Officer
Institute for Integrated Studies on the Sundarbans and Coastal Ecosystems
Khulna University, Khulna, Bangladesh
Chameli Saha
Lecturer
Forestry and Wood Technology Discipline
Khulna University, Khulna, Bangladesh
Arif Mohammad Faisal
Programme Specialist
United Nations Development Programme, Bangladesh
Mohammed Muzammel Hoque
Project Manager, ICBAAR Programme,
United Nations Development Programme, Bangladesh
Overall Coordination
Kabir Hossain
Communication Officer, ICBAAR Programme, United Nations Development Programme, Bangladesh
Cover Photo: Mahmood Hossain
Layout, Graphics, Sketch and Illustrations
Md. Kaosar Sikder, Printmaking Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna, Bangladesh
Md. Ziaul Hasan, Documentation and Communication Associate, ICBAAR, UNDP, Bangladesh
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reported, shorted in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by means, electrical or mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or
otherwise without the written permission of any copyright holders.
ISBN: 978-984-34-8277-8
MESSAGE

Bangladesh is more prone to cyclones, floods, and storm surges due to the adverse impact of
climate change. Statistics shows that the coastal regions of Bangladesh were hit with 3
cyclones from 1970 to 1979, 5 from 1980 to 1989, 9 from 1990 to 1999 and 11 from 2000 to
2009. According to the World Bank, of the total death resulting from cyclones worldwide
between 1980-2000, 60% occurred in Bangladesh.
Mangrove plantation along the coastline is considered as an effective measure to reduce
vulnerabilities and hazards of such extreme weather events. There were many powerful and
super cyclones like- Sidr, Aila, Mahasen, and Amphan that hit Bangladesh in the recent times,
but the lives and livelihood of 3 crore and fifty lacks people residing in 19 coastal districts of
the country were saved due to the protection provided by coastal greenbelt. Therefore, the
government has given topmost priority to create coastal green belt with the active participation
of communities. In this regard, Bangladesh Forest Department has undertaken ‘Integrating
Community-based Adaptation into Afforestation and Reforestation (ICBAAR) Programmmes
in Bangladesh’.The main objective of the project is to support diversified mangrove plantation
for sustainable greenbelt, community involvement and ownership in greenbelt management,
establish coordination between relevant departments, policy formation for sustainable
greenbelt management. In addition, Government of Bangladesh has also formulated National
Adaptation Plan of Actions (NAPA), and the Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action
Plan (BCCSAP) in response to the growing climate-based challenges.
I am delighted for the initiative for such a publication on ‘Nursery Raising, Planting
Techniques and Plantation Management of Climate Resilient Mangrove Species in
Bangladesh’ by the project. I firmly believe it will play a significant role in achieving the
project objectives. I welcome such activities by the ICBAAR project and will also like to share
my gratitude to all who were involved from the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change, Forest Department and other Relevant departments.

Ziaul Hasan ndc

Secretary
Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change
MESSAGE

The main moto of the ‘Integrating Community-based Adaptation into Afforestation and
Reforestation (ICBAAR) Programmes in Bangladesh’ is to create a protective and stable
greenbelt through participatory planning, community-based management, integration of
climate resilient livelihoods and diversification of species in afforestation and reforestation
programmes.
ICBAAR has introduced 12 diversified suitable species of mangrove along 650 ha degraded
coastal greenbelts modeling the diversity of the Sundarbans in five project districts. In addition,
Forest department officials of 8 Upazila of 5 project districts have all received training on
“Necessity of diversified mangroves, nursery raising and plantation management”. Besides,
10,500 vulnerable households have received sustainable livelihood support in 8 upazilas and
20 Forest Resources Protection Groups consisted of 600 forest dependent households.
Mangroves possess three times more carbon-absorbing capacity compared to other species,
reduces soil erosion, also has water treatment properties and enhances breeding activities of
fishes. Mangroves are enriched with medicinal value and is a source of timber.
Publication like ‘Nursery Raising, Planting Techniques and Plantation Management of Climate
Resilient Mangrove Species in Bangladesh’ is therefore required to create a sustainable green
belt along the coasts. I wish to share my warm regards towards everyone who worked for this
publication specially the leading author Dr. Mahmood Hossain of Forest and Wood Technology
discipline of Khulna University and Project Manager Dr. Mohammed Muzammel Hoque for
their outstanding contributions.

Mahmud Hassan
Additional Secretary
Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change
&
National Project Director, ICBAAR Programme
MESSAGE

Bangladesh is a pioneer for mangrove plantation. The world largest mangrove forest Sundarbans
along coastal mangrove greenbelt protect lives and livelihoods of the world’s most climate
vulnerable coastal communities from any natural disasters like- cyclone, flood and tidal surges.
From 1960, Bangladesh Forest Department have planted over 200,000 hectares of mangroves
along the coastline. Earlier thousands of people used to die from natural disaster, but now the
coastal regions are much safer, and causalities have been reduced remarkably mainly due to its
greenbelt. The coastal greenbelt was able to protect the coastal regions of Bangladesh from
strong cyclones like- Sidr, Aila, Bulbul, Amphan etc.
Contribution of the international development partners in this endeavor is undeniable. The
‘Integrating Community-based Adaptation into Afforestation and Reforestation (ICBAAR)
Programmes in Bangladesh’ assisted by UNDP has been working together with forest
department since 2017 for sustainable greenbelt conservation and management. One of the
main objectives of this project is to bring diversity in mangrove plantation to create a more
stable and protective greenbelt along the coasts. The project is also focusing on introducing
innovative, nature-based, ecosystem-based and climate resilient diversified livelihood options
for the vulnerable coastal population and thereby reducing their dependency on forest.
I believe this ‘Nursery Raising, Planting Techniques and Plantation Management of Climate
Resilient Mangrove Species in Bangladesh’ will further energize the sustainable greenbelt
initiatives of the Forest Department.

Md. Amir Hosain Chowdhury

Chief Conservator of Forests
Bangladesh Forest Department
MESSAGE

Earlier this year several millions of people who inhabit the coastal areas of Bangladesh and the eastern
part of India were hit by super cyclone Amphan while also dealing with the COVID-19 pandemic,
making it a crisis within a crisis. Fortunately, many lives and property in Bangladesh were saved by the
planned green belt that took the brunt and shielded the vulnerable coastal communities. The importance
of investing in and preserving in green nature cannot be over-emphasized even in the context of disaster
risk reduction as an earlier super cyclone Bulbul too had wreaked havoc on the Sundarbans and saved
thousands of lives in the adjoining human settlements. In a planet that is at grave risk of numerous
environmental fallouts of irresponsible human greed for quick material prosperity, development needs
to much more risk informed and with a strong focus on preserving all forms of lives on land and under
water. Forest degradation not only impacts negatively on biodiversity and the resultant ecosystem
destruction accelerates spread of infectious zoonotic diseases like COVID-19
Since 1972, UNDP has been a steadfast development partner of Bangladesh to alleviate poverty, ensure
good governance and to mitigate and adapt to climate change impacts. Since 2009, the UNDP has also
been working with the Bangladesh Forest Department to protect the lives and livelihoods of 35 million
people representing nearly a third of the total population who inhabit the fast eroding coastal region.
This partnership with support from the Global Environment Facility (GEF) has successfully resulted in
9,000 hectares of mangroves that make for a life-saving coastal green belt.
The coastal greenbelt originally comprised two monoculture species with a natural life span of 20-25
years and this when left unattended leaves gaps in the greenbelt and making the surrounding
communities vulnerable. To address this, UNDP together with the Bangladesh Forest Department has
been working with communities on a unique programme of ‘Integrating Community-based Adaptation
into Afforestation and Reforestation (ICBAAR) Programmes in Bangladesh’ to expand the greenbelt
and promote more-resilient, multi-species forests. Since 2016, the ICBAAR project has introduced 12
diversified climate resilient species and established a co-management mechanism with local
communities to strengthen protection of coastal forest. Twenty Forest Resource Protection groups with
600 forest dependent beneficiaries in 8 Upazilas in 5 highly vulnerable coastal districts act as
community forest stewards who raise awareness against illegal tree felling and also regularly patrol to
ensure that the forests are protected from human pilferage. The project has also offered climate resilient
livelihoods to 10,500 households linked to the conservation of the coastal greenbelt.
I congratulate the entire project team and thank colleagues at the Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change for this publication which undoubtedly will be very useful for the officials of the Forest
Department, coastal communities as well as all development practitioners.

Sudipto Mukerjee
Resident Representative
UNDP Bangladesh
PREFACE
Mangrove forests are the most important ecosystem in the tropical and sub-tropical
wormed sheltered coastline. This ecosystem provides goods and services to the
coastal population for their livelihood and protection. This ecosystem is now under
immense pressure due to over exploitation of resources and conversion to other land
uses. Bangladesh has world largest single tract of natural mangrove forest
(Sundarbans) that protects the lives and properties of the southwestern coastal
population from cyclones and tidal surges. At the same time, we have world largest
manmade mangrove forest of 1,960,000 ha in the newly accreted offshore islands and
coastline.

The manmade mangrove forest in Bangladesh was initiated during 1966, since then
sixteen afforestation projects were implemented. Plantation of mono species (poor
species diversity), poor or absence of natural regeneration, absence of second rotation
crops are the major drawback of coastal afforestation projects. Physical environment
of planting sites, nursery raising, planting technique, site-specific species selection
and community involvement in plantation management have significant influence on
the sustainability of the coastal forests.

This manual summarized the history, objectives and drawback of coastal afforestation
in Bangladesh. Monoculture coastal afforestation with Keora and Baen and
degradation of plantations after 15-20 years either naturally or disease infestation is
the limitation to create sustainable greenbelt along the coast. To overcome this
limitation, ICBAAR has initiated to create more stable greenbelts along the cost with
12 climate resilient mangrove species. It describes the common and species-specific
methods of nursery raising, seedling planting and plantation management
interventions for coastal area friendly twenty mangrove species in an easily
understandable way with necessary illustrations and photographs. It is believed that
this manual will not only serve as a guideline for successful nursery raising and
plantation of mangrove species for the afforestation/restoration in the newly accreted
offshore islands and degraded mangrove areas but also to create a more stable and
protective greenbelt along the coasts.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Introduction to ICBAAR Programme.............................................................................6
Background.....................................................................................................................7
Major drawbacks in coastal afforestation......................................................................11
Classification of mangrove nursery...............................................................................13
Nursery raising..............................................................................................................14
Species wise nursery practices......................................................................................23
Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blano (Khulshi)............................................................24
Aglaia cucullata (Roxb.) Pellegr. (Amoor).................................................................27
Avicennia officinalis L. (Bean, Kala Bean).................................................................30
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lam. (Lal Kakra)...........................................................34
Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir. (Kakra).................................................................38
Cerbera manghas L. (Dakur).....................................................................................41
Ceriops decandra (Griff.) Ding Hou (Goran).............................................................45
Cynometra ramiflora L. (Singra)................................................................................49
Excoecaria agallocha L. (Gewa)................................................................................52
Heritiera fomes Buch. Ham.(Sundri)..........................................................................56
Kandelia candel (L.) Druce (Vatkathi, Goria, Rohini).............................................60
Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. (Kirpa)..........................................................................64
Nypa fruticans Wurmb (Golpata)................................................................................67
Phoenix paludosa Roxb. (Hatal).................................................................................71
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Karanj, Shita-shara)...................................................75
Rhizophora mucronata Lamk. (Jhanna, Garjan).........................................................79
Sonneratia apetala Buch. Ham. (Keora)....................................................................82
Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engl. (Ora, Soila).............................................................85
Xylocarpus granatum K.D. Koenig (Dhundal)...........................................................89
Xylocarpus moluccensis (Lam.) M. Roem. (Passur)...................................................92
Plantation of seedling.......................................................................................................96
Selection of coastal plantation site..........................................................................96
Plantation site preparation.......................................................................................97
Planting technique....................................................................................................99
Planting of seedlings..............................................................................................101
Plantation management..................................................................................................104
Plantation monitoring............................................................................................104
Plantation management..........................................................................................104
Conclusion..................................................................................................................106
References..................................................................................................................107
Appendix..............................................................................................................108-111
LIST
OF FIGURES
Figure no Page no
01 Nursery bed with drainage system 15
02 Shed for soil preparation and polybags filling activities 17
03 Standard way of polybag fill 18
04 Layout of polybag nursery 19
05 A slanting shed on newly grown seedlings 22
06 Fruit/seed, method of sowing and germination of Aegiceras corniculatum 25
07 Fruit/seed, method of sowing and germination of Aglaia cucullata 28
08 Fruit/seed, method of sowing and germination of Avicennia officinalis 32
09 Propagule, method of sowing and germination of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza 36
10 Propagule, method of sowing and germination of Bruguiera sexangula 39
11 Fruit/seed, method of sowing and germination of Cerbera manghas 43
12 Propagule, method of sowing and germination of Ceriops decandra 47
13 Fruit/ seed, method of sowing and germination of Cynometra ramiflora 50
14 Fruit/ seed, method of sowing and germination of Excoecaria agallocha 53
15 Fruit/ seed, method of sowing and germination of Heritiera fomes 58
16 Propagule, method of sowing and germination of Kandelia candel 62
17 Seed/fruit, method of sowing and germination of Lumnitzera racemosa 65
18 Seed/fruit, method of sowing and germination of Nypa fruticans 69
19 Seed/fruit, method of sowing and germination of Phoenix paludosa 73
20 Seed/fruit, method of sowing and germination of Pongamia pinnata 77
21 Propagule, method of sowing and germination of Rhizophora mucronata 80
22 Seed, method of sowing and germination of Sonneratia apetala 83
23 Seed, method of sowing and germination of Sonneratia caseolaris 87
24 Seed, method of sowing and germination of Xylocarpus granatum 90
25 Seed, method of sowing and germination of Xylocarpus moluccensis 93
26 Site clearing/ weeding activities in the planting sites 98
27 Excavation of canals/ channels in areas with low tidal inundation 98
28 Stage, comp mat and comp pillow in area with higher chance of winnowing 99
29 Planting of seedling 100
30 Planting technique with fixed distance from each other in row and column 102
31 V-shaped planting technique in the areas with moderate wave or
winds energy 102
32 Cluster planting with soil mound in the areas with strong wave or
winds energy 103
33 Removal of encrusting organisms like barnacles and oysters
attached with seedling stem 105
6

Integrating Community-based Adaptation into

Afforestation and Reforestation Programmes (ICBAAR)
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
(MoEFCC) with technical and financial support from UNDP
Bangladesh and Global Environment Facility (GEF) is
implementing the ‘Integrating Community-based Adaptation
into Afforestation and Reforestation Programmes (ICBAAR)’ in
eight highly climate vulnerable coastal upazilas of Noakhali,
Bhola, Barguna, Patuakhali and Pirojpur district. The objective
of the Programme is to reduce vulnerability of coastal
communities to the adverse impact of climate change. The
programme is offering climate resilient, innovative and
diversified livelihood options that are suitable for the coastal
areas and are linked to the conservation of coastal greenbelt.

Key components of the project

Increase resilience of local communities through
diversification of climate resilient livelihood and
diversification of species in coastal greenbelts.
Promote community stewardship of coastal greenbelt
through establishment of effective co-management for its
sustainable conservation and management.
Protect communal livelihood assets of local people from
extreme weather events through effective early warning,
disaster preparedness planning and risk reduction
programmes.
BACKGROUND
Mangrove forests are extremely important coastal resources in the tropical and
sub-tropical areas of the World. This forest supports more than seventy direct human
needs starting from fuelwood collection to fisheries. Mangrove forests also play
important ecological roles through protecting lives and properties of the coastal
communities from the devastating tropical cyclones, tusnami and tidal surges. These
forests help in reducing soil erosion, stabilizing the coast, and facilitating sediment
accretion and enhance carbon sequestration. At the same time, mangrove forests support
the productivity of coastal aquatic ecosystem. Therefore, mangrove forests are vital for
the sustainable socio‐economic development in the coastal areas.

Bangladesh has about 710 km of coastline along the Bay of Bangle starting from the Naf
River at the southeast to the Raimangle River at the southwest. Twelve administrative
districts are directly exposed to the sea and estuaries. About 28% of the total population
of Bangladesh live at the coastal zone and it will reach to 60.8 million in this area by
2050. Agriculture, shrimp and fish farming, forestry, salt production, ship-breaking yards,
ports, industries, human settlements and wetlands are major land usages of coastal areas
of Bangladesh. Eventually the coastal zone is the economic lifeline of our country.

Bangladesh, being a tropical to sub-tropical coastal country, is frequently experiencing

the effects of devastating cyclones, tidal surges, floods, saline intrusion, and climate
change consequences. There are 74 tropical cyclones and tidal surges strike on the coastal
areas of Bangladesh from the first record in 1584 to the end of 2019. Ten severe cyclones
from 1947 to 1965 caused casualties of about 69,000 peoples in the coastal areas
(Wikipedia 2019). These losses aware the policy makers to think about the protection of
the coastal people. Considering the protective role of natural mangroves “Sundarbans”,
Forest Department was directed to plant mangrove species at the intertidal zone outside
the coastal embankment in 1966 under “Afforestation in the coastal belt and offshore
islands” project.

The most devastating tropical cyclones in history that hit present-day Bangladesh during
1970 claimed the death of 500,000 people and huge damage of properties has motivated
the policy makers strongly for the largescale plantation of mangrove species in the coasts
and offshore islands. Bangladesh is the pioneer in the world for coastal afforestation. The
coastal afforestation programme had received massive pace with the World Bank funded
project “Afforestation Project in the coastal regions of Chattogram, Noakhali, Barisal and
Patuakhali”. 16 projects were initiated for massive plantation until 2014 and small-scale
mangrove plantations were conducted from the revenue budget.
8

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has been working with the
Bangladesh Forest Department since 2009 to establish a sustainable coastal greenbelt
along the coasts. In order to create natural protection for vulnerable coastal communities,
UNDP, together with Bangladesh Forest Department, has already planted 9000 ha of
mangrove in the newly accreted land of coastal region through CBACC, the pilot face of
ICBAAR. The current ICBAAR programme of Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change with technical and financial support from UNDP and Global
Environment Facility, is making strong headway, embracing both participatory planning
and community-based management in its implementation. Over 650 hectares degrade
mangroves have been restored with diverse climate resilient species to create a more
protective and stable green belt along the vulnerable Barguna, Patuakhali, Bhola and
Noakhali coastline under ICBAAR Programme. This resilient green belt will protect
coastal population from cyclones and extreme weather events. When the pioneer species
Keora and Baen will naturally die after 15-20 years, the other species will remain survive
and protect the coastal communities from natural disasters like- the Sundarbans.

Recognizing the success of these projects, the Government transferred about 500,000 ha
of coastal areas to the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change for coastal
afforestation and declared it as reserved forest under section 4 of the Forest Act. At
present, about 200,000 ha of coastal land areas is covered by plantation, which constitute
1.36% of country land area and 12.5% of forest department owned land (FD, 2019).
Meanwhile, about 45,370 ha of land have been handed over to the Ministry of Land for
production of crops. Another about 20,234 ha of stabilized coastal forest land currently
await transfer to Ministry of Land. Sonneratia apetala (Keora) and Avicennia officinalis
(Baen) are the most abundant species in the coastal afforested areas that constitutes about
80% and 15% of the growing stock respectively.

While, Heritiera fomes (Sundri), Excoecaria agallocha (Gewa), Xylocarpus mekongensis

(Passur), Bruguiera sexangula (Kakra), Ceriops dacandra (Goran), and Sonneratia
caseolaris (Ora, Soila) are found in lower extend. However, the survival of these
mangrove species in the accreted lands was poor probably due to inappropriate site
quality/habitat or lack of planting experience (Siddiqi, 2001). Some non-mangrove
species like Samanea saman (Rain tree), Casuarina equisetifolia (Jhau), Pithecilobium
dulce (Khai babla), Acacia nilotica (Babla) and Albizia procera (Sada koroi) were also
found suitable for planting in the raised coastal lands.

Newly accreted shore

@ Mahmood Hossain
 9

The losses of lives and properties of the coastal population due to the cyclones and tidal
surges have reduced considerably in the recent years by adopting such biological (coastal
plantation) measures, early forecasting and preparedness mechanisms. The initial
objective of the coastal afforestation was to protect lives and properties of the coastal
population, but the early success of the coastal afforestation has helped to set the
following additional objectives:
• Development of shelterbelt at the coastal areas to protect lives and properties from
cyclones and tidal surges
• Stabilization and utilization of newly accreted lands for agriculture purposes
• Accelerating the sediment accretion process at the coastal areas
• Production of forest products for timber, fuel wood and industrial uses
• Creating employment opportunities for remote rural communities
• Supporting diversity of wildlife, fishes, and other estuarine and marine fauna
• Enhancing community adaptation towards the adverse impact of climate change
• Promoting carbon sequestration as climate change mitigation measures

Coastal plantation
@ Mahmood Hossain
10

Coastal enrichment planting activities/ICBAAR-UNDP

@ Amit Kumar/UNDP
MAJOR DRAWBACKS
IN COASTAL
AFFORESTATION
The success of coastal afforestation programme highly depends on the land stability
issues of the coastal areas. Rapid accretion, sand smothering, sediment winnowing,
tidal inundation and land erosion are the most important issues of coastal land stability.
The geomorphology of the coastal areas is continuously under influence by the dynamic
nature of the fluvial environments. Rapid and unpredictable changes in geomorphology
affect the success of coastal afforestation in many ways (Siddiqi, 2001). The physical
environment ultimately shapes the biotic community of the newly accreted lands and
coastline. Simple and easy techniques of nursery raising and plantation establishment,
higher rate of seedling survival and site suitability of the newly accreted lands may be
responsible for the initial large-scale monoculture of S. apetala and A. officinalis. The
geomorphological characteristics of the coastal areas and the monoculture of S. apetala
and A. officinalis have invited the following problems in the coastal afforested areas of
Bangladesh (Baksha, 1996; Siddiqi, 2001; Islam et al., 2013; Mahmood 2015).
• Total or partial burial of planted seedlings by water born sediment and wind-blown sand
• Winnowing of fine sediment from the newly planted sites
• Erosion at plantation margins by strong currents in tidal and river channels
• Large scales stem borer (Zeuzera conferta) attack to the mono stands of S. apetala
• Creation of large gaps due to severe mortality (up to 80%) of trees in plantations
• Very poor or no natural regeneration of tree species as second rotation crop
• Lower diversity of flora and fauna
In addition to the above mentioned problems, the coastal plantations are also under
extreme threats due to sever grazing by cattle, illicit felling and encroachment (Islam
and Rahman, 2015). These problems can be minimized through the active participation
of the community people in management activities of the coastal afforested areas.
However, the scope of people’s participation in management activities is limited due to
lack of clear-cut forest product sharing arrangement. Presently, the vicinity people have
only access to collect the minor forest products like grasses, hogla pata, honey and
fishes. It is important to give emphasis to include other suitable mangrove species in
coastal afforestation programmes, which may enhance biodiversity of the areas and
socio-economic benefits to local communities from the forests. Training on nursery
practices, planting techniques and tending operations of mangrove species can be given
to the community people. These trainings and appropriate benefits sharing arrangement
may contribute in sustainable management of coastal plantation forests.
12

Large-scale gap in the mature stand of Sonneratia apetala

without natural regeneration @ Mahmood Hossain
CLASSIFICATION
OF MANGROVE
NURSERY
Mangrove plantations are raised through seed broadcasting and planting of seedlings.
The success in direct seeding is poor. Sometimes, direct seeding shows promising result
for the species having large propagule like Rhizophora spp., Ceriops spp., and
Bruguiera spp. Forest nursery is the only means of seedling production for large-scale
plantation in Bangladesh. Mangrove nursery can be of different types based on
permanency, tidal location and types of seedling production and they involve different
set of activities and management interventions (Khan et al., 2001; Rashid 2004).

Nursery types based on permanency

Permanent nursery
• This type of nursery is established for long-term supply of seedlings

Temporary nursery
• This type of nursery is for short-term supply of seedlings for a limited areas

Mangrove nursery types based on tidal location

Floating mangrove nursery

• This type of nursery is established in upland areas (above the highest tidal range). It
can be used for long term supply of seedlings
Flooded mangrove nursery
• This type of nursery is established in low intertidal areas, which are regularly flooded
by tidal waters. It provides short-term supply of seedlings
NURSERY
RAISING
Whatever the types of mangrove nursery, broadly it can be pushed into bare rooted
seedling producing and container/polybag seedling producing nursery. Here we would
like to concentrate on different steps of these types of nursery development.

Bare rooted seedling producing nursery

This type of nursery is mainly raised for large-scale plantations in the coasts and
offshore islands of Bangladesh. The survival of this planted seedling is less compared
to the container/ polybag seedlings. Different steps of nursery establishment and
maintenance have been pointed as follows.
Site selection
• The nursery should be developed close to the planting site, which facilitates quick
transportation of seedlings to the planting site with minimum time and budget
• Avoid sites with too much clay or silt content
• The nursery site should be inundated by spring tides throughout the year
• The size of the nursery varies from 1 to 10 ha depending on the number of seedlings
requirement
Site preparation
• Earthen embankment with necessary height and width is made around the nursery
site to control tidal inundation
• Few (4 to 8) sluice gates are built at different parts of embankment to facilitate
irrigation/watering in the nursery beds
• The nursery site is cleared and ploughed to remove all weeds, grasses and debris
• Drains with greater depth and width are made around the nursery for easy and quick
drain out the excess water
Nursery bed preparation
• Standard bed size of 1.2 m × 12 m with 30 cm wide and 20 cm deep drains are built
(Figure 1)
• Beds are ploughed and leveled to facilitate uniform distribution of seeds and
irrigated water
 15

m
12

20 cm

30 cm 1.2 m

Figure 1: Nursery bed with drainage system

Seed sowing
• Smaller sized seeds should be broadcast with some forces to facilitate embedded in
soil
• Two-third body of medium or larger fruits or seeds are embedded in soil
• One-third body of propagules of Bruguiera spp., Ceriops spp., Kandelia candel and
Rhizophora spp. are embedded in soil
• Second time sowing of fruits or seeds should be done in case of washing or
downward movement of fruits/seeds after the heavy rain
• Seed sowing is recommended during the neap tides

Maintenance
• Shade can be applied at the early stage of germination and seedling growth
• Weeding should be done weekly
• Irrigation should be done in the dry season
• Fertilizer application can be needed to boost up the growth of seedling
• Daily inspection is needed to check insect and disease infestation of the seedlings
• Manual removal of insect larvae is recommended at lower infestation stage
• Application of pesticides are recommended to control large scale infestation by pests

Uprooting of the seedlings

• Healthy seedlings without symptom of disease or insect attack are uprooted
• Extra care should be taken during the uprooting of seedlings
• The uprooting activity is done with flooding condition to avoid root damages of
seedlings
• Seedlings transportation to the planting site should be done quickly
16

Seed collection activies

@ Mahmood Hossain

Seed collection activies

@ Mahmood Hossain
 17

Polybag seedling producing nursery

Polybag seedlings are most frequently used for small to large-scale plantation
programme except coastal afforestation. While, bare rooted seedlings are commonly
used in coastal afforestation. Presently, polybag seedlings are now getting importance
due to its higher survival rate in the plantation. This method is expensive compared to the
bare-rooted seedlings production. Various steps of this type of nursery establishment and
maintenance are pointed as follows.
Site selection
• The site should be relatively raised and should near to the sources of water
• The site should be close to soil sources, that help to easy transportation of soil for
polybag filling
• The site should be close to water channels to facilitate transporting the seedlings to
the planting site
• Nursery size should varies from 1 to 10 ha

Site preparation
• Weeds, grasses, debris and unwanted vegetation are removed from the nursery site
• Fencing should be arranged around the nursery boundary to control the cattle
grazing and other disturbances
• A drainage system should be established to drain out the excess water
• A shed is constructed for soil preparation and filling of polybags activities (Figure 2)

Figure 2: Shed for soil preparation and polybags filling activities

18

Soil preparation
• Loamy soil is collected and air-dried
• Sieve the air-dried soil to remove large lumps and stones
• Cow dung is mixed with soil at a proportion of 1:5
• Small amount (0.5%) of fertilizer (Urea, TSP and Muriate of Potash at a proportion
of 2:2:1) is added to soil and mixed thoroughly
• Prepared soil should be heaped for 15 days before filling of polybags

Polybag filling
• Generally, polybags size of 15 cm × 10 cm (small), 25 cm × 15 cm (medium) and 30
cm × 25 cm (large) are frequently used
• Choice of polybag size depends on cost, convenience, seed and seedling size, and
seedling retention time in the nursery
• Polybags should be perforated with 6-8 holes at equal distance to drain excess water
• Polybags should be filled with prepared soil and 1 cm of vacant space is kept at the
top of the polybag (Figure 3)
• Small sized polybags are used for Avicennia officinalis, Excoecaria agallocha,
Ceriops decandra, Phoenix paludosa, Aegiceras corniculatum, Lumnitzera
racemosa seedling raising
• Medium sized polybags are used for Aglaia cucullata, Bruguiera sexangula,
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Cynometra ramiflora, Heritiera fomes, Xylocarpus
mekongensis
• Larger sized polybags are used for Xylocarpus granatum, Kandelia candel and
Rhizophora spp.

Figure 3: Standard way of polybag fill

 19

Nursery bed preparation

• Nursery beds of standard size of 1.2 m × 12 m are prepared
• About 50 cm wide passage is left around the bed for watering, weeding and
supervising the seedlings health (Figure 4)
• Bamboo or wooden planks should be constructed at the edge of the beds to protect the
polybags from fall down and keep upright position
• Nursery beds should be lined with thick polythene sheets to prevent the penetration of
roots outside the polybags to the ground
• Earth filled polybags are placed side by side on the lined polythene sheets
• One standard bed can accommodate about 1400 to 1500 polybags of size 15 cm × 10
cm (small), about 600 to 700 polybags of size 25 cm × 15 cm (medium) and about
250 to 300 polybags of size 30 cm × 25 cm (large) respectively

Figure 4: Layout of polybag nursery

20

Polybag mangrove nursery of Forestry and Wood Technology Discipline, Khulna University
@ Mahmood Hossain

Paraban Nursury, Forest Department, Charfassion, Bhola

@ ICBAAR/UNDP
 21

Seed sowing in polybags

• Watering of the polybags should be carried out about 24 hours before sowing the
fruits or seeds or propagules
• Usually one fruit or seed or propagule is sown in each polybag
• More than one seed can be sown in one polybags for the species having smaller sized
seeds with lower germination success
• Two-third/half of the fruits or seeds is embedded into the soil
• In case of propagules, one-third of the propagule body is embedded into soil
• Second time sowing of fruits or seeds should be done in case of washing out or
downward movement of fruits/seeds after the heavy rain

Heritiera fomes seed sowing in the polybags

@ Mahmood Hossain

Mulching and shading

• Straw or other thatching materials are used to cover the polybags after sowing the
fruits/seeds. It prevents soil evaporative loss and fluctuation of soil temperature
• Seedling of many mangrove species cannot tolerate full sunlight at the initial stage.
Therefore, shade should be provided for the young seedlings
• A slanting shed is provided at a height of 1.5 m over each nursery bed. Dry leaves
of coconut, golpata, sun grass, reeds, gunny mats, palm fronds etc. can make the
roof of this shed (Figure 5)
• Shade should be removed gradually with the age/growth of seedlings
22

Figure 5: A slanting shed on newly grown seedlings

Maintenance
• Regular watering is important for seed germination; survival and healthy growth of
seedlings
• Weeding should be done weekly
• Fertilizer can be applied to promote seedling growth
• Regular monitoring on insect and pest infestation is needed
• Insecticides may be applied to control pests (if necessary)
• Sorting and grading of polybag seedlings are done at 30 to 60 days interval to prevent
root growth outside the polybag
• Seedlings should be sorted according or graded to their height
• The inferior seedlings should be treated with fertilizer to boost up their growth
• Root pruning is necessary when roots have come out of the polybags. Root pruning
should be done by using sharp pruning scissors at least one week before the
transplanting of the seedlings in the field
• Seedling should be hardened for 2 to 3 weeks before planting in the planting site
 23

SPECIES
WISE
NURSERY
PRACTICES

Propagule of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza

@ Mahmood Hossain
24

Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanco

Local name: Khulshi

Species description and habitat

• This is an evergreen, pioneer, single or multi-stemmed shrub or small tree
• It is an exclusive mangrove species
• It grows up to 7 m in height
• It can tolerate strong saline and full sunlight condition

Phenology
• Flowering: March-May
• Fruiting: April-June
• Fruit ripening: July-August

Flowers of Aegiceras corniculatum

@ Mahmood Hossain

Use
• Stems are used for fuelwood
• Leaves can be used as fodder
• Flowers are good source of honey
• Plant parts have medicinal uses
 25

Geographical distribution
• This species is occurs in Australia, Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, China, India,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Singapore,
Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Province of China, Thailand and Vietnam
• In Bangladesh, it occurs in the Sundarbans and Chakaria Sundarbans

Fruit collection
• It is one seeded fruit
• Ripen fruits are light pinkish to reddish brown in colour
• One kilogram contains 1200-1500 fruits
• Ripen fruits are collected by looping the twigs or plucked from the trees

Fruit storage
• Fruits can be stored under shade up to 30 days with watering
• Longer storage time reduces the viability and ultimately affects the germination success

Fruit sorting and treatment

• Sort the intact, mature, healthy and free from insect infested fruits
• No treatments are required

Seedling production in polybags

• The sorted fruits are sown in soil filled polybags (15 cm × 10 cm)
• Half/two-third of the fruit body is embedded at slanting
position (Figure 6)
• Germination is crypto-viviparous with modified epigeal type
• Germination initiated within 3 weeks and germination success
is about 100%
• One bed (1.2 m × 12 m) can produce 1400-1500 polybag seedlings

Figure 6: Fruit/seed, method of sowing and germination of Aegiceras corniculatum

26

Nursury of Aegiceras corniculatum

@ Md. Mosharrof Hossain, Forester, DoF

Nursery management
• Shade can be applied at the early stage of germination and seedling growth
• Regular watering is important for Germination, survival and healthy growth of the
seedlings
• Weekly weeding is needed
• Aeration capacity can be increased by breaking the thin hard layer of soil at the top
side of polybags using a pointed stick
• Foliar spray of liquid fertilizer (3-4 g of N:P:K Urea, TSP and Muriate of Potash at
a proportion of 2:2:1 in 1 liter of water) can be applied to boost up the growth of
seedling
• Daily inspection of insects and disease infestation is needed
• Sometimes manual removal of insect larvae and application of chemical insecticides
are recommended to control pests and diseases
• Polybags are rearranged at 30 to 60 days interval to prevent growth of seedling roots
outside the polybags
Seedling selection for planting
• About ten month old seedlings with a height of 30-40 cm are suitable for new plantation
• 18 -24 months old seedlings are suitable for gap/ vacancy filling
• Seedling should have green leaves, straight stem and profuse roots
• Healthy seedlings with no symptom of disease or insect attack
• Seedling should be hardened for 2 to 3 weeks before planting in the field
• About 90% survival is observed in plantation
 27

Aglaia cucullata (Roxb.) Pellegr.

Local name: Amoor

Species description and habitat

• This is an evergreen small to medium sized tree
• It is a mangrove associate species
• It grows up to 15 m in height
• It is less salt tolerant species and grows well in shade condition
Phenology
• Flowering: October-January
• Fruiting: December-May
• Fruit ripening: June-July
Use
• Wood is used for fuel wood, timber, house and boat building, flooring, furniture,
household and agricultural implements
• Plant parts have medicinal uses
Geographical distribution
• This species is found in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Papua
New Guinea, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam
• In Bangladesh, it occurs in the Sundarbans, Teknaf and other coastal areas
Fruit collection
• It is one seeded fruit
• Mature fruits are dark brown in colour
• One kilogram contains 15-20 fruits
• Ripen fruits are collected by looping the twigs or plucked from the trees or from forest
floor

Ripen fruit of Aglaia cucullata

@ Mahmood Hossain
28

Fruit storage
• Fruits can be stored under shade up to 30 days with watering
• Longer storage time reduces the viability and ultimately affects the germination
success
Fruit sorting and treatment
• Sort the intact, mature, healthy and free from insect infested fruits
• No treatments are required

Seedling production in polybags

• The sorted seeds are sown in soil filled polybags (25 cm × 15 cm)
• Almost two-third of the seed body is embedded (Figure 7)
• Germination initiated within 1 week and ends within 5 weeks
• Germination success is about 80%
• One bed (1.2 m × 12 m) can produce 600-700 polybag
seedlings

Figure 7: Fruit/seed, method of sowing and germination of Aglaia cucullata

Seedlings of Aglaia cucullata

@ Sanjoy Saha
 29

Nursery management
• Shade can be applied at the early stage of germination and seedling growth
• Initial growth of seedling is quite high
• Regular watering is important for survival and healthy growth of seedlings
• Weekly weeding is needed
• Aeration capacity can be increased by breaking the thin hard layer of soil at the top
portion of polybags using a pointed stick
• Foliar spray of liquid fertilizer (3-4 g of N:P:K Urea, TSP and Muriate of Potash at a
proportion of 2:2:1 in 1 liter of water) can be applied to boost up the growth of
seedling
• Daily inspection of insects and disease infestation is needed
• Sometimes manual removal of insect larvae and application of chemical
insecticides are recommended to control pests and diseases
• Melathion (Melathion 57 EC) at the rate of 0.1% solution or Diazinon (Diazinon
60 E) at the rate of 0.05% solution performs better in controlling the large scale
infestation by insect pest
• Polybags are rearranged at 30 to 60 days interval to prevent growth of seedling
roots outside the polybags
Seedling selection for planting
• Ten month old seedlings are suitable for new plantation with a height of 80-90 cm
• 18 -24 months old seedlings are suitable for gap filling
• Seedling should have green leaves, straight stem and profuse roots
• Healthy seedlings with no symptom of disease or insect attack
• Seedling should be hardened for 2 to 3 weeks before planting in the field
• About 90% survival is observed in plantation

Plantation of Aglaia cucullata

@ Sanjoy Saha
30

Avicennia officinalis L.
Locan name: Bean, Kala Bean

Species description and habitat

• This is an evergreen pioneer and small to medium sized tree
• It is an exclusive mangrove species
• It grows up to 25 m in height
• It can tolerate strong saline condition but grows well on the silt deposited
muddy sites with moderate saline condition
• It grows in full sunlight condition

Phenology
• Flowering: April-July
• Fruiting: May-August
• Fruit ripening: August-September

Fruits of Avicennia officinalis

@ Mahmood Hossain

Use
• Wood is used as fuel wood and posts
• Fruit is edible after roasting
• Leaves are used as fodder
• Plant parts have medicinal uses
 31

Geographical distribution
• This species occurs in Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar,
Andaman, Island, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Papua New
Guinea and Australia
• In Bangladesh, it occurs in the Sundarbans, Teknaf and other coastal areas
Fruit collection
• Mature fruits are yellowish green in colour
• One kilogram contains 135-208 fruits (Alam et al., 2017)
• Mature propagules are collected by looping the twigs or plucked from the trees or forest
floor
Fruit storage
• Fruits can be stored under shade up to 15 days with watering.
• Fruit’s viability ends within a few days at dry condition
Fruit sorting and treatment
• Sort the intact mature, healthy and free of insect infested fruits
• Pre-treatments to fruits enhance the germination success, usually it is advised for
direct seeding method for plantation establishment
• The sorted fruits are kept into a net and exposed to daily tides for a week
• Within 2 to 3 days the pericarp will be removed that reduces the seedling
establishment time
Seedling production in nursery bed
• Thick polythene sheet should be under-laid at the bottom of nursery bed to prevent
penetration into deep root
• Seeds are sown in the nursery beds by broadcasting
• Second time sowing of seeds should be done in case of washing or downward
movement of seeds after the heavy rain
• Regular watering is needed during dry period
• The seedlings are uprooted with care

Bare rooted seedlings of Avicennia officinalis

@ Md. Rabiul Alam
32

Seedling production in polybags

• The sorted seeds are sown in soil filled polybags (15 cm × 10 cm)
• Two-third of the seed body is embedded (Figure 8)
• It shows epigeal or modified epigeal type germination
• Germination initiates within 3 days
and ends within 10 days
• Germination success is about 90%
• One bed (1.2 m × 12 m) can produce 1400-1500
polybag seedlings

Figure 8: Fruit/seed, method of sowing and

germination of Avicennia officinalis

Polybag seedlings of Avicennia officinalis

@ Md. Rabiul Alam
 33

Nursery management
• Shade can be applied at the early stage of germination and seedling growth
• Regular watering is needed during dry season
• Weekly weeding is needed
• Breaking the thin hard layer of soil at the top side of polybags enhance the aeration capacity
• Foliar spray of liquid fertilizer (3-4 g of N, P and K at a proportion of 2:2:1 in 1 liter
of water) can be applied to boost up the growth of seedling
• Daily inspection of pests is needed and manual removal of insect larvae is
recommended at lower infestation stage
• Melathion (Melathion 57 EC) at the rate of 0.1% solution or Diazinon (Diazinon
60 E) at the rate of 0.05% solution performs better in controlling the pests
• Polybags are rearranged at 30 days interval to prevent growth of roots outside the
polybags
Seedling selection for planting
• About ten month old seedlings are suitable for new plantation with a height of
70-90 cm
• One or two months old bare rooted seedlings are also found suitable for plantation
• Seedling should have green leaves, straight stem and profuse roots
• Healthy seedlings with no symptom of disease or insect attack
• Seedling should be hardened for 2 to 3 weeks before planting in the field
• About 85% survival is observed in plantation

Plantation of Avicennia officinalis

@ Sanjoy Saha
34

Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lam.

Locan name: Lal Kakra
Species description and habitat
• This is an evergreen, small to medium sized tree
• It is an exclusive mangrove species
• It grows up to 15 m in height
• It can tolerate strong saline condition but grows well at the moderate saline areas with full
sunlight

Flowers and propagule of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza

@ Mahmood Hossain
 35

Phenology
• Flowering: December-March
• Fruiting: February-July
• Fruit ripening: July-August

Use
• Wood is used for fuel wood, charcoal, pulp, rayon, furniture, construction purpose,
post and piling
• Bark is used for tannin and dye
• Leaves have medicinal uses

Geographical distribution
• This species is distributed in east coast of Africa, Madagascar, Maldives, and India,
Bangladesh to Southeast Asia, China, Japan, Taiwan, Papua New Guinea to
Solomon Islands and north east coast of Australia
• In Bangladesh, it occurs only in the Sundarbans

Propagule collection
• Mature propagules are purple in colour
• One kilogram contains 50-70 propagules
• Mature propagules are collected by looping the twigs or plucked from the trees or
from the forest floor

Propagule storage
• Propagules can be stored under shade up to 30 days with watering
• Longer storage time reduces the viability and ultimately affects the sprouting
success

Propagule sorting and treatment

• Sort the intact mature, healthy and free of insect infested propagules
• No treatments are required

Seedling production in polybags

• The sorted propagules are sown in soil filled polybags (25 cm × 15 cm)
• One-third of the propagule body is embedded at upright position (Figure 9)
• Germination is viviparous
• Sprouting initiates within 2 weeks and almost 100% sprouting is observed within
6 weeks
• One bed (1.2 m × 12 m) can accomodate 600-700 polybag seedlings
36

Figure 9: Propagule, method of sowing and germination of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza

Nursery management
• Shade can be applied at the early stage of germination and seedling growth
• Regular watering is important for survival and healthy growth of seedlings
• Weekly weeding is needed
• Breaking the thin hard layer of soil at the top side of polybags enhance the aeration
capacity
• Foliar spray of liquid fertilizer (3-4 g of N, P and K at a proportion of 2:2:1 in 1 liter
of water) can be applied to boost up the growth of seedling
• Seedlings are susceptible to insects or pests. Daily inspection of pests is needed
and manual removal of insect larvae is recommended at early infestation stage
• Melathion (Melathion 57 EC) at the rate of 0.1% solution or Diazinon (Diazinon
60 E) at the rate of 0.05% solution performs better in controlling the pests
• Polybags are rearranged at 30 to 60 days interval to prevent growth of roots outside the
polybags
 37

Seedling selection for planting

• About ten month old seedlings are suitable for new plantation with a height of 40-50 cm
• 18 -24 months old seedlings are suitable for gap filling
• Seedling should have green leaves, straight stem and profuse roots
• Healthy seedlings with no symptom of disease or insect attack
• Seedling should be hardened for 1 to 2 weeks before planting in the plantation site
• About 100% survival is observed in plantation

Plantation of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza

@ Sanjoy Saha
38

Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir.

Local name: Kakra

Species description and habitat

• This is an evergreen, multi-stemmed shrub or single stemmed tree
• It is an exclusive mangrove species
• It grows up to 30 m in height
• It can tolerate strong saline condition but grows well at the moderate saline areas with full
sunlight
Phenology
• Flowering: October-March
• Fruiting: December-January
• Fruit ripening: June-August

Propagules of Bruguiera sexangula

@ Mahmood Hossain

Use
• Wood is used for fuel wood, charcoal, construction purpose and poles
• Bark is used for tannin
• Roots and leaves have medicinal uses
 39

Geographical distribution
• This species occurs in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam,
Cambodia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia to Papua New Guinea,
Solomon Islands and south to northern Australia and New Caledonia
• In Bangladesh, it occurs in the Sundarbans
Propagule collection
• In maturity, tip of the propagule changes to brown
• One kilogram contains 70-80 propagules
• Mature propagules are collected by looping the twigs or plucked from the trees or
from the forest floor

Propagule storage
• Propagules can be stored under shade up to 30 days with watering
• Longer storage time reduces the viability and ultimately affects the sprouting
success
Propagule sorting and treatment
• Sort the intact mature, healthy and free of insect infested propagules
• No treatments are required
Seedling production in polybags
• The sorted propagules are sown in soil filled polybags (25 cm × 15 cm)
• One-third of the propagule body is embedded at upright position (Figure 10)
• Germination is viviparous
• Sprouting initiates within 2 weeks and almost 100% sprouting is observed within
5 weeks
• One bed (1.2 m × 12 m) can accomodate 600-700 polybag seedlings

Figure 10: Propagule, method of sowing and germination of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza

Plate : Polybag seedlings of Bruguiera sexangula

40

Nursery management
• Shade can be applied at the early stage of germination and seedling growth
• Regular watering is important for survival and healthy growth of seedlings
• Weekly weeding is needed
• Breaking the thin hard layer of soil at the top side of polybags enhance the aeration
capacity
• Foliar spray of liquid fertilizer (3-4 g of N, P and K at a proportion of 2:2:1 in 1 liter
of water) can be applied to boost up the growth of seedling
• Daily inspection of pests is needed and manual removal of insect larvae is
recommended at lower infestation stage
• Melathion (Melathion 57 EC) at the rate of 0.1% solution or Diazinon (Diazinon
60 E) at the rate of 0.05% solution performs better in controlling the pests
• Polybags are rearranged at 30 to 60 days interval to prevent growth of roots outside the
polybags
Seedling selection for planting
• About ten month old seedlings are suitable for new plantation with a height
of 25-40 cm
• 18 -24 months old seedlings are suitable for gap filling
• Seedling should have green leaves, straight stem and profuse roots
• Healthy seedlings with no symptom of disease or insect attack
• Seedling should be hardened for 2 to 3 weeks before planting in the field
• About 100% survival is observed in plantation

Polybag seedlings of Bruguiera sexangula

@ Mahmood Hossain
 41

Cerbera manghas L.
Local name: Dakur

Species description and habitat

• This is an evergreen to semi-evergreen, fast growing small to medium sized tree
• It is a mangrove associate species
• It grows up to 15 m in height
• It is less salt tolerant species and grows well in full sunlight condition
Phenology
• Flowering: June-November
• Fruiting: July-March
• Fruit ripening: May-July

Flowers and fruits of Cerbera manghas

@ Mahmood Hossain
42

Use
• Wood is used for mouldings, veneer, matchsticks, shuttering and carving
• Seed oil is used as fish poison and can be burnt in lamps
• Plant parts have medicinal uses
• Avenue plantation and ornamental purpose in the parks, gardens and coastal areas

Geographical distribution
• It is widely distributed from the islands of the Indian Ocean to tropical Asia,
tropical Africa, tropical Australia and the islands of the Pacific Ocean
• In Bangladesh, it occurs in the Sundarbans and all along the coastal districts

Fruit collection
• It is one seeded fruit
• Mature fruits are yellowish green in colour
• One kilogram contains 8-10 fruits
• Ripen fruits are collected by looping the twigs or plucked from the trees or from
forest floor

Fruit storage
• Fruits can be stored under shade up to 30 days with watering
• Longer storage time reduces the viability and ultimately affects the germination
success

Fruit sorting and treatment

• Sort the intact, mature, healthy and free of insect infested fruits
• The sorted fruits are heaped and covered by gunny sacks in moderate shade
condition
• Water spraying is done on the covered gunny sacks to make it wet for about 20
days to allow the break of mesocarp

Seedling production in polybags

• The pretreated fruits are sown in soil filled polybags (30 cm × 25 cm)
• Almost two-third of the fruit body is embedded in the polybag (Figure
11)
• It can be propagated by stem cutting
• It shows hypogeal germination
• Germination initiated within 1 week and ends within 5 weeks
• Germination success is about 90%
• One bed (1.2 m × 12 m) can produce 250-300 polybag seedlings
 43

Figure 11: Fruit/seed, method of sowing and germination of Cerbera manghas

Nursery management
• Shade can be applied at the early stage of germination
• Initial growth of seedlings is quite fast
• Regular watering is important during dry season
• Weekly weeding is needed
• Aeration capacity can be increased by breaking the thin hard layer of soil at the top side
of polybags
• Foliar spray of liquid fertilizer can be applied to boost up the growth of seedling
• It requires regular inspection on the incidence of disease and insect attack
• Melathion (Melathion 57 EC) at the rate of 0.1% solution or Diazinon (Diazinon
60 E) at the rate of 0.05% solution performs better in controlling the large scale
infestation by pest
• Polybags are rearranged at 30 days interval to prevent growth of roots outside the
bags
44

Seedling sellection for planting

• About ten month old seedlings are suitable for new plantation with a height of
70-80 cm
• 18 -24 months old seedlings are suitable for gap filling
• Seedling should have green leaves, straight stem and profuse roots
• Healthy seedlings with no symptom of disease or insect attack
• Seedling should be hardened for 2 to 3 weeks before planting in the field
• About 90% survival is observed in plantation

Seedlings of Cerbera manghas

@ Sanjoy Saha
 45

Ceriops decandra (Griff.) Ding Hou

Local name: Goran
Species description and habitat
• This is an evergreen, medium-sized, slow growing perennial single to multi-stemmed
shrub
• It is an exclusive mangrove species
• It grows up to 4 m in height
• It can tolerate strong saline condition and can grow well in areas with infrequent tidal
inundation
• It grows well in moderate shade to full sunlight
Phenology
• Flowering: March-May
• Fruiting: April-July
• Fruit ripening: May-July

Propagules of Ceriops decandra

@ Mahmood Hossain
46

Use
• Stems are used for posts, poles, fencing, tools, fuelwood
• Flowers are good source of honey
• Bark is used for dye and tannin production
• Different parts have medicinal values

Geographical distribution
• This species has restricted distribution in Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Andaman
and Nicobar Island and Thailand
• In Bangladesh, it occurs in the Sundarbans and coastal areas of Cox’s Bazar,
Barisal, Barguna and Chattogram dristricts

Propagule collection
• In maturity, tip of the propagule changes to brownish green
• One kilogram contains 150-200 propagules
• Mature propagules are collected by looping the twigs or plucked from the plants or
from the forest floor

Propagule storage
• Propagules can be stored under shade up to 30 days with watering
• Longer storage time reduces the viability and ultimately affects the sprouting rate

Propagule sorting and treatment

• Sort the intact, mature, healthy and free of insect infested propagules
• No treatments are required

Seedling production in polybags

• The sorted propaguels are sown in soil filled polybags (25 cm × 15 cm)
• One-third of the propagule body is embedded at upright position (Figure 12)
• Germination is viviparous
• Sprouting initiates within 1 week and ends within 5 weeks
• Sprouting success is about 95%
• One bed (1.2 m × 12 m) can accomodate 600-700 polybag seedlings
 47

Figure 12: Propagule, method of sowing and germination of Ceriops decandra

Nursery management
• Shade can be applied at the early stage of germination and seedling growth
• Regular watering is important
• Weekly weeding is needed
• Aeration capacity can be increased by breaking the thin hard layer of soil at the top
side of polybags without damaging the roots
• Foliar spray of liquid fertilizer (3-4 g of N, P and K at a proportion of 2:2:1 in 1
liter of water) can be applied to boost up the growth of seedling
• Seedlings are susceptible to insect attack, and it requires daily inspection
• Melathion (Melathion 57 EC) at the rate of 0.1% solution or Diazinon (Diazinon
60 E) at the rate of 0.05% solution performs better in controlling the pest
• Polybags are rearranged at 60 days interval to prevent growth of roots outside the
polybags
48

Polybag seedlings of Ceriops decandra

@ Mahmood Hossain

Seedling selection for planting

• About ten month old seedlings are suitable for new plantation with a height of
25-30 cm
• 18 -24 months old seedlings are suitable for gap filling
• Seedling should have green leaves, straight stem and profuse roots
• Healthy seedlings with no symptom of disease or insect attack
• Seedling should be hardened for 2 to 3 weeks before planting in the field
• About 80-90% survival is observed in plantation

Flowers of Ceriops decandra

@ Mahmood Hossain
 49

Cynometra ramiflora L.
Local name: Singra

Species description and habitat

• This is an evergreen, medium-sized evergreen small tree or shrub
• It is a mangrove associate species
• It grows up to 12 m in height with spreading crown
• It can tolerate less saline environment and found to grow at the landward edge
• It grows well in moderate shade condition as understory

Phenology
• Flowering: February-June
• Fruiting: April-August
• Fruit ripening: July-August

Fruits of Cynometra ramiflora

@ Mahmood Hossain

Use
• Wood is used for fuelwood, posts, light construction and craft making
• Purple dye from wood chips
• Plant parts have medicinal uses
Geographical distribution
• This species is distributed in India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand,
Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines and Cambodia
• In Bangladesg, it occurs in the Sundarbans and Chakaria Sundarbans
50

Fruit collection
• It is kidney shaped one seeded fruit
• Ripen fruits are light brown in colour
• One kilogram contains 150-170 fruits
• Ripen fruits are collected by looping the twigs or plucked from the trees or from the
forest floor
Fruit storage
• Fruits can be stored under shade up to 60 days with watering
• Longer storage time reduces the viability and ultimately affects the germination
success
Fruit sorting and treatment
• Sort the intact, mature, healthy and free of insect infested fruits
• No treatments are required
Seedling production in polybags
• The sorted fruits are sown in soil filled polybags (25 cm × 15 cm)
• Almost half of the fruit body is embedded horizontally (Figure 13)
• Germination is epigeal type
• Germination initiates within 1 week and
ends within 8 weeks
• Germination success is about 80%
• One bed (1.2 m × 12 m) can produce 600-700
polybag seedlings

Figure 13: Fruit/ seed, method of sowing and germination of Cynometra ramiflora
 51

Nursery management
• Shade can be applied at the early stage of germination and seedling growth
• Regular watering is important
• Weekly weeding is needed
• Aeration capacity can be increased by breaking the thin hard layer of soil at the top
side of polybags using a pointed stick
• Foliar spray of liquid fertilizer can be applied to boost up the growth of seedling
• Seedlings are susceptible to insect attack, hence it requires daily inspection
• Melathion (Melathion 57 EC) at the rate of 0.1% solution or Diazinon (Diazinon
60 E) at the rate of 0.05% solution performs better in controlling the pests
• Polybags are needed to rearrange at 30 to 60 days interval to prevent growth of
roots outside the polybags

Seedling selection for planting

• About ten month old seedlings are suitable for new plantation with a height of
40-50 cm
• 18 -24 months old seedlings are suitable for gap filling
• Seedling should have green leaves, straight stem and profuse roots
• Healthy seedlings with no symptom of disease or insect attack
• Seedling should be hardened for 2 to 3 weeks before planting in the field
• About 70-90% survival is observed in plantation

Polybag seedlings of Cynometra ramiflora

@ ICBAAR/UNDP
52

Excoecaria agallocha L.
Local name: Gewa

Species description and habitat

• This is a deciduous much branched small to medium-sized tree
• It is an exclusive mangrove species
• It grows up to 15 m in height
• It grows well at non-saline to moderate saline areas with
moderate shade to full sunlight condition
Phenology
• Flowering: April-July
• Fruiting: May-September
• Fruit ripening: July-September

Fruits of Excoecaria agallocha

@ Mahmood Hossain

Use
• Wood is used for fuelwood, matchsticks, carving, pulp and aromatic wood
• Plant parts have medicinal usages
• Latex is used as fish poison
 53

Geographical distribution
• This species is distributed in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka to throughout the Southeast
Asia, Southern China, Taiwan, Southern Japan, Australia and the West Pacific
• In Bangladesh, it occurs in the Sundarbans and all along the coastal districts

Fruit collection
• It is 2-3 seeded fruit
• Mature fruits are brown in colour
• Mature fruits are naturally burst out and dispersed the seeds
• One kilogram contains 2500 fruits and 4000 seeds
• Ripen fruits are collected by looping the twigs or plucked from the trees

Fruit storage
• Fruits can be stored under shade up to 30 days with watering
• Longer storage time reduces the viability and ultimately affects the germination rate

Fruit sorting and treatment

• Sort the intact, mature, healthy and free of insect infested fruits
• No treatments are required

Seedling production in polybags

• The sorted seeds are sown in soil filled polybags (15 cm × 10 cm)
• Almost half of the seed body is embedded (Figure 14)
• Germination is epigeal type
• Germination initiated within 1 week and ends within 3 weeks
• Germination success is about 75%
• One fruit is used for each polybag to overcome the lower germination success or
seed germination can be conducted in germination bed through seed broadcasting,
and seedlings having two leaves are transferred to the polybags
• One bed (1.2 m × 12 m) can produce 1400-1500 polybag seedlings

Figure 14: Fruit/ seed, method of sowing and germination of Excoecaria agallocha
54

Nursery management
• Shade can be applied at the early stage of germination and seedling growth
• Regular watering is important
• Weekly weeding is needed
• Weaker seedling should be removed from the polybags having more than one
seedling
• Aeration capacity can be increased by breaking the thin hard layer of soil at the top side of
polybags
• Foliar spray of liquid fertilizer can be applied to boost up the growth of seedling
• Polybags are rearranged at 30 to 60 days interval to prevent growth of roots outside the
bags

Polybag seedlings of Excoecaria agallocha

@ Mahmood Hossain
 55

Seedling selection for planting

• About ten month old seedlings are suitable for new plantation with a height of
40-70 cm
• 18 -24 months old seedlings are suitable for gap filling
• Seedling should have green leaves, straight stem and profuse roots
• Healthy seedlings with no symptom of disease or insect attack
• Seedling should be hardened for 2 to 3 weeks before planting in the field
• About 95% survival is observed in plantation

Enrichment plantation of Excoecaria agallocha

@ ICBAAR/UNDP
56

Heritiera fomes Buch. Ham.

Local name: Sundri

Species description and habitat

• This is an evergreen large sized tree
• It is a mangrove associate species
• It grows up to 25 m in height
• It can tolerate moderate saline condition but grows well less-saline and in well-drained
areas
• It is shade bearer at the early growing stages (seedling and sapling)
Phenology
• Flowering: April-June
• Fruiting: May-July
• Fruit ripening: July-August

Use
• Wood is used for fuelwood, furniture,
post piling and house and bridge
construction
• Bark is used for tannin and dye
• Plant parts have medicinal uses Fruits of Herittera fomes
@ Mahmood Hossain
Geographical distribution
• This species is restricted in India (West Bengal and Orissa), Bangladesh,
Myanmar, Thailand and northern Malaysia
• In Bangladesh, it occurs in the Sundarbans and Chakaria Sundarbans
Fruit collection
• It is one seeded fruit
• Mature fruits are dark brown in colour
• One kilogram contains 75-100 fruits
• Ripen fruits are collected by looping the twigs or plucked from the trees
Fruit storage
• Fruits can be stored under shade up to 30 days with watering
• Longer storage time reduces the viability and ultimately affects the germination
success (3-4 weeks time storage loss 60% of the viability)
Fruit sorting and treatment
• Sort the intact, mature, healthy and free of insect infested fruits
• No treatments are required
 57

Flowers of Heritiera fomes

@ Mahmood Hossain
58

Seedling production in polybags

• The sorted seeds are sown in soil filled polybags (25 cm × 15 cm)
• Almost half of the seed body is embedded (Figure 15)
• Germination is hypogeal type
• Germination initiated within 1 week and ends within 7 weeks
• Germination success is about 70-80%
• One bed (1.2 m × 12 m) can produce 600-700
polybag seedlings

Figure 15: Fruit/ seed, method of sowing and

germination of Heritiera fomes

Nursery management
• Shade can be applied at the early stage of germination and seedling growth
• Initial growth of seedlings is quite high
• Regular watering is important
• Weekly weeding is needed
• Aeration capacity can be increased by breaking the thin hard layer of soil at the
top side of polybags
• Foliar spray of liquid fertilizer can be applied to boost up the growth of seedling
• It requires daily inspection on the incidence of disease and insect attack
• Melathion (Melathion 57 EC) at the rate of 0.1% solution or Diazinon (Diazinon 60 E)
at the rate of 0.05% solution performs better in controlling the large-scale infestation
by pest
• Polybags are rearranged at 30 to 60 days interval to prevent growth of roots outside
the bags
 59

Polybag seedlings of Heritiera fomes

@ Sanjoy Saha

Seedling selection for planting

• About ten month old seedlings are suitable for new plantation with a height of
60-70 cm
• 18 -24 months old seedlings are suitable for gap filling
• Seedling should have green leaves, straight stem and profuse roots
• Healthy seedlings with no symptom of disease or insect attack
• Seedling should be hardened for 2 to 3 weeks before planting in the field
• About 90% survival is observed in plantation

Enrichment plantation of Heritiera fomes

@ Amit Kumar/UNDP
60

Kandelia candel (L.) Druce

Local name: Vatkathi, Goria, Rohini

Species description and habitat

• This is an evergreen small tree or shrub
• It is an exclusive mangrove species
• It grows up to 6 m in height
• It can tolerate strong saline condition, full sunlight and moderate shade
• It grows on muddy banks of tidal rivers and canals with moderate saline areas
• It grows on variety of soil types with frequent tidal flooding in full sunlight condition
Phenology
• Flowering: September-March
• Fruiting: December-July
• Fruit ripening: March-August

Use
• Wood is used for fuel wood and poles
• Leaves can be used as fodder and green manure
• Bark is used for dye
• Leaves have medicinal values

Geographical distribution
• This species occurs in India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia,
Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Japan
• in Bangladesh, it occurs in the Sundarbans and Chakaria Sundarbans
Propagule collection
• Mature propagules are purple brown in colour
• One kilogram contains 15-20 propagules
• Mature propagules are collected by looping the twigs or plucked from the trees or
from the forest floor
Propagule storage
• Propagules can be stored under shade up to 30 days with watering
• Longer storage time reduces the viability and ultimately affects the sprouting success
Propagule sorting and treatment
• Sort the intact mature, healthy and free of insect infested propagules
• No treatments are required
 61

Flowers and propagules of Kandelia candel

@ Mahmood Hossain
62

Seedling production in polybags

• The sorted propagules are sown in soil filled polybags (30 cm × 25 cm)
• One-third of the propagule body is embedded at upright position (Figure 16)
• This species shows viviparous germination
• Sprouting initiates within 1 weeks and almost 100% sprouting is observed within 3 weeks
• One bed (1.2 m × 12 m) can produce 250-300 polybag seedlings

Figure 16: Propagule, method of sowing and germination of Kandelia candel

 63

Nursery management
• Shade can be applied at the early stage of germination and seedling growth
• Regular watering is important for dry season
• Weekly weeding is needed
• Breaking the thin hard layer of soil at the top side of polybags enhance the aeration
capacity
• Foliar spray of liquid fertilizer (3-4 g of N, P and K at a proportion of 2:2:1 in 1
liter of water) can be applied to boost up the growth of seedling
• Daily inspection of pests is needed and manual removal of insect larvae is
recommended at lower infestation stage
• Melathion (Melathion 57 EC) at the rate of 0.1% solution or Diazinon (Diazinon
60 E) at the rate of 0.05% solution performs better in controlling the pests
• Polybags are rearranged at 30 days interval to prevent growth of roots outside the
polybags

Polybag seedlings of Kandelia candel

@ Sanjoy Saha

Seedling selection for planting

• About ten month old seedlings are suitable for new plantation with a height of
80-90 cm
• Seedling should have green leaves, straight stem and profuse roots
• Healthy seedlings with no symptom of disease or insect attack
• Seedling should be hardened for 2 to 3 weeks before planting in the field
• Almost 100% survival is observed in plantation
64

Lumnitzera racemosa Willd.

Local name: Kirpa

Species description and habitat

• This is an evergreen medium sized shrub to small sized tree
• It is an exclusive mangrove species
• It grows up to 10 m in height
• It can tolerate high saline condition
• It grows well on elevated areas with full sunlight
Phenology
• Flowering: January-March
• Fruiting: March-June
• Fruit ripening: August-September

Fruits of Lumnitzera racemosa

@ Mahmood Hossain

Use
• Wood is used for fuel wood and charcoal production
• Stems are used for house post, bridge and boat building; pole, pilling and fencing
• Bark is used for tanning extraction
• Ornamental and soil stabilization for slope, embankment and riverbank
 65

Geographical distribution
• This species occurs in Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Myanmar,
Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei
Darussalam, the Philippines, Taiwan, Papua New Guinea, China, Australia,
Japan, Kenya, Madagascar, Somalia, Tanzania, and South Africa
• In Bangladesh, it occurs in the Sundarbans and Chakaria Sundarbans

Fruit collection
• It is one seeded fruit
• Mature fruits are blackish brown in colour
• One kilogram contains 8000 -10000 fruits
• Ripen fruits are collected by looping the twigs or plucked from the trees

Fruit storage
• Fruits can be stored under shade up to 15 days with watering
• The fruits are sun dried to harvest the seeds and stored in shady place up to 15 days
• Longer storage time reduces the viability and ultimately affects the germination success

Fruit sorting and treatment

• Select the intact, mature, healthy and free of insect infested fruits
• The seeds are soaked in clean water for 24 hours
• The soaked seeds are then incubated for three days
• The sprouted seeds are transferred to polybags

Seedling production in polybags

• Germination is hypogeal type
• Seed germination success in polybags is only 20%
• Therefore, the sprouted seeds are sown in soil-filled polybags
(15 cm × 10 cm) (Figure 17)

Figure 17: Seed/fruit, method of sowing and germination of Lumnitzera racemosa

66

Nursery management
• Shade can be applied at the early stage of seed germination
• Regular watering is important
• Weekly weeding is needed
• Aeration capacity can be increased by breaking the thin hard layer of soil at the top side of
polybags
• Early growth of seedling is slow
• Foliar spray of liquid fertilizer (3-4 g of N, P and K at a proportion of 2:2:1 in 1 liter
of water) can be applied to boost up the growth of seedling
• Melathion (Melathion 57 EC) at the rate of 0.1% solution or Diazinon (Diazinon 60 E) at
the rate of 0.05% solution performs better in controlling the large-scale infestation by pests
• Polybags are rearranged at 30 to 60 days interval to prevent growth of roots outside
the bags

Seedling selection for planting

• About ten month old seedlings are suitable for new plantation with a height of
40-60 cm
• 18 -24 months old seedlings are suitable for gap filling
• Seedling should have green leaves, straight stem and profuse roots
• Healthy seedlings with no symptom of disease or insect attack
• Seedling should be hardened for 2 to 3 weeks before planting in the field
• About 80% survival is observed in plantation

Plantation of Lumnitzera racemosa

@ Mahmood Hossain
 67

Nypa fruticans Wurmb

Local name: Golpata

Species description and habitat

• This is an evergreen, fast growing, clumping stemless palm
• It is an exclusive mangrove species
• It grows up to 9 m in height
• It prefers low saline silt rich soft mud with regular inflow of freshwater and slow-moving
tidal water
• It can tolerate moderate saline condition and grows well in full sunlight condition

Fruits of Nypa fruticans

@ Mahmood Hossain

Phenology
• Flowering: April-June
• Fruiting: May-September
• Fruit ripening: February-April
68

Use
• Old leaves are used for thatching material
• Young leaves are used as cigarette-wrappers
• Midribs are used for making brooms
• Young seeds are edible
• Sap is a good source of alcohol, sugar and vinegar

Geographical distribution
• This species is widely distributed in Bangladesh, Myanmar, Malaysia, India, Sri
Lanka, China, Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, the Philippines, Papua New
Guiney, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Solomon Islands and Australia
• In Bangladesh, it occurs in the Sundarbans, Chakaria Sundarbans and all along the
coastal areas

Fruit collection
• It is one seeded fibrous nut
• Ripen fruits are dark brown in colour
• A fruit bunch contains 50-120 seeds
• One kilogram contains 10-12 seeds
• Ripen fruits are collected by cutting the fruit bunch

Fruit storage
• Fruits can be stored under shade up to 60 days with watering
• Longer storage time reduces the viability and ultimately affects the germination
success

Fruit sorting and treatment

• Fruit bunches are stored for 3-4 days
• Gentle shaking of the stored fruit bunches helps to detached fruits
• Each bunch contain about 5-15% of undeveloped fruits.
• Discard the undeveloped fruits and sort the intact, mature, healthy and free of
insect infestation fruits
 69

Seedling production in polybags

• The sorted seeds are sown in soil filled polybags (30 cm × 25 cm)
• Almost half of the seed body is embedded horizontally (Figure 18)
• It shows crypto-viviparous germination
• Germination initiates within 1 week and ends within 4 weeks
• Germination success is about 95%
• One bed (1.2 m × 12 m) can produce 250-300 polybag seedlings

Seedling production in nursery bed

• Seeds are dibbled in nursery beds
• The beds are watered regularly for two months for better germination.
• The seedlings are uprooted with care
• The seeds are stored in ditches
• The ditches are flowed by brackish water periodically. The seedlings
are transferred to the planting site after two months
• Profuse growth of roots is observed for both the cases. Therefore,
seedlings are raising on beds that contain thick polythene sheet at the
bottom to restrict the penetration of root into deep of soil

Figure 18: Seed/fruit, method of sowing and germination of Nypa fruticans

70

Nursery management for polybag seedling

• Shade can be applied at the early stage of germination and seedling growth
• Regular watering is important
• Weekly weeding is needed
• Aeration capacity can be increased by breaking the thin hard layer of soil at the top side of
polybags
• Foliar spray of liquid fertilizer can be applied to boost up the growth of seedling
• Polybags are rearranged at 30 days interval to prevent growth of roots outside the bags

Seedling selection for planting

• About three month old seedlings are suitable for new plantation with a height of 80-90 cm
• One year old seedlings are suitable for gap filling
• Seedling should have green leaves and profuse roots
• Healthy seedlings with no symptom of disease or insect attack
• Seedling should be hardened for 2 to 3 weeks before planting in the field
• About 75-90% survival is observed in plantation

Nursury of Nypa fruticans, ICBAAR/UNDP

@ Emdadul Islam Bitu/UNDP
 71

Phoenix paludosa Roxb.

Local Name: Hatal

Species description and habitat

• This is an evergreen, perennial, clustering palm with slender and unbranched stem
• It is a mangrove associate species
• It grows up to 5 m in height
• It can tolerate moderate saline condition and grows well in moderate to full
sunlight
• It prefers slightly raised areas with infrequent tidal inundation
Phenology
• Flowering: March-May
• Fruiting: April-August
• Fruit ripening: July-August

Fruits of Phoenix paludosa

@ Mahmood Hossain

Use
• Leaves are used for making mats, ropes and thatching materials
• Stems are used to build cottages, poles and fuel wood
• Pith of the stem is edible
Geographical distribution
• It occurs in Bangladesh, India, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Myanmar, Thailand,
Cambodia, Malaysia, Indonesia
• In Bangladesh, it occurs in the Sundarbans, Chakaria Sundarbans and some coastal districts
72

Phoenix paludosa
@ Mahmood Hossain
73

Fruit collection
• It is one seeded fruit
• Ripen fruits are brown in colour
• One kilogram contains 1200-1500 seeds
• Ripen fruits are collected by cutting the fruit bunch

Fruit storage
• Fruits can be stored under shade up to 60 days with watering
• Longer storage time reduces the viability and ultimately affects the germination
success
Fruit sorting and treatment
• Fruit bunches are heaped for 4-5 days with watering to promote decay of mesocarp
• Gentle shaking of the heaped fruit bunches helps to detached fruits
• Wash the fruits to separate the seeds
• Sort the mature and healthy seeds
• Seeds are air-dried
Seedling production in polybags
• The sorted seeds are sown in soil filled polybags (25 cm × 15 cm)
• Seeds are completely embedded horizontally (Figure 19)
• Germination is hypogeal type
• Germination initiated within 10 week and ends within 20 weeks
• Germination success is about 80-90%
• One bed (1.2 m × 12 m) can produce 600-700 polybag seedlings

Figure 19: Seed/fruit, method of sowing and germination of Phoenix paludosa

74

Seedlings of Phoenix paludosa

@ Mahmood Hossain

Nursery management
• Shade can be applied at the early stage of germination and seedling growth
• Regular watering is important
• Weekly weeding is needed
• Aeration capacity can be increased by breaking the thin hard layer of soil at the top side of
polybags
• Foliar spray of liquid fertilizer can be applied to boost up the growth of seedling
• It requires regular inspection of the incidence of disease and insect attack
• Polybags are rearranged at 30 days interval to prevent growth of roots outside the bags

Seedling selection for planting

• About ten month old seedlings are suitable for new plantation with a height of
30-35 cm
• Seedling should have green leaves and profuse roots
• Healthy seedlings with no symptom of disease or insect attack
• Seedling should be hardened for 2 to 3 weeks before planting in the field
• About 90-100% survival is observed in plantation
 75

Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre

Local name: Karanj, Shita-shara

Species description and habitat

• This is a semi-deciduous, fast growing medium to large sized tree
• It is a mangrove associate species
• It grows up to 15 m in height
• It can grow in full shade, moderate shade and full sunlight
• It can tolerate less to moderate saline and water logging condition

Phenology
• Flowering: April-June
• Fruiting: March-August
• Fruit ripening: August-September

Fruits of Pongamia pinnata

@ Mahmood Hossain
76

Use
• Green leaves and flowers are used as green manure
• Wood is used for fuelwood and tool making
• Seed oil is used for making soap, lamp oil and lubricants and also for tanning
• Ornamental and soil stabilization for slope, embankment and riverbank
• Plant parts have medicinal uses

Geographical distribution
• This species is distributed in Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Nepal and Thailand but
presently found to occur in Australia, China, Egypt, Fiji, Indonesia, Japan,
Malaysia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Solomon
Island, Sri Lanka and Sudan
• In Bangladesh, it occurs in the Sundarbans, Chakaria Sundarbans and all coastal
areas of the country. It is also found in the fresh water swamp forest.

Fruit collection
• It is one seeded fruit
• Ripen fruits are greenish brown in colour
• One kilogram contains 1100-1200 seeds
• Ripen fruits are collected by looping the twigs or plucked from the trees or from forest floor

Fruit storage
• Fruits are dried in sun
• Seeds are extracted by thrashing the fruits
• Seeds remain viable for about a year when stored with the fruit shell in
air-tight containers at 5 °C

Fruit sorting and treatment

• Sort the intact mature, healthy and free of insect infested fruits
• Soaking of seeds in cold water for 24 hours or hot water for 15 minutes may result
higher germination success
 77

Seedling production in polybags

• The sorted seeds are sown in soil filled polybags (25 cm × 15 cm)
• Seeds are embedded horizontally (Figure 20)
• Germination is hypogeal type
• Germination initiates within 1 week and ends within 4 weeks
• Germination success is about 75-85% (Nasrin et al., 2016)
• One bed (1.2 m × 12 m) can produce 600-700 polybag seedlings

Nursery management
• Shade can be applied at the early stage of germination
• Initial growth of seedlings is quite high
• Regular watering is important
• Weekly weeding is needed

Figure 20: Seed/fruit, method of sowing and germination of Pongamia pinnata

78

• Aeration capacity can be increased by breaking the thin hard layer of soil at the top
side of polybags
• Foliar spray of liquid fertilizer can be applied to boost up the growth of seedling
• It requires daily inspection of seedling health or incidence of disease and insect
attack
• Melathion (Melathion 57 EC) at the rate of 0.1% solution or Diazinon (Diazinon 60
E) at the rate of 0.05% solution performs better in controlling the large-scale
infestation by pest
• Polybags are rearranged at 30 to 60 days interval to prevent growth of
roots outside the bags

Polybag seedlings of Pongamia pinnata

@ Shamima Nasrin

Seedling selection for planting

• About ten month old seedlings are suitable for plantation and it attains a height of
50-60 cm
• Seedling should have green leaves, straight stem and profuse roots
• Healthy seedlings with no symptom of disease or insect attack
• Seedling should be hardened for 2 to 3 weeks before planting in the field
• About 90% survival is observed in plantation
 79

Rhizophora mucronata Lamk.

Local name: Jhanna, Garjan

Species description and habitat

• This is an evergreen medium to large tree with pyramidal crown
• It is an exclusive mangrove species
• It grows up to 25 m in height
• It can tolerate strong saline condition
• It grows on variety of soil types with frequent tidal flooding in full sunlight condition

Phenology
• Flowering: February-April
• Fruiting: March-August
• Fruit ripening: August-September

Use
• Wood is used for fuel wood, charcoal, house
buildings, poles, piling, pulp and rayon
• Bark and leaves are used for tanning and dye
• Tea substitute can be produced from young leaves
• Fruits and young shoot can be consumed as
vegetable
• Plant parts have medicinal uses

Geographical distribution
• This species is found to distribute in Madagascar,
Kenya, Mozambique, Somalia, Tanzania, India, Sri
Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Myanmar, Thailand,
Malaysia, Indonesia, Cambodia, Vietnam, Papua
New Guinea, the Philippines, Singapore, Solomon
Propagules of Rhizophora mucronata
Islands, Japan, Taiwan and Australia @ Mahmood Hossain
• In Bangladesh, it occurs in the Sundarbans and
Chakaria Sundarbans

Propagule collection
• Mature propagules are purple brown in colour
• One kilogram contains 12-15 propagules
• Mature propagules are collected by looping the twigs or plucked from the trees or
from the forest floor or from water
 80

Propagule storage
• Propagules can be stored under shade up to 30 days with watering
• Longer storage time reduces the viability and ultimately affects the sprouting success
Propagule sorting and treatment
• Sort the intact mature, healthy and free of insect infested propagules
• No treatments are required

Seedling production in polybags

• The sorted propagules are sown in soil filled polybags (30 cm × 25 cm)
• One-third of the propagule body is embedded
at upright position (Figure 21)
• This species shows viviparous germination
• Sprouting initiates within 1 weeks and almost
100% sprouting is observed within 2 weeks
• One bed (1.2 m × 12 m) can produce
250-300 polybag seedlings

Figure 21: Propagule, method of sowing and germination of Rhizophora mucronata

 81

Nursery management
• Shade can be applied at the early stage of germination and seedling growth
• Regular watering is important for dry season
• Weeding is needed whenever necessary
• Breaking the thin hard layer of soil at the top side of polybags enhances the
aeration capacity
• Foliar spray of liquid fertilizer (3-4 g of N, P and K at a proportion of 2:2:1 in 1
liter of water) can be applied to boost up the growth of seedling
• Daily inspection of pests is needed and manual removal of insect larvae is
recommended at early infestation stage
• Melathion (Melathion 57 EC) at the rate of 0.1% solution or Diazinon (Diazinon
60 E) at the rate of 0.05% solution performs better in controlling the pests
• Polybags are rearranged at 30 days interval to prevent growth of roots outside the
polybags

Seedling selection for planting

• About ten month old seedlings are suitable for new plantation with a height of
100-125 cm
• Seedling should have green leaves, straight stem and profuse roots
• Healthy seedlings with no symptom of disease or insect attack
• Seedling should be hardened for 2 to 3 weeks before planting in the field
• Almost 100% survival is observed in plantation

Polybag seedlings of Rhizophora mucronata

@ Sanjoy Saha
82

Sonneratia apetala Buch. Ham.

Local name: Keora

Species description and habitat

• This is an evergreen, fast growing, pioneer and medium to large tree
• It is an exclusive mangrove species
• It grows up to 20 m in height
• It can tolerate strong saline condition but grows well on the newly accreted sites with
moderate saline condition
• It grows in full sunlight condition

Phenology
• Flowering: April-June
• Fruiting: June-September
• Fruit ripening: August-September
Use
• Wood is used for fuel wood, plank,
matchbox, pulp, poles, bobbins for textile
mills
• Leaves are used as fodder
• Flowers are good source of honey
• Fruits are used as vegetables and pickle
Geographical distribution
• This species is found to be distributed in
southern India, Bangladesh and Myanmar Fruits of Sonneratia apetala
• In Bangladesh, it occurs in the Sundarbans @ Mahmood Hossain
and in all the coast of the country

Fruit collection
• During maturity, light green fruit turns to dark green or light yellowish colour
• One kilogram contains 110-163 fruits and one fruit contains 25-125 seeds (Nasrin
et al., 2020)
• Mature fruits are collected by looping the twigs or plucked from the trees or pruner
can be used to cut the twigs for fruit collection
Fruit storage
• Fruits can be stored under shade up to 30 days with watering
• Seed viability ends within 60 days of storage
 83

Fruit sorting and treatment

• Sort the intact mature, healthy and free of insect infested fruits
• The sorted fruits are heaped and covered by gunny sacks
• Frequently water spraying is done for the heaped fruits for about 20 days to allow
rotting of fleshy mesocarp
• Rub and wash the rotten fruits to separate the seeds
• Sort the mature and healthy seeds using a sieve with a suitable mesh size
• Seeds are air-dried under shade

Seedling production in nursery bed

• Seeds are sown in the nursery beds by broadcasting
• Second time sowing of seeds should be done in case of washing or downward
movement of seeds after the heavy rain
• The seed beds are drained one day before sowing the seeds
• No irrigation is required for 3 to 4 days after sowing the seeds
• Regular watering in needed during dry period
• The seedlings are uprooted with care

Seedling production in polybags

• The sorted air-dried seeds are sown in soil filled polybags
(15 cm × 10 cm)
• Two third of the seed is embedded (Figure 22) or seed
germination can be conducted in germination bed
through seed broadcasting, and seedlings having two
leaves are transferred to the polybags
• It shows epigeal germination
• Germination initiates within 4 days and ends within 7 days
• Germination success is about 75% in the beds or polybags
• One bed (1.2 m × 12 m) can produce 1400-1500
polybag seedlings

Figure 22: Seed, method of sowing and germination of Sonneratia apetala

84

Nursery management
• Shade can be applied at the early stage of germination and seedling growth
• Regular watering is needed during dry season
• Weekly weeding is needed
• Breaking the thin hard layer of soil at the top side of polybags enhances the aeration
capacity
• Foliar spray of liquid fertilizer (3-4 g of N, P and K at a proportion of 2:2:1 in 1 liter
of water) can be applied to boost up the growth of seedling
• Daily inspection of pests is needed and manual removal of insect larvae is
recommended at lower infestation stage
• Melathion (Melathion 57 EC) at the rate of 0.1% solution or Diazinon (Diazinon
60 E) at the rate of 0.05% solution performs better in controlling the pests
• Polybags are rearranged at 30 days interval to prevent growth of roots outside the
polybags
Seedling selection for planting
• About ten month old seedlings are suitable for new plantation with a height of
80-100 cm
• 18 -24 months old seedlings are suitable for gap filling
• Seedling should have green leaves, straight stem and profuse roots
• Healthy seedlings with no symptom of disease or insect attack
• Seedling should be hardened for 2 to 3 weeks before planting in the field
• About 75% survival is observed in plantation

Plantation of Sonneratia apetala

@ Sanjoy Saha
 85

Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engl.

Local name: Ora, Soila

Species description and habitat

• This is an evergreen, fast growing, pioneer and medium to large tree
• It is an exclusive mangrove species
• It grows up to 15 m in height
• It can tolerate strong saline condition but grows well in less saline areas with deep
muddy river or canal bank
• It grows in full sunlight condition

Phenology
• Flowering: June-August
• Fruiting: July-September
• Fruit ripening: October-November

Flowers and fruits of Sonneratia caseolaris

@ Mahmood Hossain
86

Use
• Wood is used for fuel wood, piles, plank, bobbins for textile mills and pulp
• Leaves are used as fodder
• Flowers are good sources of honey
• Fruit juice has medicinal values
• Ripen fruits are eaten as raw or cooked
• Pneumatophores are used as corks and floats

Geographical distribution

• This species is widely distributed in Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia,

China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Sri
Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, Northeast Australia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon
Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia and the Maldives
• In Bangladesh, it occurs in the Sundarbans, Chakaria Sundarbans and other coastal
districts

Fruit collection
• In maturity, light green fruit turns to dark green
• One kilogram contains 10-12 fruits and one fruit contains 500-2500 seeds
• Mature fruits are collected by looping the twigs or plucked from the trees or
pruner can be used to cut the twigs for fruit collection

Fruit storage
• Fruits can be stored under shade up to 30 days with watering
• Longer storage time reduces the viability and ultimately affects the germination
success

Fruit sorting and treatment

• Sort the intact mature, healthy and free of insect infested fruits
• The sorted fruits are heaped and covered by gunny sacks
• Frequently water spraying is done to the heaped fruits for about 20 days to allow
rotting of fleshy mesocarp
• Rub and wash the rotten fruits to separate the seeds
• Sort the mature and healthy seeds using a sieve with a suitable mesh size
• Seeds are air-dried under shade
 87

Seedling production in nursery bed

• Seeds are sown in the nursery beds by broadcasting
• Second time sowing of seeds should be done in case of washing or downward
movement of seeds after the heavy rain
• The seed beds are drained one day before sowing the seeds
• No irrigation is required for 3 to 4 days after sowing the seeds
• Regular watering in needed during dry period
• The seedlings are uprooted with care

Seedling production in polybags

• The sorted seeds are sown in soil filled polybags (15 cm × 10 cm)
• Two-third of the seed body is embedded (Figure 23) or seed germination can be
conducted in germination bed through seed broadcasting, and seedlings having
two leaves are transferred to the polybags
• It shows epigeal germination
• Germination initiates within 4 days and ends within 2 weeks
• Germination success is about 60% in the beds or polybags
• One bed (1.2 m × 12 m) can produce 1400-1500 polybag
seedlings

Figure 23: Seed, method of sowing and germination of Sonneratia caseolaris

88

Nursery management
• Shade can be applied at the early stage of germination and seedling growth
• Regular watering is needed during dry season
• Weekly weeding is needed
• Breaking the thin hard layer of soil at the top side of polybags enhance the aeration capacity
• Foliar spray of liquid fertilizer (3-4 g of N, P and K at a proportion of 2:2:1 in 1
liter of water) can be applied to boost up the growth of seedling
• Daily inspection of pests is needed and manual removal of insect larvae is
recommended at lower infestation stage
• Melathion (Melathion 57 EC) at the rate of 0.1% solution or Diazinon (Diazinon
60 E) at the rate of 0.05% solution performs better in controlling the pests
• Development of initial root system is vigorous
• Polybags are rearranged at 30 days interval to prevent growth of roots outside the
polybags

Seedling selection for planting

• About ten month old seedlings are suitable for new plantation with a height of
70-90 cm
• 18 -24 months old seedlings are suitable for gap filling
• Seedling should have green leaves, straight stem and profuse roots
• Healthy seedlings with no symptom of disease or insect attack
• Seedling should be hardened for 2 to 3 weeks before planting in the field
• About 60-70% survival is observed in plantation

Plantation of Sonneratia caseolaris

@ Mahmood Hossain
 89

Xylocarpus granatum K.D. Koenig

Local Name: Dhundal

Species description and habitat

• This is an evergreen medium to large sized tree
• It is an exclusive mangrove species
• It grows up to 20 m in height
• It can tolerate moderate to strong saline condition
Phenology
• Flowering: March-May and October-December
• Fruiting: May-July and December-February
• Fruit ripening: February-March and July- August
Use
• Wood is used for house and boat
building, furniture, pencil wood and
veneer production
Geographical distribution
• This species is distributed in Africa
and Madagascar towards India, and
Southeast Asia and Australia
• In Bangladesh, it occurs in the
Sundarbans
Fruit collection Seeds of Xylocarpus granatum
• It is 4-6 seeded fruit @ Sanjoy Saha
• Ripen fruits are dark brown in colour
• One kilogram contains 5-8 seeds
• Ripen fruits are collected by climbing
trees
Fruit storage
• Fruits can be stored under shade up to 60 days with watering
• Longer storage time reduces the viability and ultimately affects the germination
success
Fruit sorting and treatment
• Sort the intact, mature, healthy and free of insect infested seeds
• No treatments are required
90

Seedling production in polybags

• The sorted seeds are sown in soil filled polybags (30 cm × 25 cm)
• Two-third of the seed body is embedded (Figure 24)
• Germination initiates within 3 week and ends within 12 weeks
• Germination success is about 60-65%
• One standard bed (1.2 m × 12 m) can produce 250-300 polybag seedlings

Figure 24: Seed, method of sowing and germination of Xylocarpus granatum

 91

Nursery management
• Shade can be applied at the early stage of germination and seedling growth
• Initial growth of seedlings is quite high
• Regular watering is important
• Weekly weeding is needed
• Aeration capacity can be increased by breaking the thin hard layer of soil at the top
side of polybags using a pointed stick
• Foliar spray of liquid fertilizer (3-4 g of N, P and K at a proportion of 2:2:1 in 1 liter
of water) can be applied to boost up the growth of seedling
• Seedlings are susceptible to insect attack, and it requires daily inspection
• Melathion (Melathion 57 EC) at the rate of 0.1% solution or Diazinon (Diazinon 60
E) at the rate of 0.05% solution performs better in controlling the large-scale
infestation by pests
• Polybags are rearranged at 30 to 60 days interval to prevent growth of roots outside
the bags

Seedling selection for planting

• About ten month old seedlings are suitable for plantation with a height of 80-120 cm
• Seedling should have green leaves, straight stem and profuse roots
• Healthy seedlings with no symptom of disease or insect attack
• Seedling should be hardened for 2 to 3 weeks before planting in the field
• About 90% survival is observed in plantation

Polybag seedlings of Xylocarpus granatum

@ Sanjoy Saha
92

Xylocarpus moluccensis (Lam.) M. Roem.

Local name: Passur
Species description and habitat
• This is a deciduous medium to large sized tree
• It is an exclusive mangrove species
• It grows up to 20 m in height
• It can tolerate moderate to strong saline condition
Phenology
• Flowering: March-May
• Fruiting: April-June
• Fruit ripening: June-August
Use
• Wood is used for fuel wood, house building, house post and furniture
Geographical distribution
• This is distributed in Australia, Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar,
the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Kenya
• In Bangladesh, it occurs in the Sundarbans
Fruit collection
• It is 8-10 seeded fruit
• Ripen fruits are dark brown in colour
• One kilogram contains 75-125 seeds
• Ripen fruits are collected by looping the twigs or plucked
from the trees or by climbing

Seeds of Xylocarpus moluccensis

@ Mahmood Hossain
 93

Fruit storage
• Fruits can be stored under shade up to 90 days with watering
• Longer storage time reduces the viability and ultimately affects the germination
success
Fruit sorting and treatment
• Sort the intact, mature, healthy and free of insect infested fruits
• No treatments are required
Seedling production in polybags
• The sorted seeds are sown in soil filled polybags (25 cm × 15 cm)
• Two-thirds of the seed body are embedded (Figure 25)
• Germination initiated within 2 week and ends within 12 weeks
• Germination success is about 75-80%
• One standard bed (1.2 m × 12 m) can produce
600-700 polybag seedlings

Figure 25: Seed, method of sowing and

germination of Xylocarpus moluccensis
94

Nursery management
• Shade can be applied at the early stage of germination and seedling growth
• Initial growth of seedlings is quite high
• Regular watering is important
• Weekly weeding is needed
• Aeration capacity can be increased by breaking the thin hard layer of soil at the top side of
polybags
• Foliar spray of liquid fertilizer (3-4 g of N, P and K at a proportion of 2:2:1 in 1
liter of water) can be applied to boost up the growth of seedling
• Seedlings are susceptible to insect attack, and it requires daily inspection
• Melathion (Melathion 57 EC) at the rate of 0.1% solution or Diazinon (Diazinon 60 E)
at the rate of 0.05% solution performs better in controlling the large scale infestation
by pests
• Polybags are rearranged at 30 to 60 days interval to prevent growth of roots outside
the bags

Polybag seedlings of Xylocarpus moluccensis

@ ICBAAR/UNDP
 95

Seedling selection for planting

• About ten month old seedlings are suitable for plantation with a height of 70-90 cm
• Seedling should have green leaves, straight stem and profuse roots
• Healthy seedlings with no symptom of disease or insect attack
• Seedling should be hardened for 2 to 3 weeks before planting in the field
• About 90% survival is observed in plantation

Plantation of Xylocarpus moluccensis

@ Sanjoy Saha
PLANTATION
OF SEEDLING
The first plantation of mangrove species in the coastal areas of Bangladesh was initiated
during 1966. Since then, we have spent a long time for developing nursery practices,
planting techniques and management of about 20 mangrove species through different
trials and field experiments. Establishment of mangrove plantation on newly accreted
sites are quite challenging due to the physical environment of the planting sites and
selection of site-specific species. Existing coastal afforested sites are poor in species
diversity and mainly dominated by S. apetala, and A. officinalis with less or no natural
regeneration, which is susceptible to sustainable forest cover with second rotation tree
crop. A successful under planting and gap fill with valuable mangrove species may
help to establish mixed or multi-storied coastal forests. However, plantation success
chiefly depends on site selection and site preparation, planting technique, planting time,
monitoring and early management of plantation (Siddiqi, 2001). Here we have tried to
draw some common guidelineson plantation site preparation, planting technique, and
plantation monitoring and management intervention.

Selection of coastal plantation sites

Selection of suitable planting site is important for the success of coastal afforestation.
The sites having the following characteristics are suitable for costal afforestation in
newly accreted coastal char land/mudflat.

• Site with wider ripples

• Presence of tool marks on the sediment surface
• Presence of mud crack
• Evidence of activities of burrowing organism (crustaceans)
• Mud and silt content in the intertidal sediment
• Lower rate of siltation
• Absence or lower rate of sediment winnowing
• Presence of tidal flow with 50% land cover with grass or algae
• The planting sites should get at least 4-6 hours daily exposure to sunlight during
the wet season
 97

Plantation site preparation

• Inspection of planting site is needed to determine the next task

• Dense cover of grass, Acanthus ilicifolius (Hargoza), Acrostichum aureum (Hudu,
Tiger fern) or other unwanted vegetation need to clear from the planting site or
planting points (Figure 26)

Dense cover of Acanthus ilicifolius

@ Mahmood Hossain

Dense cover of Acrostichum aureum

@ Mahmood Hossain
98

• Clear the plastic items, pieces of metal, tree branches, stumpsand all types of
debris from the planting site that carried by tidewater
• Sometimes fence or barriers (cannel) can prevent damage to seedlings from
debris, livestock and human
• Some of the special types of site preparation can be followed in mangrove plantation
o Soil mound: Areas with low elevation and waterlogged
o Excavation of canals/ channels: Areas with low tidal inundation (Figure 27)

Figure 26: Site clearing/ weeding activities in the planting sites

Figure 27: Excavation of canals/ channels in areas with low tidal inundation
 99

o Stage, comp mat and comp pillow: Area with higher chance of winnowing
(Figure 28)
o Staging: Areas with moderate wave and current
• The planting sites are divided into several sections for managing large scale plantation.
• Planting points are fixed using ropes to ensure uniform spacing

Figure 28: Stage, comp mat and comp pillow in area with higher chance of winnowing

Planting technique

• Monsoon season (July-September) is the ideal time for planting

• Planting can also be preferred at the winter season (December-February) in places
with rough wave and high tidal during the monsoon season
• No need to excavate pit into soft mud, simply push the seedling into the mud
• Planting pit excavation is needed for raised hard compact soil
• Remove the polybag before planting
• If seedlings are planted too shallow or too deep into soil may cause higher mortality
of newly planted seedling (Figure 29)
100

Figure 29: Planting of seedling

 101

Plantation of diverse mangrove species under ICBAAR project at Hatiya

@ Amit Kumar/UNDP

Planting of seedlings
• Supporting stick ensures firm attachment of seedling with soil
• Do not trample on the substrate surface after planting seedlings
• If the roots of the seedling are tangled up or wrapped tightly around the root ball,
gently untangle them so that they can hang downward
• Do not plant during the high wind and/or high tides or during cyclone season
• Start planting during low tide at the front zone and move toward the mid and back
zones as the tide comes in
• Direct planting of propagule of B. sexangula, C. decandra, Rhizophora apiculata
and R. mucronata can be done. Success rate is lower than polybag seedlings, but
this method is quite easy and low cost
• Planting spacing varies with species and silvicultural decision in establishing
plantation. Generally, 1 m × 1 m, 1.2 m × 1.2 m, 1.7 m × 1.7 m, 1.75 m × 1.75 m,
2 m × 2 m, 2.4 m × 2.4 m, 3.4 m × 3.4 m spacing are followed for coastal
afforestation or reforestation considering the objectives of the plantation
102

• Several planting patterns can be followed for coastal plantation programme, each
pattern has specific benefits
• Equally spaced from each other in row and column: This is the traditional way of
planting mangroves in areas that are protected from waves and wind (Figure 30)

Figure 30: Planting technique with fixed distance from each other in row and column

• Inverted V planting:This is suitable for sites that facing moderate wave or winds.
Seedlings are planted at a close distance (25 to 50 cm) in V-shaped groups (11
seedlings). The point of the V faces the sea to deflect wave impact. Space among
the groups can be vary from 1 m to 1.5 m (Figure 31)

Figure 31: V-shaped planting technique in the areas with moderate wave or windsenergy
 103

o Cluster planting. This is suitable for sites facing strong waves or winds. Seedlings
are planted at a close distance (25 to 50 cm) in clusters, about 10 seedlings per
cluster. Space among the groups can be 1 m and 1.5 m (Figure 32)

Figure 32: Cluster planting with soil mound in the areas with strong wave and wind energy
PLANTATION
MANAGEMENT
Plantation monitoring
Proper and regular monitoring is a key to success in mangrove plantation. Early stage of
mangrove plantation establishment requires the following monitoring activities:

• Seedling survival rate

• Siltation rate in the planted sites
• Evidence of erosion in and around the planted sites
• Sand smothering
• Winnowing of sediment
• Debris accumulation
• Grazing activities and intensity
• Human interference
• Existence and coverage of unwanted competing vegetation
• Replenishment planting
• Seedling growth monitoring
• Information recording

Plantation management

Successful plantation requires intensive management interventions for first two years
after planting. The level of care to the plantation found to decrease from the third year
onward. Some of the management interventions are listed below:

• Removal of floating green algae from the planting sites, which can harm to newly
planted seedlings
• Removal of encrusting organisms like barnacles and oysters attached with seedling
stem. Remove them by hand do not scrape the stem of seedlings with a bush or
knife (Figure 33)
• Removal of entangled algae and seaweed from the plants
• Remove plastics, pieces of metal, dead or dying trees and other debris
• In case of lower survival of seedlings, gap-fill is needed with larger sized seedling
 105

Figure 33: Removal of encrusting organisms like barnacles and oysters attached with seedling stem

• Expert visits and evaluation of causes of high mortality of seedlings/sapling are

needed
• Arrange some sort of barriers to protect plantation from livestock and harmful
activities of local people. In this aspect, involvement of community people in
management intervention may yield better result
• Thinning of saplings/ trees may be required to reduce completion in densely
planted sites and for the purpose of timber production
• Pruning of unnecessary branches and stems to enhance height and trunk diameter
growth rate. This is recommended for timber production plantations. The
following principle has to follow during pruning activities

o Do not cut more than 30% of the living branches over a 1- to 2-year period
o Over pruning will harm plant growth
o For bigger branches, make a cut underneath the branch and then make a cut on
the top of the branch close to the trunk to avoid bark splitting
o Both thinning and pruning at the age of 5-year and beyond results production of
sustainable fuelwood and construction wood
CONCLUSION
Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable countries (8th position) due to climate change
effects and it is also considered as the landing station of cyclones formed in the
Andaman Sea, Indian ocean and the Bay of Bengal. It was observed that owing to
existence of “The Sundarbans” losses of lives and properties by cyclones, tsunami and
tidal surges are remarkably less in comparison to other open coasts of the country.
Coastal afforestation initiatives were started by the Bangladesh Forest Department in
1966 after a devastating cyclonic storm. Considering the experiences of the
Sundarbans, coastal plantations were raised in the coasts that will serve as a protective
barrier against natural disasters like cyclones. In addition, coastal plantations will also
accelerate accretion and stabilize newly accreted land, increase forest resources,
ameliorate environment and improve the coastal biodiversity. Moreover, the
well-developed mangrove forest can act as bio-shield to mitigate the effect of climate
change consequences.

However, establishment of a successful coastal mangrove plantation involves a series of

activities starting from nursery-raising to plantation monitoring and management. This
manual includes species wise description and their preferred habitats, fruit collection
time, collection methods, germination period, and suggested methods of propagation.
Most of the mangrove species have similar nursery management, and plantation
monitoring and management activities. This accumulated information will be a useful
guide for forest managers, researchers, student, nursery staff and community peoples
for successful development of mangrove nursery and establishment of sustainable
coastal forests in Bangladesh.
REFERENCES
Alam, M.R., Mahmood, H., Khushi, M.L.R., Rahman, M.M. 2017. Adaptive phenotypic
plasticity of Avicennia officinalis L. along the salinity gradient in the Sundarbans
of Bangladesh. Hydrobiologia 808 (1): 163-174
Baksha, M.W. 1996. Beehole borer infestation in coastal plantations in Bangladesh and
possible management options. Wallacena 77: 17-20.
FD. 2019. Coastal Afforestation. http://www.bforest.gov.bd/site/page/2490e1cc-927e-
4272-bbbf-5c95446457fa/-. Accessed on 12 November 2019.
Islam, S.A., Miah, M.A.Q., Habib, M.A., Moula, M.G., Rasul, M.G. 2013. Growth
performance of under planted mangrove species in Sonneratia apetala (Keora)
plantations along the western coastal belt of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Journal of
Forest Science 32 (2): 26-35.
Islam, S.A., Rahman, M.M. 2015. Coastal afforestation in Bangladesh to combat climate
change induces hazards. Journal of Science Technology Environment informatics
2(1): 13-25.
Khan, M.A.S., Rasul, G., Habib, A. 2001. Method of raising mangrove nurseries. In:
Siddiqi NA and Baksha MW (eds.). Mangrove Research and Development.
Bangladesh Forest Research Institute, Chittagong, Bangladesh, pp 17-32
Mahmood, H. 2015. Handbook of selected plant species of the Sundarbans and the
embankment ecosystem. Sustainable Development and Biodiversity
Conservation in Coastal Protection Forests, Bangladesh (SDBC-Sundarbans),
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, Dhaka
Nasrin, S., Mahmood, H., Alam1, R., Abdullah, S.M.R., Saha, S., Siddique, M.R.H.
2016. Germination Traits of Millettia Pinnata (L.) in Response to Salinity.
Global Journal of Botanical Science 4: 46-51
Nasrin, S., Mahmood, H., Siddique, M.R.H., Rahman, M.M. 2020. Adaptive responses to
salinity: seed germination traits of Sonneratia apetala (Buch. -Ham.) along the
salinity gradient in the Sundarbans of Bangladesh, Journal of Tropical Forest
Science
Rashid, M.H.U. 2004. Nursery Techniques for major mangrove species of the
Sundarbans. In: (Faizuddin M and Islam SA (eds.). Proceedings of the training
workshop on Dissemination of research findings of the Sundarbans Mangrove
ecosystem of Bangladesh Mangrove Silviculture Division, Khulna, Bangladesh.
pp 88-104
Siddiqi, N.A. 2001. Mangrove Forestry in Bangladesh. Institute of Forestry and
Environmental Science, University of Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp.
201.
Wikipedia 2019. List of Bangladesh tropical cyclones. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
List_of_Bangladesh_tropical_cyclones. Accessed on 12 November 2019
APPENDIX

Appendix 1: Species wise sowing materials and fruit/seed collection time

Species Local name Type of plant Sowing Seeds/ Seeds/ kg Seed collection time
materials fruit
Aegiceras corniculatum Kholshi Shrub/ small tree Fruit 1 1200-1500 July-August
Aglaia cucullata Amoor Small/ medium tree Seed 1 15-20 June-July
Avicennia officinalis Baen, Kala Bean Small/ medium tree Fruit 1 135-208 August – September
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Lal Kankra Small/ medium tree Propagule 1 50-70 July-August
Bruguiera sexangula Kankra Small/ medium tree Propagule 1 70-80 June- August
Cerbera manghas Dakur Small/ medium tree Fruit 1 8-10 May-July
Ceriops decandra Goran Shrub Propagule 1 150-200 May-July
Cynometra ramiflora Singra Shrub Fruit 1 150-170 July-August
Excoecaria agallocha Gewa Small/ medium tree Seed 2-3 4000 July-August
Heritiera fomes Sundri Large tree Fruit 1 75-100 July-August
Kandelia candel Vatkathi, Rohini Shrub/ small tree Propagule 1 15-20 March-August
Lumnitzera racemosa Kirpa Shrub/ small tree Fruit 1 8000- August-September
10000
Nypa fruticans Golpata Palm Fruit 1 10-12 February- April
Phoenix paludosa Hatal Palm Seed 1 1200-1500 July-August
Pongamia pinnata Karanj, Shita-shara Medium/ large tree Seed 1 1100-1200 August-September
Rhizophora mucronata Jhanna, Garjan Medium/ large tree Propagule 1 12-15 August-September
Sonneratia apetala Keora Medium/ large tree Seed 25-125 22,000 August-September
Sonneratia caseolaris Ora, Soila Medium/ large tree Seed 500- 5000- October-November
2500 30000
Xylocarpa granatum Dhundal Medium/ large tree Seed 5-15 5-8 February- March;
July-August
Xylocarpa moluccensis Passur Medium/ large tree Seed 8-10 75-125 June-August
 109

Appendix 2: Species wise germination behavior and seedling height

Germination behavior Seedling height

Species Local name Initiation Completion Success Type (cm) after 10
(Week) (Week) (%) months
Aegiceras corniculatum Kholshi 3 7 100 Epigeal 30-40
Aglaia cucullata Amoor 1 5 80 Hypogeal 80-90
Avicennia officinalis Baen, Kala Bean 1 2 90 Epigeal 70-90
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Lal Kankra 2 6 100 Viviparous 40-50
Bruguiera sexangula Kankra 2 5 100 Viviparous 25-40
Cerbera manghas Dakur 1 5 90 Hypogeal 70-80
Ceriops decandra Goran 1 5 95 Viviparous 25-30
Cynometra ramiflora Singra 1 8 80 Epigeal 40-50
Excoecaria agallocha Gewa 1 3 75 Epigeal 40-70
Heritiera fomes Sundri 1 7 70-80 Hypogeal 60-70
Kandelia candel Vatkathi, Rohini 1 3 100 Viviparous 80-90
Lumnitzera racemosa Kirpa 1 8 20 Hypogeal 40-60
Nypa fruticans Golpata 1 4 95 Epigeal 80-90 (3 months)
Phoenix paludosa Hatal 10 20 90 Hypogeal 30-35
Pongamia pinnata Karanj, Shita-shara 1 4 75-85 Hypogeal 50-60
Rhizophora mucronata Jhanna, Garjan 1 2 100 Viviparous 100-125
Sonneratia apetala Keora 1 1 75 Epigeal 80-100
Sonneratia caseolaris Ora, Soila 1 2 60 Epigeal 70-90
Xylocarpa granatum Dhundal 3 12 65 Hypogeal 80-120
Xylocarpa moluccensis Passur 2 12 80 Hypogeal 70-90
110

Appendix 3: Types of planting materials and their related success rate

Method of
Afforestation or Name of the species Success rate
Plantation
Direct sowing of seeds Avicennia officinalis (Baen), Excoecaria agallocha (Gewa), Very little
in the field by Heritiera fomes (Sundri), Bruguiera sexangula (Kankra),
broadcasting Ceriops decandra (Goran), Rhizophora mucronata (Garjan,
Jhana)
Direct sowing of seeds Avicennia officinalis (Baen), Excoecaria agallocha (Gewa), Little
in the field by dibbling Heritiera fomes (Sundri), Bruguiera sexangula (Kankra),
Ceriops decandra (Goran), Rhizophora mucronata (Garjan,
Jhana)
Direct sowing of seeds Sonneratia apetala (Keora), S. caseolaries (Soila), Very high for
in the nursery beds by Excoecaria agallocha (Gewa), Heritiera fomes (Sundri), Sonneratia apetala
broadcasting or Bruguiera sexangula (Kankra), Ceriops decandra (Goran), (Keora), S. caseolaries
dibbling for raising Rhizophora mucronata (Garjan, Jhana), Nypa fruticans (Soila) when broadcast
seedlings (Golpata) and moderate for other
species when dibbling
them.

Direct sowing of pre- Avicennia officinalis (Baen), Excoecaria agallocha (Gewa), Medium
treated seeds in the Heritiera fomes (Sundri), Bruguiera sexangula (Kankra),
field by dibbling. Ceriops decandra (Goran), Rhizophora mucronata (Garjan,
Jhana), Nypa fruticans (Golpata)
Direct sowing of pre- Avicennia officinalis (Baen), Excoecaria agallocha (Gewa), Little
treated seeds in the Heritiera fomes (Sundri), Bruguiera sexangula (Kankra),
field by broadcasting. Ceriops decandra (Goran)
Seedlings from the Avicennia officinalis (Baen), Excoecaria agallocha (Gewa), Medium
natural forests/ Heritiera fomes (Sundri), Bruguiera sexangula (Kankra),
wildings and planting Ceriops decandra (Goran), Rhizophora mucronata (Garjan,
in the sites. Jhana)
Raised seedlings on Sonneratia apetala (Keora), S. caseolaries (Soila), Avicennia High to Medium
nursery beds and out officinalis (Baen), Excoecaria agallocha (Gewa), Heritiera
planting of the fomes (Sundri), Bruguiera sexangula (Kankra), Ceriops
uprooted small decandra (Goran), Nypa fruticans (Golpata), Phoenix
seedlings paludosa (Hatal)
Raised seedlings in Avicennia officinalis (Baen), Excoecaria agallocha (Gewa), Very high
polybags/ pots and Heritiera fomes (Sundri), Bruguiera sexangula (Kankra),
planting in the field. Ceriops decandra (Goran), Rhizophora mucronata (Garjan,
Jhana), Nypa fruticans (Golpata)
 111

Appendix 4: Site suitability of climate resilient mangrove species in Bangladesh

Suitable habitat
Species Local name Inundation
Light condition Soil condition (months) Salinity
Aegiceras corniculatum Khulshi Tolerate full sunlight Silt enrich soil 3 to 12* Low to high

Aglaia cucullata Amoor Grows well in shade Mature soil - Low

condition

Avicennia officinalis Bean, Kala Tolerate full sunlight Grows well on the silt - Low to high
Bean deposited muddy areas

Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Lal Kakra Tolerate full sunlight Slightly raised areas 6 to 9 Moderate to high

Bruguiera sexangula Kakra Tolerate full sunlight Slightly raised areas 6 to 9* Moderate to high
Cerbera manghas Dakur Tolerate full sunlight Mature soil -
Low
Tolerate moderate to full
Ceriops decandra Goran Silt enrich soil 3 to 12* Moderate to high
sunlight
Cynometra ramiflora Singra Tolerate moderate sunlight Raised areas 3 to 6* Low

Excoecaria agallocha Gewa Tolerate moderate sunlight Mature soil 3 to 9* Low to moderate

Tolerate moderate to full

Heritiera fomes Sundri sunlight, but shade bearer Well-drained mature soil 3 to 9* Low to moderate
at the early growing stages
(seedling and sapling)

Vatkathi, Tolerate moderate to full

Kandelia candel Muddy banks of tidal rivers, 3 to 12 Moderate to high
Goria, Rohini sunlight canal, and variety of soil types

Kirpa Tolerate full sunlight Grows well on slightly 6 to 9* Moderate to high

Lumnitzera racemosa elevated areas

Nypa fruticans Golpata Grows well in full Silt rich soft muddy areas 9 to12 Low to moderate
sunlight condition
Phoenix paludosa Hatal Grows well in moderate It prefers slightly raised areas 3* Low to moderate
to full sunlight
Pongamia pinnata Karanj, It can grow in full shade It grows on variety of soil 3* Low to moderate
Shita-shara to full sunlight types
Rhizophora mucronata Jhanna, Garjan Tolerate full sunlight It grows on variety of soil types 9 to 12 Moderate to high

Sonneratia apetala Keora Tolerate full sunlight Newly accreted sites 9 to 12 Moderate to high

Sonneratia caseolaris Ora, Soila It grows in full sunlight Areas with deep muddy river 9 to 12 Low to moderate
condition or canal bank

Xylocarpus granatum Dhundal Grow well in full sunlight, It grows on variety of soil 3 to 12* Low to moderate
but can tolerate light shade types
Grow well in full sunlight, It grows on variety of soil
Xylocarpus moluccensis Passur but can tolerate light shade 6 to 9* Low to moderate
types, but grows well in
at the early growing stages
muddy areas
(seedling and sapling)

*(source: Islam and Nandy, 2001)

Islam , M.R., Nandy, P. 2001. Suite suitability of different mangrove species and planting techniques for Bean (Avicennia
officinalis) in the coastal areas of Bangladesh. In: Siddiqi NA and Baksha MW (eds.). Mangrove Research and
Development. Bangladesh Forest Research Institute, Chittagong, Bangladesh, pp 40-48
Two women are working in plantation programme of the ICBAAR Project
@ Emdadul Islam Bitu/UNDP