Philosophy and Progress
Volumes LXXIII-LXXIV, January-June, July-December, 2023
ISSN 1607-2278 (Print), DOI : https://doi.org/10.3329/pp.v73i1-2.75226
EDUCATION IN MEDIEVAL BENGAL: AN
ACCOUNT OF TWO SYSTEMS
Mohammad Abul Kawser*
Abstract
In the medieval Bengal, Hindus and Muslims lived in a
society where mainly the religion controlled foremost aspects
of life. In this context, both the communities maintained
two distinct educational systems in Bengal. This paper
attempts to present the emergence of Islamic education
in Bengal during Sultanate period and its development in
relation to the indigenous education of the Hindus. It also
examines interactions of Islamic education with its Hindu
counterpart from Sultani to Nawabi period despite having
clear distinctions across the communities in many respects.
Analyzing the primary and secondary sources on education
of Medieval Bengal, this paper shows how in a religiously
polarized society, the Hindus and Muslims interacted in the
field of education going beyond the existing hostility, mistrust
and prejudices in many aspects of their distinctive life styles.
*
Professor, Department of History, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh.
E-mail: makawser@du.ac.bd
38 Philosophy and Progress
Key words: Medieval Bengal, Muslims, Hindus, Pathsala,
Tol, Maktab, Madrasa
Introduction
In the medieval Bengal, Hindus and Muslims lived in a society
where religion played an important role in the relationship
between these two distinct communities. Some scholars argued
that the relationship between Hindus and Muslims in Bengal was
extremely hostile during medieval period. Famous Indologist
Al-Biruni mentioned, Hindus, called Muslims ‘mlechchha’
(i e., impure) and abstained themselves from any connection
with Muslims by way of inter-marriage, inter-dining and mixed
social gatherings because they thought, they would consequently
be polluted (Sachau, 1910). A famous traveler, explorer and
scholar Ibn Battuta in his travel account during the 14th century
informed about forced conversion, mass enslavement and lower
status of the Hindus as zimmis and other types of oppressions.
He also mentioned about frequent quarrels between Hindus
and Muslims (Battuta, 1976). Majumdar (1966) stated that the
Muslims considered it a pious duty for them to occupy Hindu
Kingdom, break Hindu temples, images of deities and convert
Hindus into Muslims. According to Gaborieau (1985), Hindus
were not allowed by their own community to take food prepared
by the Muslims, drink water served by the Muslims and they
would as a rule outcaste their fellow Hindus if found to be in
sexual relations with Muslims.
Apart from the above statements regarding Hindu-Muslim
relations, many scholars have shed light on the fact that there
was amicable relationship between them in various spheres
of life. A document bearing the seal of the Mughal Emperor
Education in Medieval Bengal: An Account of Two Systems 39
Ahmad Shah (1748–54 AD) proves that some Muslim emperors
gave donations for the maintenance of Hindu temples (Husain,
1939). Hindus and Muslims in Bengal, especially of lower strata
lived in peace and harmony for centuries. As a consequence,
assimilation of the two cultures and the fusion of the two
religions started from the very beginning and continued up to
the middle of the 18th century to reach its culminating point
(Roy, 1983; Siddiq & Habib, 2017). In the 18th century Bengal,
it was very common that Muslims offered puja at Hindu temple
while Hindus offered sinni at Muslim shrines. Moreover, this
fusion of religious ideas led both the communities to worship a
common God, Satyapir (Sen, 1911). A Muslim poet Faizullah in
his poem ‘Satyapir’ claimed that “what the Muslims call Allah
is Hari to the Hindus” (Sharif, 1977, p. 423). After reading
texts of Bengali literature from the 15th to the 18th century,
Edward C. Dimmock, found a very little sign of any deep-
rooted antagonism between the two communities. Numerous
sufi orders, e. g. Chisti, Qalenderi, Qadiriyah, Naqshbandi
and Suhrawadi, had a significant influence on Bengali Hindus
as well as on their Muslim followers (Chakravarty, 1992 in
Chatterji, 2000-2001). It was sometimes difficult to distinguish
between Hindu and Muslim religious activities in rural regions
since they were so common in nature. The medieval Panchalis
make reference to a variety of Muslim saints and “Pirs” who
were revered by both Muslims and Hindus. The tomb of Shah
Ismail Ghazi at Kantaduar in the Rangpur district and the shrine
of Nur-Qutb-Alam in Pandua were revered by all irrespective of
religious affiliations (Vipradasa, 1953).
The controversies over various aspects of Hindu-Muslim
relations also include the field of education. According to Mehta
40 Philosophy and Progress
(1990), Muslim monarchs during the Sultanate period had a
hostile attitude toward the Hindu educational system because
they saw it as a tool for promoting idolatry and infidelity in the
territories they controlled. As a result, numerous indigenous
educational institutions had to suffer devastation during Muslim
military expeditions. Mehta (1990), however, stated about
the changes in this situation over time. As he continued, that
the ancient Hindu system of education persisted outside the
sultanate’s borders and continued to thrive as previously because,
in the thirteenth century, a sizable portion of the land was free
from Turkish rule. By the time the Khaljis brought Islam into
the south as a political force, much of the Muslim conquerors’
rage against the Hindu educational institutions had subsided.
As a result, the two educational systems - one indigenous and
the other foreign in both content and goals became operational
side by side, even though they were largely mutually exclusive.
This study presents an account of the emergence of Islamic
educational system in Medieval Bengal and its development
along with existing education system of Hindus. It examines
how the educational system of Muslims interacted with its
Hindu counterpart despite having distinctions across the
communities in many respects. The study focuses on Medieval
Bengal extending from the Sultanate to the Nawabi period which
covered about five centuries from 13th to 18 centuries CE.
Introduction of Islamic education and its development
alongside with Hindu education
The introduction of Muslim rule in Bengal created an opportunity
for the spread of Islamic education in the region. As a
consequence, the Islamic education in Medieval Bengal evolved
Education in Medieval Bengal: An Account of Two Systems 41
along with indigenous educational system of Hindus. Before
coming of the Muslims to Bengal, the traditional Hindu system of
education formed the foremost part of the indigenous educational
system. The Vedic system of education is the name given to the
educational system that developed in India circa 1200 B.C. The
four Vedas - Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda -
which are regarded as God’s language in human speech - were
the foundation of education, as their namesake suggests. “To
liberate the soul from worldly bondages” was the stated purpose
of Vedic education. The education of Vedic period had distinct
aspects and characteristics. Only members of the upper castes,
such as Brahmins and Kshtriyas, as well as Brahmcharis, had
access to education. (Goyal & Aggarwal, 2015: 61) Islam came
to the region when such an educational system existed in India.
The acquisition of knowledge is given foremost consideration
in Islam. According to the first Quranic revelation “ Proclaim! (or
Read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, who created -
Created man out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: Proclaim!
And thy Lord Is Most Bountiful, - He Who taught (The use of)
the Pen,-Taught man that Which he knew not.” (The Holy Qur’an,
Al-Alaq, 1-5). Another verse of Quran states that “Nor should
the believers All go forth together: If a contingent from every
expedition remained behind, They could devote themselves to
studies in religion, and admonish the people when they return to
them, - That thus they (may learn) to guard themselves (against
evil)” (The Holy Qur’an, Tawba, 122). A good number of Hadiths
also emphasized the importance of education in Islam. According
to AL-Tirmidhi, Whoever goes out in search of knowledge until
he returns home, he is considered to be on the path of Allah
(Tirmidhi Hadith Number: 2647)
42 Philosophy and Progress
The reflection of these Islamic concepts of education was
clearly noticeable in the newly established state and society in
Medina. The Muslim conquerors carried forward this tradition
of Islamic education to the occupied countries and Bengal was
not an exception in this respect. (Ali, 1985) Bengali Muslims
valued education as a part of their religious duty and an act of
devotion, a way to please Allah and obtain salvation as its reward.
In addition, they regarded education as a means of material
progress and social status. (Rahim, 1963, vol. 1) A 17th century
Muslim poet Alaol wrote, “If the teacher teaches Bismillah to
the child, the door of heaven is opened to the teacher, parents
and child.” (Majumdar, 1966) During the period of Muslim rule
in Bengal, Muslims had greater opportunities to be employed
in the government service. It inspired Muslim youths to acquire
education that would help them in getting into jobs in the
government. Poet Alaol also stated, “A father considered himself
a respectable person, if his son was distinguished in learning.”
(Majumdar, 1966: 279) Affluent economic condition of Muslim
families allowed them to send their children to the educational
institutions. All these factors facilitated the growth of Muslim
education in Bengal. (Rahim, 1963, vol. 1)
In Bengal, maktabs and madrasas were established by
rulers, Sufis and upper class people of the society. The early
conquerors of Bengal considered education as an instrument
for stabilizing their military occupation. This consideration
might lead Bakhtiyar Khalaji and his Khalaji maliks to establish
mosques, madrasas and khanqahs (seats of religious divines)
in the capital and other strategic places of their conquered
territories. (Ali, 1985) According to Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, the later
cities, like Gaur, Pandua, Ikdalah, Satgaon, Sunargaon and
Education in Medieval Bengal: An Account of Two Systems 43
Chatgaon (Chattagram) also seemed to have such educational
institutions. (Umar-i-Usman, 1881) Apart from military
purpose, the Muslim rulers also used their own education
system to regulate intellectual and cultural life of the people.
(Mehta, 1990) As the founder of Mughal Empire Zahir-U-Din
Babar considered education as the responsibility of the state,
various sorts of educational institutions were established with
official assistance throughout Babar’s reign. (Ikram,1964) His
son Emperor Humayun also shared similar broad perspectives
and a propensity to favor both Islam and Hinduism. (Mohiuddin,
1987) Considering education as the basic right of each citizen,
Emperor Akbar created a state department with the purpose
of supporting Muslim and Hindu educational institutions with
public funds. (Ikram, 1964) Regardless of their religion, it was
his policy to educate the subjects of the state. He also established
Madrasahs where Hindu and Muslim children studied modern
courses in the same class. Classes for religious instruction in such
Madrasahs were separate for Muslims and Hindus. (Law,1916)
Surprisingly, modern research has shown that even Aurangzeb
gave jagirs to numerous temples. (Mohiuddin, 1987)
Mughal annexation of Bengal added new acquisitions from
the prosperous learning and culture of North India, Persia and
central Asia to existing cultural tradition and intellectual legacy
of Bengal. This intellectual atmosphere extended to the provinces
of the empire. The subahdars, diwans, qadis, faujdars and other
officials who came to Bengal were the admirers and patrons of
learning and talents. It also opened the door of Bengal to the
teachers, physicians and other professionals of North India. This
new phenomenon created momentous impact on intellectual life
of Bengal and stimulated the progress of learning and education of
44 Philosophy and Progress
Bengal. (Rahim, 1963, vol. 2) This tradition of learning continued
during the period of the Nawabs. All the Nawabs of Bengal were
men of learning and they extended liberal patronage to education.
Political turmoil in Iran after the assassination of Nadir Shah led
many learned people and their families to leave home for shelter.
Shiah Nawabs of Bengal who also needed learned and talented
people in their court and administration welcomed their brethren
of same faith to Bengal. As a consequence, Bengal witnessed
a remarkable development in the Islamic and other branches of
learning. (Rahim, 1963, vol. 2)
As mentioned earlier, prior to Islam, education in India was
mostly confined among Brahmins and the higher class people
of Hindu society. The lower class Hindus were not allowed to
acquire any kind of knowledge because they had no access to
the existing learning centers. (Long, 1868; Rahim, 1963, vol.
2) Islam entered into Bengal with its simple social and religious
rule which attracted even several prominent Hindus to the extent
of undermining the glory of Brahmanism. (Chowhan, 2022)
Muslim rule in Bengal opened the door of equal education to
all classes of people irrespective of their religious beliefs and
social classes. (Rahim, 1963, vol. 2) A transformation occurred
in Hindu society at the same time as the educational system in
Muslim society was developing alongside. Over time, Pathshala,
a primary educational institution that evolved in Hindu society,
opened its doors to both boys and girls, regardless of caste
(Long, 1868). According to Chowhan (2022), Islam was not
the only factor contributing to the decline of Brahmanism; the
introduction of Nava Vaishnavism also had much to do with it.
When Chaitanya Dev led a kirtan party through the streets of
Navadwipa, his initial response to the caste system was evident.
Education in Medieval Bengal: An Account of Two Systems 45
People from all walks of life were drawn to him because of his
amazing devotion in Nam-Kirtan and his unique personality.
Caste differentiation was not a barrier to their spontaneous
mixing. The orthodox community fiercely objected to it,
claiming that Chaitanya had destroyed the long-standing caste
system. “Even though one is chandal by birth, he is superior
to all brahmins if he is pious and has love for god,” said the
Master boldly. He would embrace anyone who said, “Thou,
O Krishna, art my life,” regardless of caste. Even as a young
child, he declared, “If anyone eats food from the same plate
with a sweeper , he becomes entitled to receive God’s favor.”
These statements from a brahmin sounded strangely brazen in
a community where the brahaman was revered and a sweeper
was regarded as worse than an animal. (Bhagawat , 1941 in
Chatterji, 2000-2001: 219)
Chaitanya challenged monopoly of education by introducing
the idea of equal opportunities to knowledge for all castes. As
stated earlier, pre-Muslim Bengal was a Brahmin-dominated
society, with lower class Hindus being denied access to any
schooling at all. The sastras (religious texts) were exclusively
controlled by the Brahmins. As a result, when Chaitanya brought
caste equality and equal access to education for all, Brahmins
were furiously offended and complained to Muslim rulers. They
claimed that this was an irrational act and claimed that Chaitanya
was undermining Hinduism by inciting heretical individuals.
The lower class people are singing the name of Krishna (God)
over and over. Navadvip will be destroyed by this sin (of
doing unreligious work). God’s name is a powerful incantation
according to Hindu sastras, but its effectiveness is diminished
if everyone hears it. Despite severe protest by the Brahmins,
46 Philosophy and Progress
these underprivileged Hindus were freed from the control of the
wealthy class and their intellectual servitude. By enrolling in
schools run by Muslims, which had given all classes of people,
Muslims and non-Muslims, equal possibilities for advancement in
spiritual, material, and intellectual spheres, they no longer had to
worry about the wrath of Brahmins. Thus, during the Muslim era,
education pervaded even the lower strata of Hindu society, and
these individuals who had previously been dejected and denied
opportunities to learn, could now improve their lives. The Hindus
attitude toward education underwent a radical shift as a result of
Muslim immigrants receiving general education, (Rahim, 1963,
vol. 2) Moreover, Sufism, the emergence of goddess cults and
Sahajiya Tantrism all significantly contributed to the downfall
of traditional Brahmanism. Additionally, during Hussain Shah’s
reign in Bengal, these religious sects established novel socio-
religious doctrines and practices. Even if Vaishnavism persisted
before Chaitanya, Tantrism or the Sahajiya cult had a significant
impact on it. (Chowhan, 2022) With this background about
introduction of Islamic education in Bengal and its development
along with existing education of Hindus, the texts that follow will
focus on the educational institutions of both Muslims and Hindus.
Primary education System
Pathsala
The primary education for Hindu children was imparted in
the pathsalas located usually in the premises of Brahmanic or
Jain temples. The priests of the temples or sometimes the hired
pundits or Jain scholars taught the children of the locality free of
charge. These educational institutions were maintained either by
the grants received from the state or by the public endowments
Education in Medieval Bengal: An Account of Two Systems 47
and charity. Apart from these pathsalas housed into the temples
and shrines, there were pathsalas in the big villages and towns
where caste Hindus formed the majority of the population. The
latter kinds of pathsalas were maintained by the Hindus through
public charity. (Mehta, 1990)
Hindu boys and girls were sent to pathsalas at around the
age of five with a special ceremony called upanayana at an
auspicious time determined by the astrologers. The medium
of instructions in pathsalas was Sanskrit. Religious texts
along with simplified version of Purana, stories of Ramayana
and Mahabharata were introduced in this elementary level of
education. (Mehta, 1990) There was co-education in pathsalas
and students studied there for six years. Boys and girls had to
bring their own mats to sit in the pathsalas whereas teachers sit
on a footstool. (Rahim, 1963, vol. 2)
Due to the marriageable age being decreased to eight or
nine, the cause of female education suffered greatly; it was a fatal
blow to any education that was to be given to them. Even then,
mentioning of girls receiving primary education in Pathsala can be
seen in modern writing. Mukundaram lists Lahana, Khullana, and
Lilabati as former letter-writers and readers. (Chakravarti, 1992
cited in Chatterji, 2000-2001) The notion that there was female
education in the primary levels is further supported by Dayaram’s
Sardamangal, a book written in the 17th century where the poet
mentioned five princesses attending Pathsala. Princess Vidya was
so well-educated, according to Bharat Chandra’s Vidysundar, that
she even won literary debates against several academics. According
to the literature of the time, girls from middle class households
as well as daughters of rajas and zamindars were educated at the
Pathsala alongside the males. (Chatterji, 2000-2001)
48 Philosophy and Progress
Maktabs
The primary education of Muslim children was started with the
courses of maktabs which were generally attached to the mosques.
(Ali, 1985) Sometimes maktabs were also run by the wealthy people
in their houses for the tuition of their own children as well as the
children of their poor neighbours who otherwise could not efford
education for their children (Long, 1868). As mentioned earlier,
pathsalas were also located in the house of reach people or under
some trees of the gurus’ (teachers) house. Sometimes the same
place was used both for maktab and pathsala, former in the morning
and the latter in the afternoon. (Rahim, 1963, vol. 2) This shows
that there was a kind of social interaction and peaceful coexistence
between the Hindus and the Muslims regarding education.
The primary objective of the maktabs was to prepare Muslim
children for prayers. Generally, it requires at least two years
to acquire knowledge of the prayers and other related rituals.
As Muslim children are expected to start saying prayers at the
age of seven, it is assumed that the parents sent their children
to maktabs at the age of five. It was customary, especially for
the upper and middle classes, to start with a Bismillah Khani
ceremony at the age of four years, four months and four days.
(Rahim, 1963, vol. 1) So the age of attending maktabs for
primary education was in between four and five years. In some
unusual cases early start and late beginning were also found.
There was co-education in maktabs, both boys and girls attended
the same maktab. (Bahram, 1957) This shows the reflection
of religious guidance in the education system of Muslims as
Prophet Muhammad designated him as the teacher of whole
mankind and said “seeking knowledge is obligatory for every
believing man and woman.” (Ibn Majah, n.d.)
Education in Medieval Bengal: An Account of Two Systems 49
The primary education imparted in maktabs seemed to be
based on religious instructions. Imams of the mosques taught
Muslim children about ablution and prayer in the maktabs .
(Vipradasa, 1953, Chakravarti, 1952 Cited in Ali, 1985) They
also taught Quran and Hadith to make pupils understand the
fundamentals of Islam and other rituals at this stage of primary
education. Fiqh or elementary knowledge of jurisprudence
was also taught in maktabs as it was necessary for performing
obligatory duties of Islam. So, the contents of study in the
maktabs were consisted of Quran, Hadith and Fiqh. (Ali, 1985)
In addition, Muslim students were required to learn Arabic and
Persian in maktabs besides their mother tongue Bengali. Arabic
should have been learnt by students as the language of the Quran
while Persian was learnt as the language of the court. Students
also learnt Persian to get access to religious text books written in
Persian. (Ali, 1985)
Bengali became the medium of instructions and it was taught
in maktabs because it was the mother-tongue of many Muslims
and Hindus. (Rahim, 1963, vol. 2) As Persian was the language of
the court, some Hindu Kayastha families often sent their children
to the maktabs aspiring for employment in the government. They
even followed Muslims by observing Bismillah Khani ceremony
at the time of commencing their boys to education. (Rahim,
1963, vol. 1) In course of time, maktabs were classified into two
categories according to their emphasis on Quran and Islamic
religious practices on the one hand and emphasis on Persian and
other subjects on the other hand. Later category of maktabs was
termed as “Arabic and Persian Schools” by Adam who found a
total of 786 Muslim boys and 784 Hindu boys in such schools
in Murshidabad, Burdwan and Birbhum dristicts of Bengal.
50 Philosophy and Progress
(Long, 1868: 30-33) Professor Blochmanns’ statement also
supported what Adams wrote in his report. In an article published
in Calcutta Review in 1871, Blochmann stated that beginning
with the Mughal era, Hindu clerks who were fluent in Persian
were in charge of the court’s revenue collection, accounting, and
official correspondence. “The Hindus from the 16th century took
so ardently to Persian education, that, before another century had
passed, they had entirely caught up to the Muhammadans in terms
of intellectual acquirements.” (Bernier, 1916, p. 131)
Higher education System
Tol
Higher education was given to Hindu children in the chatuspathis
or tols where medium of instruction was Sanskrit. Scholars
from outside Bengal also assembled in these tols. The kavyas
(poetry) of the Sanskrit literature and logic were taught at the
initial stage. In later stages more advanced level studies such
as the science of astrology, philosophy including the Vedanta
and Vedic prosody were introduced in the tols. (Rahim, 1963,
vol. 2) Moreover, vyakaran (grammar), nirukta (lexicon), kavya
and chanda (rhetoric) from Sanskrit literature were taught.
There were also jyotish (astronomy and astrology), chikitsha
(medicine), theology and history in the syllabus of tols. (Rahim,
1963, vol. 2) In some of the tols Bengali and Persian were also
taught. Education in tols, however, was exclusively meant for
the Brahmin students. (Rahim, 1963, vol. 1)
In pre-Muslim period, there were several centers of Sanskrit
learning in Bengal. These centers of higher learning continued to
flourish during Muslim period. Navadvip (Nadia) was the most
Education in Medieval Bengal: An Account of Two Systems 51
prominent center of learning that developed into a New School
of Philosophy (Navya Nyaya) during Muslim period. There
were many tols and thousands of renowned pundits, scholars
and professors were devoted to impart knowledge in Navadvip.
It attracted students from all parts of the subcontinent. In the
time of the nawabs, Zaminder of Nadia, Maharaja Krisnachandra
extended liberal patronage to a large number of pundits proficient
in different branches of knowledge. (Rahim, 1963, vol. 2) The
village home of famous poet Vijaygupta in Barisal was known as
a notable place of learning from sixteenth century. (Rahim, 1963,
vol. 2) Several other centers of Sanskrit learning were in Noakhali,
Burdwan and other districts of Bengal. (Rahim, 1963, vol. 2)
Hindu boys educated from these tols could engage them
in varieties of vocational professions. Vaidya or Kaviraj was
the most important of them. Brahmins who studied medicine
and acquired art of healing took the profession of physicians.
Those who studied astronomy and astrology became Daivagya.
They were able to draw the figure of the planet, forecast the
almanac (panjika) of the new year, draw the horoscope, and
examine palms of the barren women. (Rahim, 1963, vol. 1)
The education in tols was free of charge. The teachers (gurus)
of the tols maintained themselves from the income of the lands
granted by the state, zaminders or wealthy persons. In addition,
they received voluntary labour of students in their works and
gifts from the students after completion of their education.
(Rahim, 1963, vol. 2) Students had to experience various types
of corporal punishment for irregular attendance, negligence in
studies, wickedness etc. (Long, 1868)
52 Philosophy and Progress
Madrasah
After completing primary education in maktabs students would
proceed to madrasahs for higher education. The Quran and
Hadith were also taught in madrasahs but the approach was
different from that of the primary education. Here analytical
study of the Qur'an (tafsir) and Hadith (Tashrih) formed the
principal part of the learning. Advance study of Fiqh was also
one of the principal areas of study in madrasahs in Bengal.
Madrasahs built by the Sultans of Bengal, offered courses of
four schools of Islamic jurisprudence though mostly attended by
the Hanafites1 being predominant in the population. (Ali, 1985)
Apart from the above subjects, other sciences such as logic,
arithmetic, medicine, chemistry,, geometry, astronomy and others
were also taught in madrasahs. Abul Fazal stated that every
student ought to read books on agriculture, morals, mensuration,
physiognomy, household matters, rules of government, medicine,
higher mathematics and history gradually. It is assumed that the
madrasahs kept provisions for all these subjects but students were
not required to study them all. (Allami, 1873) They were given
choice in the selection of the subjects. Among these subjects,
history and politics were given emphasis in the madrasha
curriculum during the Mughal period. (Bernier 1916) Like
maktabs, many Hindu students, especially from the kayasthas2
at the initial stage, also studied in the madrasas to secure their
position in the government jobs. Hindu students who studied in
the maktabs and madrasahs were exempt from the participation
in Muslim prayers and other religious ceremonies. Muslim
1
One of the four Sunni Islamic schools of jurisprudence (fiqh).
2
Kayasths belong to one of the profession-castes of Hindus.
Education in Medieval Bengal: An Account of Two Systems 53
rulers also came forward to encourage them by translating the
indigenous literature into Persian with the help of Hindu scholars.
(Mehta, 1990: 162-63) After successful completion of the course
graduates of Islamic higher educational institutions had been
conferred dastar or turban through a dastarband ceremony.
It can be compared with today’s certificate giving ceremony
or convocation. Graduates receiving such turban from their
teachers or institutions were entitled to wear it irrespective of the
professions they have chosen in the later life. (Karim, 1983)
Conclusion
In the Medieval Bengal, education system of Hindus differed
from the education system of Muslims in many aspects. But a
substantial number of similarities ware also found across the
systems. The Muslims and the Hindus considered education as
important as their religious belief. In both the systems there was
co-education at the primary level. Both communities performed
some rituals e.g., Hindus celebrated Upanayana and Muslims
celebrated Bismillah Khani when sending their children to the
education for the first time and the school-going age was the
same, usually between four and five years. Apart from the
religious education both systems provided students with some
practical education. Education system of Muslims was financed
by the rulers and high officials of the government whereas
education system of Hindus was mostly financed by local
Zaminders and wealthy people of the community. Sometimes
Muslim rulers also supported educational institutions of Hindus
by granting them financial assistance. In addition to these
similarities, Hindus and Muslims influenced each other in
their educational practices and traditions. For example, before
54 Philosophy and Progress
coming of the Muslims, Brahmins and upper class Hindus were
the only ones with access to education. Islam arrived in Bengal
with its straightforward social and theological principles
of equality. Irrespective of their social status or religious
affiliation, Bengal under Muslim control allowed all classes of
people to have access to equal education. Moreover, Chaitanya
Devs’ Nava Vaishnavism helped diminishing the prominence
of Brahmanism. As a consequence, during the Muslim era,
education spread across the castes reaching many who had
previously been denied the advantage to learn and to advance
in life. It is very interesting to see that despite overwhelming
separatism in almost every aspect of life both the communities
found education as a common ground for mutual benefit.
Inter institutional roaming of students e.g., Hindus enrolling
in Maktabs and Madrasas, could use of the same place for
teaching-learning e.g., Maktabs in the morning and Pathshalas
in the afternoon. These are the signs of such mutual benefits in
this sector. They established such practices by going beyond
the existing hostility, mistrust and prejudices; and maintained
peaceful co-existence in the education sector of medieval
Bengal in a religiously polarized society.
References
Ali, A. K. M. Yakub. (1985). Education For Muslims Under the Bengal
Sultanate. Islamic Studies Vol. 24, No. 4, 421-443.
Allama, Abul Fadl (1873). Ain-i-Akbari. Vol. I, Tr. H. Blochmann,
Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal
Bahram, Dawlat Wazir. (1957). Laila Majnun, Dhaka: Bangla
Academy, p. 19. Cited in A Rahim (1963). Social and Cultural
History, Vol. I.
Education in Medieval Bengal: An Account of Two Systems 55
Bhagawat, Chaitanya (Bengali). (1941). Adi, Chapter 5-6. ed. S.C.
Majumdar, Calcutta. Cited in Anjali Chatterji (2000-2001), pp.
196-241.
Battuta, Ibn. (1976). The Rehla of Ibn Battuta: India, Maldive Islands
and Ceylon (Mahdi Husain trans.). Baroda: Oriental Institute.
Bernier, Francois. (1916). Travels in the Mogul Empire A. D. 1656-
1668 (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press
Chakravarti, Mukundarama. (1952). Kavi Kahkan Chandi, ed. Sri
Kumar Bandhapadhaya Calcutta: Calcutta University. In Ali, A.
K. M. Yakub. (1985). Education For Muslims Under the Bengal
Sultanate. Islamic Studies. Vol. 24, No. 4, Winter: 421-443.
Chakravarty, Mukundaram. (1992). Chandimangal. (ed). Srikumar
Bandopadhya and Vishwapati Choudhary. Calcutta, Vol. II. In
Chatterji, Anjali (2000-2001), 196-241.
Chatterji, Anjali. (2000-2001). Aspects of Medieval Indian Society:
Gleanings from Contemporary Literature. Proceedings of the
Indian History Congress. Vol. 61, Part One: Millennium, 196-
241.
Chowhan, Lalita. (2022). Socio-Religious Beliefs and Practices in
Bengal during the time of Allauddin Hussain Shah. Journal of
Historical Studies and Research Volume 2, Number 1, 231-240.
Gaborieau, Marc. (1985). From Al-Beruni to Jinnah: Idiom, Ritual
and Ideology of the Hindu-Muslim Confrontation in South Asia,
Anthropology Today, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 7-14.
Goyal, Shuchi & Aggarwal, Pragya (2015). Indian Education System:
From Ancient Period to Present Era. Shikshan Anveshika, Vol. 5,
No. 2, 61-67.
Husain, Mahdi. (1939). The Hindus in Medieval India. Proceedings of
the Indian History Congress. Vol. 3, 712-724.
Ibn Majah. Muhammad Ibn Yazid. As-Sunan, Istanbul: Maktabah
56 Philosophy and Progress
Islamiyyah. S.B.T.B. Chapter on the Dignity of the Wise and
Encouraging the Pursuit of Knowledge. Hadith No. 220.
Ikram, S. (1964). Muslim Civilization in India. New York: Columbia
University Press.
Karim, Abdul. (1983). The Sadat, Ulama and Mashaikh in the pre
Mughal Muslim Society. In Bengal in Rafiuddin Ahmed (ed.).
Islam in Bangladesh: Society Culture and Politics, Dhaka:
Bangladesh Itihas Samiti.
Law, N. N. (1916). Promotion of Learning in India during Muhammadan
Rule by Muhammadans. London: Longman’s Green.
Long, Rev. James. (1868). Adam’s Reports on Vernacular Education in
Bengal and Behar 1835-1838, Calcutta: The Home Secretariat Press.
Mohiuddin, M. (1987). The Elements of Composite Culture. In R
Khan (ed.). Composite Culture of India and National Integration.
Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Studies.
Majumdar, R. C. (1966). Kamala Baktritamala (Kamala Lectures).
Calcutta: Calcutta University.
Mehta, J. L. (1990). Advanced Study in the History of Medieval
India: Medieval Indian Society and Culture. Vol. III, New Delhi:
Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
Rahim, Muhammad Abdur. (1963). Social and Cultural History of
Bengal. (Vol. 1), Karachi: Pakistan Historical Society.
Rahim, Muhammad Abdur (1963). Social and Cultural History of
Bengal. (Vol. 2), Karachi: Pakistan Historical Society.
Roy, A. (1983). The Islamic Syncretistic Tradition in Bengal,
Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press.
Sachau, Edward C. (Ed.), (1910). Alberuni’s India: An Account of
the Religion, Philosophy, Literature, Geography, Chronology.
Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of India about AD
1030, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd.
Education in Medieval Bengal: An Account of Two Systems 57
SEN, D. C. (1911). History of Bengali Language and Literature,
Calcutta: Calcutta University.
Sharif, A. (1977). Madhyajuger Sahitye Samaj O Sanskritir Rup
[Forms of Society and Culture in Medieval Literature]. Dhaka:
Muktadhara.
Siddiq, A. B., & Habib, A. (2017). The formation of Bengal civilization:
A glimpse on the socio-cultural assimilations through political
progressions in Bengal Delta. Artuklu Human and Social Science
Journal, 2(2), 1–12.
The Holy Qur’an (A. Yusuf Ali, Trans.). (1983). Maryland: Amana
Corp. Surah Al-Alaq, 1-5.
The Holy Qur’an (A. Yusuf Ali, Trans.). (2004). Maryland: Amana
Corp. Surah Tawba, 122.
Tirmidhi, Hadith Number: 2647. Retrieved from https://www. hadithbd.
com/hadith/detail/?book=11& section=401
Umar-i-Usman, The Maulana Minhaj-ud-Din, Abu (1881) Tabakt-I-
Nasiri: A General History of the Muhammadan Dynasties of Asia,
Including Hindustan; from A.H. 194 (810 A.D.) To A.H. 658 (1260
A.D.) And the Irruption of the Infidel Mughals Into Islam Vol. I
(Major H G Raverty, Trans.), London: Gilbert & Rivington
Vipradasa (1953), Manasavijaya ed. Sukumar sen, Calcutta: Asiatic
Society. Cited in Chatterji, Anjali (2000-2001), 196-241.
