Development of Women’s Education in India MODULE - 3

Education and
9 Gender

DEVELOPMENT OF WOMEN’S
EDUCATION IN INDIA Notes

Read about a conversation that a 15-year-old named Shubhi had with her grandma as they
were heading home from a departmental store.

Shubhi: If I hadn’t been with you when you went grocery shopping, the shopkeeper might
have insisted on additional money from you, and you might have ended up paying Rs. 500
more than what was written on the bill.

Grandmother: Thanks Shubhi. You are more educated than I am. As I cannot read English,
I was unable to understand the amount written on the bills next to each item. I was never given
the chance to go to school.

Shubhi (With mild surprise): Who stopped you from attending school?

Grandmother: Schools were not as easily accessible in our area back then as they are now.
Only boys and girls from higher castes and income levels in the area attended school, and
relatively few of them went on to college. We were also required to perform household duties.

Shubhi found it extremely difficult to believe that even schools were not available in the locality.
She was highly interested in learning how educational situations changed over time and what
were the factors behind the significant changes that occurred over several decades. A similar
situation now exists in many areas of the nation, which is unacceptable.

In this lesson, you will learn about the condition of women during pre-independence period
and how various laws and movements affected women’s education both before and after
independence.

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OUTCOMES

After studying this lesson, learner:

 understands the evolution of education in India from 19th century onwards;

 describes the agencies that promoted women’s education in pre-independent India

Notes with a focus on 19th and 20th centuries.

 explains the role of Christian Missionaries, social reformers, and educated intelligentsia
in bringing girls’ education to India.

9.1. EVOLUTION OF WOMEN’S EDUCATION IN INDIA FROM 19TH

CENTURY ONWARDS

To understand the status of women in India, first we must understand the historical context. It
is crucial to understand the role that women played during the medieval and later colonial
periods.

9.1.1 Women’s Education in British Period

Most women were uneducated during the pre-British era. Very few people (belonging to
upper caste and higher income group) had access to education. Other castes had very little
access to education whereas Brahmins had access to the Vedas and Upanishads. Traditional
Paathshalas, Madrasas, Mosques, and Gurukulas were places of learning for young children.
Along with courses like Sanskrit, Grammar, Arithmetic, Religion, and Philosophy, Religious
education was imparted.

Education in India began to receive some attention during British control with the Charter Act
of 1813 and was fully acknowledged in the Macaulay’s Minute of 1835. However, women’s
access to education in Indian society still remained limited. Only after the East India Company
enacted the “Wood’s Dispatch,” which contained the Educational Development Programme,
in 1854 were women’s employment and education given special attention, and the government
took on the duty for ensuring that women were literate.

The Charter Act of 1813

One of the most significant pieces of legislation for the development of education in British
India is the Charter Act of 1813. At this time, the East India Company also began investigating
and taking initial moves toward accepting responsibility in education. Christian missionaries
were able to serve in India and spread education because of this action. Literature promotion
was encouraged by the Charter Act of 1913. It provided for the allocation of a sum of at least
one lakh rupees annually for the restoration and advancement of literature. It supported the

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educated communities of India and strove to introduce and advance scientific knowledge Education and
among the inhabitants of the British colonies in India. Gender

Macaulay minutes

Lord William Bentinck played a significant role in laying the foundations of multilingual colonial
India. In contrast to Sanskrit or Arabic, which were then used in schools financed by the East
India Company, he promoted the adoption of English as the language of instruction starting in
the sixth grade. He argued that education should be made available to all and hence reducing Notes
the expense of education. Western education would also spread and trickle down to the
masses at the same time. Lord William Bentinck introduced the policy of expanding Western
education in India based on recommendations from the “Macaulay minutes.” He established
the Elphinstone Institution of Bombay (1835 AD) and the Calcutta Medical College (1835
A.D.). In a statement made in 1844, Lord Harding underlined that the English knew that
Indians would aspire to have government employment, which pushed Indians to pursue
education in English.

Wood’s Dispatch 1854

It was only in relation to a separate school for females that some advancement in women’s
education, notably at the primary level, was reported. Additionally, some women received
training in preparation for employment as teachers at girls’ schools. According to Wood’s
Dispatch’s advice, women’s education is essential to the advancement of society. It was
always suggested that the government support women’s education. “The importance of female
education in India cannot be overstated; and we have seen with delight the evidence which is
now shown of an increased willingness on the part of many of the locals of India to give their
daughters a good education,” the Wood’s Dispatch read. The Dispatch additionally urged
private businesses to support girls’ education. The institutions receiving grants-in-aid were to
include the schools for girls. During this time, it was strongly advised to support primary
education and vernaculars. Also observed were the establishment of three universities in Calcutta,
Madras, and Bombay that were modelled after the London University.

It is important to analyse the slow but steady progress that girls’ education made during the
pre-independent period after taking into account some socioeconomic factors, such as the
prevalence of the Purdah system and the discrimination of womenfolk, child marriage, sati,
suppression after marriage, the lack of a divorce system, forced self-restraint for widows, and
the Devadasi system.

During this time, several socio-religious organisations led by well-known figures like Raja
Ram Mohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar emphasised the importance of women’s
education in India. To guarantee that women could access education, leaders of the lower
castes in India, such Mahatma Jyotiba Phule and Periyar, took series of actions.

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Education and
Gender
DO YOU KNOW?

In 1883, two Indian women became the first female graduates, marking the beginning of
women attending colleges. The establishment of an Indian Women’s University, presently
known as Shrimati Nathibai Damodar Thackerey (SNDT) Women’s University, in Bombay
in 1916 is a turning point in the history of women’s education in India from 1902 to 1922.
Notes

ACTIVITY 9.1

List out important legislations enacted during the British Period for women’s education.

9.2.1 Role of different agencies for promotion of women’s education in pre-

independent India
Arya Samaj

The Arya Samaj was established in Lahore by Swami Dayananda Saraswati in 1871. Its
membership increased quickly in the Northwest and the Punjab. He was extremely troubled
by the miserable state in which Indian women were forced to live because of the effect of
dowry and early marriage, and he understood that educating women would help to elevate
their status. He used the examples of outstanding female Rishis like Gargi and Maitreyi to
persuade people to promote female education. Swamiji established several Patashalas (schools)
in Farrukabad, Kashi, Kasganj, and Challsan around the year 1870. Additionally, he started
Meerut’s Kanya Patashala, a girl’s school.

Brahmo Samaj

The Brahmo Samaj was resuscitated with an increase in number of members from 3,851 in
1891 to 4,051 in 1901, especially in Bengal. They were highly educated and influential people,
but their liberalism was starting to wane. The Prarthna Samaj was an organisation that developed
in Bombay and is substantially comparable.

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Education and
Gender

Notes

Fig:9.1 The Brahmo Samaj

All-India Women’s Conference

A group of women’s organizations under the All-India Women’s Conference exerted significant
pressure on the colonial authority to provide women with political and legal rights. In 1927,
the first All-India Women’s Conference was organized to highlight the importance of legal
rights and address challenges in promoting education for women. Early marriage was denounced
because it interfered with women’s ability to pursue higher education. But education for women
was primarily seen as enhancing their responsibilities. However, the All-India Women’s
Conference lacked a wide base of support since Hindu women from upper and middle class
and caste backgrounds dominated. It failed to win the support of rural women or women
from lower socioeconomic groups in its fight against the traditional Hindu rules and customs.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 9.1

1. Why is the Charter Act of 1813 considered as one of the most important legislations
about educational development in British India?

2. What encouraged Indians to practice English Education during the British Period?

3. Why did Swami Dayanand Saraswati emphasize on the education of women?

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Education and 9.3 ROLE OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES, SOCIAL REFORMERS AND

Gender EDUCATED INTELLIGENTSIA IN GIRLS’ EDUCATION IN INDIA.

9.3.1 Role of Christian Missionaries

Early in the nineteenth century, public female education began to emerge, thanks to the
missionaries’ efforts. It also sparked the rise of a group of educated women, including doctors,
teachers, social workers, and scholars. These groups of intellectuals further contributed largely
Notes to the promotion of the early women’s movement. They pioneered printing, publishing, and
journalism. They provided education to women, slaves, native Americans, those from lower
castes, and the poor. Additionally, missionaries were in charge of pressuring the government
into starting social changes.

Missionaries started their own educational institutions. The government also supported both
financially and politically. Female missionaries made extra efforts to reach upper caste women
through zenana (women’s section of the house) visiting or house-to-house tutoring classes for
women while the men were away at work, even though their family members forbade them
due to the presence of male teachers and inspectors.

9.3.2 Social reformers and educated intelligentsia and girls’ education in India
Men and women have fought alongside throughout the history of women’s education society.
Social reformers such as Jyotirao Phule, Rabindranath Tagore, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar,
Swami Vivekananda, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, and others devoted their lives to improving the
status of women in society. Since many reformers saw that numerous norms and traditions
were impeding women from realising their full potential, the social reform movement began in
India.

Fig 9.2. Indian Leaders Who Worked For Women’s Education Before Independence

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Child marriage, Sati, the Purdah system, and other social evils were pervasive in many areas Education and
of India during the pre-independence era. Therefore, social reformers saw women’s education Gender
as a way to liberate them from social evils and enhance their status. Women’s socialisation
and education were greatly aided by the work of the Arya Samaj and the Brahmo Samaj. The
reformers opposed superstition, orthodoxy, and cruel traditions by utilising contemporary
knowledge, science, the egalitarian and humanitarian teachings of Christianity, rationality, and
liberalism.
Notes
Cultural revivalists and social reformers with liberal ideas had different views on women’s
education. Proponents of cultural revival saw women as the guardians of tradition and the
family.

They believed that by preparing women to resist westernization, education could support
traditional Indian culture and values. However, liberal social reformers believed that educating
women would help them become wise partners for the emerging class of westernised upper
caste men. They will also show themselves to be capable mothers for the following generation.
In order to improve women’s traditional duties within the patriarchal household, education for
women was advocated.

9.3.2.1 Raja Ram Mohan Roy

Raja Ram Mohan Roy, a great social reformer, put laudable effort to transform Indian Society.
The progressive ideologies of Raja Ram Mohan Roy also helped to improve Indian Education
System. He was the main advocate of modern process of education and scientific thinking.
He extensively studied Christianity and other religions. After that, he concluded that India
needed to learn a lot because Hindu society is heavily impacted by superstitions. He believed
that education was the only way to bring about societal change. The Brahmo Samaj, which he
formed in 1828, was based on the ideals of his views about social and religious change.
Together with David Hare, he also founded the Hindu College in 1817 with the aim of delivering
an English-language education. Education at the college level also placed a strong emphasis
on studying Western humanities and sciences.

He strongly supported the induction of western learning into Indian education. Additionally, he
founded the Vedanta College to provide programs that combine Western and Indian
knowledge. Ram Mohan Roy was adamantly opposed to the Sati tradition, which involves
burning Hindu widows. He ran a campaign to increase public awareness and persuaded the
British government to outlaw the practice. He concluded that educating women is crucial to
putting an end to these evil social practices. Ram Mohan Roy pushed for the expansion and
success of women’s education. He highlighted repeatedly that society wouldn’t be freed from
vices without educated women.

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Education and 9.3.2.2. Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar

Gender
A leading figure in the Bengal Renaissance is Ishwar Chandra Bandhopadhyay, also known as
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. The reform campaign initiated by Raja Ram Mohan Roy was
maintained by him. In addition to being a well-known writer and thinker, Vidyasagar was also
a devoted supporter of humanity. He brought about a transformation in Bengal’s educational
system.

Notes One of Vidyasagar’s main aims in his designs was to educate girls. He understood that
emancipating and liberating women from the horrible load of injustice and inequality forced on
them by the cruel society of the day was impossible unless they could receive education.

Figure 9.3: Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

Conservatives in the society, however, were against girls’ education. Vidyasagar had to refute
these traditionalists with passages from Sanskrit scriptures that specifically ordered the rearing
and care of daughters. The entire credit for elucidating the true significance of the Hindu
shastras, which safeguard the right of women to education, and for disseminating this information
among his fellow citizens, belongs to Vidyasagar. He used his literary talent to assist female
education by writing books, pamphlets, and essays.

Vidyasagar made a vital contribution to the education of women by providing reports on the
curriculum taught to females in schools, which included reading, writing, arithmetic, biography,
and Bengali history, as well as reading passages on various topics, needlework, and sewing.

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He started 35 girls’ schools in Bengal with 1300 girls enrolled. Additionally, he knocked on Education and
the doors to speak with parents, asking them to enroll their daughters in school and offering Gender
financial assistance to some of the institutions. He also encouraged the government to establish
the “NARI SHIKSHA BHANDAR” fund to provide financial support for the education of
girls and urged it to offer grant-in-aid benefits for the maintenance of girls’ schools.

9.3.2.3 Mahatma Jyotiba Phule

Indian women’s history is full of pioneers who overcame obstacles posed by gender and Notes
fought determinedly for their rights. Women today have achieved great success in a variety of
fields, including politics, the arts, science, law, and others. Jyotirao Phule, husband of Savitribai
Phule, had studied the Hindu scriptures and held the view that all humans were equal. He
understood that the only means by which all people might be given with social equality was via
education. According to him, being educated is a human right. Education for all was a priority
for Mahatma Phule. The Indian Constitution’s Article 45, which calls for the universalization
of education, was sponsored by him. He also advocated for the education of women. He,
therefore, began the process at home by educating Savitribai Phule, his wife. She continued to
strive toward challenging and eliminating many societal ills after that. He made a concerted
effort to lay the groundwork for education, particularly for women, and for all people, especially
the underprivileged segments of society.

In order to accomplish his goals, he established a female school in Tatya Sahib Bhide’s residence
at Budhwar Peth in 1848. In 1851, he established two new schools, one of which was for
girls from lower socioeconomic strata. He published numerous books and used them to promote
his revolutionary ideas and educate the public about their rights.

9.3.2.4. Mahatma Gandhi

Gandhi understood that several societal practices, including early marriage, dowry, purdah,
and others, had devalued the status of women in society. He argued that getting rid of it will
lead to gender equality in the political, social, educational, and legal arenas. He believed that
women should be educated since doing so would assure their moral development and enable
them to compete on an equal footing with men. Gandhi encouraged female participation in
politics and the nationalist cause, but he also recognised the importance of a woman’s position
as a wife and mother in the household. To better fulfil their traditional duties as wives and
mothers in the patriarchal household, he argued that women must receive education.

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The term “universalization of education” refers to the acceptance and provision of educational
opportunities to all people, regardless of race, religion, sex, or physical or disability. The
concept which was advocated by Mahatma Phule during his time is yet to be achieved.

9.3.2.5. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

Notes
A renowned scholar, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan began his professional life working for the colonial
government as a civil servant. He attempted to implement educational reforms after realising
that the rigidity of an orthodox worldview harmed the future of Muslims. Despite his deep
affection for Urdu and his significant contributions to its growth and enrichment, he sought to
adopt English as the medium of education as a corrective remedy.

In 1869–1870, Syed Ahmad Khan travelled to England to carry out research into the country’s
administrative and educational systems. Sir Syed began advocating for a new intellectual
leadership based on contemporary and western scientific understanding. He organised Muslim
business people and founded contemporary schools and newspapers to promote an educated
understanding of Islam. Sir Syed took on the responsibility of establishing an institution with
the same goals. At Aligarh, M.A.O. College was founded in 1877. With the intention of
fostering the social, scientific, and economic development of Indian Muslims, it later evolved
into the well-known Aligarh Muslim University.

The All-India Muslim Educational Conference was founded in 1886 by Sir Syed Ahmad
Khan with the intention of bringing about social and educational change. The program’s key
goals included encouraging Indian Muslims to pursue western education, enhancing the Urdu
language by translating significant scientific literature, and supporting women’s education as
“necessary for the balanced intellectual development of future generations.” In order for Muslim
society to develop as a whole, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan underlined the importance of
contemporary education for girls and pleaded with the Aligarh University student body to
acknowledge this.

9.3.2.6 Swami Vivekananda

One of the most influential religious figures who emphasised the value of social reform and
women’s education was Swami Vivekananda. If women in our nation receive the appropriate
education, he thought they will be able to handle their own difficulties in their own way. His
plan for educating women aimed to instill in them a sense of strength, bravery, and respect for
their chastity and dignity. He highlighted that daughter should receive the same assistance and
attention in their upbringing and education as sons. He advocated for the inclusion of disciplines
like sewing, nursing, home science, culinary arts, etc. that weren’t covered in the curriculum at

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the time. According to Swami Vivekananda, the degeneration of India can be largely attributed Education and
to the lack of female education, which must be promoted. Gender

9.3.2.7. Pandita Ramabai

One of India’s well-known leaders in the fight for women’s rights and independence was
Pandita Ramabai. She made it her life’s work to improve the lives of women, particularly
widows, abandoned, and downtrodden ones. She founded Arya Mahila Samaj in 1882 to
promote women’s education in Pune and other areas of Western India. This led to the formation Notes
of the Sharada Sadan in 1889.

Fig. 9.4 Sharda Sadan (Home for Learning) was established by Pandit Ramabai in
Chowpatty, an area of Mumbai (Which was then under the British Raj, known as
Bombay).
She was consulted by a commission appointed by the Government of India in 1882 to look
into education. She advocated for the training of teachers and the appointment of female
school inspectors. She also stated that Indian women should be accepted to medical colleges
since the situations of Indian women were such that women could only treat them medically.
The proof provided by Ramabai reached Queen Victoria and caused a huge stir. Later, Lady
Dufferin launched the Women’s Medical Movement because of it. In 1898, she founded a
mission in Khedgaon, close to Pune, where widows and underprivileged women were taught
a range of skills, including carpentry and how to operate a printing press.

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Education and 9.3.2.8 Fatima Sheikh

Gender
She was the first Muslim woman to teach in India, and she worked at the Phule couple’s
school, where she taught Dalit children. She assisted Savitribai Phule in establishing the first
institution of higher caste Hindus and Orthodox Muslims, the “Indigenous Library,” in her own
home. Additionally, she used to spend hours counseling parents of girls who were not attending
school.

Notes Sheetal reshapes her own destiny and of her family: A case study

Since childhood, Sheetal was fascinated to wear the school uniform and go to school. Many
times, she asked her parents to send her to school but they never agreed as they were illiterate,
so were not aware of the value of education. She looked after her young brother Rohan while
her parents went to work. One day her mother Anita came to know that children get food in
the school, so she started sending her children to a nearby government school. Sheetal was
very intelligent and did well in academics. She passed her senior secondary level with very
good marks, but her parents were not ready to send her to college which was far from her
village. Her teacher convinced her parents to send Sheetal to college in a nearby village. After
completing her graduation, Sheetal joined as a teacher in the same government school she
studied from.

Now her parents do not work as laborers, her younger brother works in a private Multinational
company and she got married to a man working in Bank and has two daughters. One of her
daughters wants to become a pilot and the other wants to be a doctor. Seeing the success of
Sheetal, many parents have started sending their daughters to school. Sheetal goes door-to-
door to convince parents who still are not sending their children to school.

ACTIVITY 9.2

Make a list of important personalities who have contributed to Women's education in India
apart from the above-mentioned personalities.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 9.2

1. List out the evil social practices that prevented women to realize their full potential in
pre-independence India?

2. What was the main objective of the formation of the All-India Muslim Educational
Conference?

3. What was the essence of the educational philosophy of Mahatma Jyotiba Phule?

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Education and
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WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

 In the pre-British period, most of the people and majority of women were illiterate.
Only a very small number of people got the opportunity for education. In India, education
was controlled by upper castes. School Education was imparted in traditional Paathshalas,
Madrasas, Mosques and Gurukulas.
Notes
 Although the Charter Act of 1813 and the renowned Macaulay's Minute of 1835 gave
education in India some attention under British rule, it wasn't until the East India Company's
"Wood's Dispatch," which contained an educational development programme, was
passed in 1854 that special attention was paid to women's education and employment,
and the government took on direct responsibility for ensuring that women were literate.

 Socio religious movements led by eminent persons like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Iswar
Chandra Vidyasagar emphasized on women's education in India. They realized that
various customs and traditions were preventing women to realize their full potential.
Leaders of the lower castes in India, such as Mahatma Jyotiba Phule and Periyar,
undertook several steps to ensure that women could access education.

 Various Committees and Commissions in Independence India including The National

Committee on Women's Education (1958-1959), appointed by the Government of
India, The Committee on Differentiation of Curricula for Boys and Girls (1964),
Education Commission (1964-66) and National Policy on Education (1986), revised
in 1992 and New Education Policy 2020 have consistently strived to eliminate gender
stereotyping from curriculum and also in educational development of girls/women.

TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. Describe the important recommendations of Wood's Dispatch about Educational

Development in India?

2. Do you think that All-India Women's Conference has any role in promoting education
for Women? Justify.

3. Assess the role of the Arya Samaj in improving Women's education in Colonial India.

4. Explain the steps taken by Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar for women's education and
emancipation?

5. Mahatma Gandhi emphasized on Women's Education. Justify this statement with suitable
examples?

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Education and 6. "Pandita Ramabai was one of the renowned champions of women's education and
Gender emancipation in India". Justify the above statement with suitable arguments.

7. There is difference between Curriculum advocated for Gender Equality before and
after independence? Explain.

GLOSSARY
Patriarchy: Male domination or authoritative and absolute rule by the male head of the
Notes family.

Sati: The practice of self or forced immolation of a widow on the funeral pyre of her husband.

Missionaries: A group of people sent to a foreign country to teach their religion to the
people.

Subjugation: The domination and sub-ordination of women by men.

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

9.1

1. For the first time, the East India Company started taking interest and moving towards
taking responsibility in the area of education. Christian missionaries were able to
serve in India and spread education as a result of this action. The Charter Act of
1913 also provided encouragement for the promotion of Literature.

2. The All India Women's Conference has played an important role because it
emphasized that the English knowing Indians would get Government jobs.

3. Swami Dayanand Saraswati was deeply disturbed by the sad plight of Indian women
due to the influence of Dowry and early marriage.

9.2

1. Child Marriage, Sati, Purdah System.

2. The All-India Muslim Education Conference's primary goals were to advance

western education among Indian Musllims and to enrich the Urdu language through
the translation of significant scientific publications and advocating education for
women "as essential for the balanced intellectual development of future generations."

3. To be educated is a human right.

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