UNIT ONE – Introduction

1. Nature and Use of History

1. Nature of History

The term history derived from the Greek word Istoria, means “inquiry” or “an account of one’s
inquiries.” The first use of the term is attributed to one of the ancient Greek historians, Herodotus
(c. 484–425 B.C), who is often held to be the “father of history.”

What is history?

 In ordinary usage, history means all the things that have happened in the human past.
 Academically, history can be defined as a systematic study and an organized knowledge
of the past. The study involves the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of
information about past events.

What actually happened in the past is infinite. Thus, historians select which topics and problems
they wish to study, as do natural scientists.

What differentiates history from other disciplines?

The major concern of all disciplines is the interaction of between man and his environment. The
difference is other disciplines study the interaction between humans and their environment in the
present state, while history studies the interaction between the two in the past within the
framework of the continuous process of change taking place in time.

Because of the longevity of that time, historians organize and divide the human past into discrete
periods after identifying significant developments in politics, society, economy, culture,
environment etc. through the rigorous study of documents and artifacts left by people of other
times and other places. Then they give a label to each period to convey the key characteristics
and developments of that era. Accordingly, history is conventionally divided into ancient,
medieval and modern history. This is what we call periodization in history; one of the key
characteristics of the discipline.

1.2. Uses of History

What is the importance of learning history?

A. History Helps Better Understand the Present

On the basis of the past, People can understand the present situation. The past events give
information for present.

B. History Provides a Sense of Identity

Knowledge of history is indispensable to understand who we are and where we fit in the world.
An individual or a society without memory finds great difficulty in relating to others and in
taking intelligent decisions.

C. History Provides the Basic Background for Other Disciplines

Historical knowledge is extremely valuable in the pursuit of other disciplines such as literature,
art, philosophy, religion, sociology, political science, anthropology, economics, etc.

D. History teaches Critical Skills

Studying history helps students to develop key research skills. These include how to find and
evaluate sources; how to make coherent arguments based on various kinds of evidence and
present clearly in writing.

E. History Helps Develop Tolerance and Open-Mindedness

Most of us have a tendency to regard our own cultural practices, styles, and values as right and
proper. Studying different societies in the past acquire broad perspectives that give them the
range and flexibility required in many life situations.

F. History Supplies Endless Source of Fascination

Exploring the ways people in distant ages constructed their lives involves a sense of beauty and
excitement, and ultimately another perspective on human life and society.
Abuse of history

Abuses of history come mainly from deliberate manipulation of the past to fit the current
political agenda. Personal biases are not avoidable. Therefor historians should to take care when
they conduct a study of the past.

1.3. Sources and Methods of Historical Study

The work of historians must be supported by evidence arising from sources. Sources are
instruments that bring to life what appear to have been dead. It is said that “where there are no
sources, there is no history”. Sources are, therefore, key to the study and writing of history.

Historical sources are broadly classified into two types: Primary and Secondary.

Primary sources: are surviving traces of the past available to us in the present. They are original
or first hand in their proximity to the event both in time and in space.

Examples of primary sources are manuscripts (hand written materials), diaries, letters, minutes,
court records and administrative files, travel documents, photographs, maps, video and audio
visual materials, and artifacts such as coins, fossils, weapons, utensils, and buildings.

Secondary sources: are second-hand published accounts about past events. They are the
reconstructions and interpretations of primary sources. Examples of secondary sources are
articles, books, textbooks, biographies, and published stories or movies about historical events.
Secondary materials give us what appear to be finished accounts of certain historical periods and
phenomena.

Oral data constitute the other category of historical sources. Oral sources are especially valuable
to study and document the history of non-literate societies. They can also be used to fill
missing gaps and corroborate written words. In many societies, people transmit information from
one generation to another, for example, through folk songs and folk sayings. This type of oral
data is called oral tradition. People can also provide oral testimonies or personal recollections of
lived experience. Such source material is known as oral history.
Sources are subjected to critical evaluation before it is used as evidences. Primary sources must
be verified for their originality and authenticity. Secondary sources should be evaluated for their
reliability. Oral sources should be examined because of distortion.

1.3. Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn

Historiography can be defined as the history of historical writing, studying how knowledge of
the past, either recent or distant, is obtained and transmitted. The organized study and narration
of the past was introduced by ancient Greek historians notably Herodotus and Thucydides
(c.455-400 B.C.E.). The other major tradition of thinking and writing about the past is the
Chinese. The most important early figure in Chinese historical thought and writing was the Han
dynasty figure Sima Qian (145–86 B.C.E.).

History emerged as an academic discipline in the second half of the 19 th century in Europe. The
German historian, Leopold Von Ranke (1795–1886), and his colleagues established history as
an independent discipline in Berlin with its own set of methods and concepts by which historians
collect evidence of past events, evaluate that evidence, and present a meaningful discussion of
the subject. Ranke’s greatest contribution to the scientific study of the past is such that he is
considered as the “father of modern historiography.”

Ethiopian Historiography

Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn has changed enormously during the past hundred years.
The earliest known reference that we have on history of Ethiopia and the Horn is the Periplus of
the Erythrean Sea, written in the first century A.D by an anonymous author. Another document
describing Aksum’s trade and the then Aksumite king’s campaigns on both sides of the sea is the
Christian Topography composed by Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek sailor, in the 6th C.

Manuscripts and Hagiographies

Manuscripts: are the earliest written Ethiopian material dates from the 7 th century A.D. The
document was found in Abba Gerima monastery in Yeha and in Haiq Istifanos monastery of
present day Wollo in the 13th century A.D. The value of manuscripts is essentially religious.
Hagiographies: originating from Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Invariably written in Ge’ez, an
important function of hagiographies is enhancing the prestige and lives of saints. A parallel
hagiographical tradition existed among Muslim communities of the country. One such account
offers tremendous insight into the life of a Muslim saint, Shaykh Ja’far Bukko of Gattira, in
present day Wollo, in the late 19th century.

Chronicles

Chronicles were indigenous tradition of history writing. Chronicles in the ancient Ethiopian
Ge’ez tongue first appeared in the 14 th century and continue (sometimes in Amharic) into the
early 20th C. Kings or their successors entrusted the writing of chronicles to court scribes or
clergymen of recognized clerical training and calligraphic skills. The earliest and the last of such
surviving documents are the Glorious Victories of Amde-Tsion and the Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu
and Empress Zewditu respectively. Chronicles incorporate both legends and facts of the past and
contemporary about the monarch’s genealogy, upbringing military exploits piety and
statesmanship. Chronicles are known for their factual detail and strong chronological framework,
even if it would require considerable labor to convert their relative chronology to an absolute
one. They are also averse to quantification. Furthermore, chronicles explain historical events
mainly in religious terms; they offer little by way of social and economic developments even in
the environs of the palace.

The Role of Arab Writers in the development of Ethiopian historiography

The written accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors to the coast also provide useful information on
various aspects of the region’s history. For example,

 Al-Masudi and Ibn Battuta described the culture, language and import-export trade in
the main central region of the east African coast in the 10 th and in the 14th centuries
respectively.
 For the 16th and 17th Yemeni writers provided eyewitnesses account.
 The first document titled Futuh al Habesha was composed by Shihab al-Din, who
recorded the conflict between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim principalities in the
16th century. Besides the operation of the war including the conquest of northern and
central Ethiopia by Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, the document describes major
 towns and their inhabitants in the southeastern part of Ethiopia, although the discussion
abruptly ends in 1535.
 The other first-hand account was left to us by Al-Haymi, who led a Yemeni delegation in
1647 to the court of Fasiledas (r. 1632-67).

The Role of Abba Bahry

Other materials that appeared in the 16 th century include Abba Bahrey’s Geez script on the
Oromo, written in 1593. Notwithstanding its limitations, the document provides us with first-
hand information about the Oromo population movement including the Gadaa System.

The Role of European Missionaries and Travelers

The contribution of European missionaries and travelers to the development of Ethiopian

historiography is also significant. Example of such account is The Prester John of the Indies,
composed by a Portuguese priest, Francisco Alvarez who accompanied the Portuguese mission
to the court of Lebne-Dengel in 1520, and James Bruce’s Travels to Discover the Source of the
Nile, written the 18th century.

Foreign writers also developed interest in Ethiopian studies. One of these figures was a German,
Hiob Ludolf (1624-1704). Ludolf was the founder of Ethiopian studies in Europe in the
seventeenth century. He wrote Historia Aethiopica (translated into English as A New History of
Ethiopia). Ludolf never visited Ethiopia; he wrote the country’s history largely based on
information he collected from an Ethiopian priest named Abba Gorgorios (Abba Gregory). In the
19th century, August Dillman published two studies on ancient Ethiopian history.

Ethiopian Traditional writers in the early 20th century

Historical writing made some departures from the chronicle tradition in the early 20 th century.
This period saw the emergence of traditional Ethiopian writers who made conscious efforts to
distance themselves from chroniclers whom they criticized for adulatory tone when writing about
monarchs.

The earliest group of these writers includes Aleqa Taye Gebre- Mariam, Aleqa Asme Giorgis and
Debtera Fisseha-Giorgis Abyezgi. Later, Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus and Gebre-Hiwot
Baykedagn joined them. Unlike chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of topics from social
justice, administrative reform and economic analysis to history. Unfortunately, the Italian
occupation of Ethiopia interrupted the early experiment in modern history writing and
publications.

Ethiopia writers after liberation

After liberation, Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria formed a bridge between writers in pre-1935 and
Ethiopia professional historians who came after him. Tekle-Tsadik has published about eight
historical works. Another work of importance in this period is Yilma Deressa’s Ye Ityopiya Tarik
Be’asra Sidistegnaw Kifle Zemen (A History of Ethiopia in the Sixteenth Century). Blatten Geta
Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel who wrote a book entitled Zikre Neger, which is a
comprehensive account of Ethiopia’s prewar land tenure systems and taxation. Another writer of
the same category was Dejazmach Kebede Tesema, whose memoir of the imperial period,
published as Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962 E.C.

The 1960s was a crucial decade in the development of Ethiopian historiography for it was
because:

1. The opening of the Department of History in 1963 at the then Haile Selassie I University
(HSIU). Since then researches and students have been produced on various topics.
2. The establishment of Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) in the same year became another
institutional home of professional historiography of Ethiopia. Richard Pankhurst, the first
Director and founding member of the Institute is worthy of note here. Since its foundation,
the IES has been publishing the Journal of Ethiopian Studies for the dissemination of
historical research.

In other countries of the Horn, professionalization of history is a post-colonial phenomenon. The

School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) in London and the Department of History at the
University of Wisconsin-Madison had an immense role for the development of historiography of
the historiography of African countries.
1.4. The Geographical Context

The term “Ethiopia and the Horn” refers to that part of Northeast Africa, which now contains the
countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. The history of Ethiopia and the Horn has
been shaped by contacts with others through commerce, migrations, wars, slavery, colonialism,
and the waxing and waning of state systems. Yet, the evolution of human history owed much too
geographical factors notably location, landforms, resource endowment, climate and drainage
systems which continue to impact, as incentives and deterrents, the movement of people and
goods in the region.
 UNIT-TWO
PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
2.1. HUMAN EVOLUTION
Human evolution accounts for only a fraction of the history of the globe. Human evolution
evolved since circa/c. 4.5 billion years before present (BP). Between 3 and 1 billion years BP the
earliest life came into being. Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds and other small beings
emerged at c.800 million years BP. Between 200-170 years BP primates, placenta mammal
begins emerged. Later on, primates developed into Pongidae (chimpanzee, gorilla, gibbo,
orangutan, babbon…) while others evolved into Hominide (Human ancestors).

As archeological evidence, the East African Rift Valley is the cradle of humanity. In the Lower
Omo and Middle Awash River Valley, Ethiopian and foreign scholars discovered biological and
cultural evolution pieces of evidence. Different excavated fossil evidence concretized the
region’s home of humanity. In 2007, Chorolapithecus fossil dated 10 million years BP.
unearthed in Anchar (in west Hararghe). Ardipithicus Kadaba dated 5.8-5.2 million years
excavated in the Middle Awash. In 1994, the fossil dated 4.2 million years BP Ardipithecus
Ramidus was disclosed in Afar, Aramis. At Belohdelie in the Middle Awash discovered the
earliest fossil form of Australopithecines. It dated 3.6 million years BP. In 2000, at Dikika, Mille
exposed Austraropithecus Afarensis, Selam. It dated 3.3 million years BP. In 1974, at Hadar
excavators discovered Australopithecus Afarensis, Lucy/Dinkinesh. It dated c.3.18 years BP.
Lucy characterized 40 % body structure, 30 kg weighing, 1.07 meters height, a pelvis resembling
bipedal and its sex was female. In 1995, around Lake Turkana a fossil disclosed and named
Australopithecus anamensis. Between 1996 and 1999, a fossil named Australopithecus garhi
(in Afar language ‘surprise’) dated to 2.5 million years discovered at Bouri in Middle Awash.
The next human evolution development stage evolved the human brain. In this stage produced
the genus Homo. The stage believed to have emerged 2–2.5 million years BP. In Lower Omo
partial skull fossil of Homo habilis that dated 1.9 million years BP was discovered. Homo
habilis is a Latin term; “Homo” means human being, and “Habilis” refers to “skillful” use of
hands. At Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Godeb excavated the fossil of Homo erects.
Walking upright position is the feature of this species. It dated 1.6 million years BP and spread to
the rest of the world from its origin in Africa. Boda is the skeleton name of Archaic Homo
sapiens, “wise” human being that discovered in Middle Awash. Its brine size covers from 1300-
1400 cc and dated 400,000 years BP. Sub-species of Homo sapiens, Homo sapiens sapiens
dated 100,000 years BP, discovered at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa and Kibish around Lower
Omo. In 2004, the Kibish fossil re-dated to 195, 000 years BP. As a result, it is the oldest date in
the world for modern Homo sapiens. Homo sapiens idaltu a sub-species of Homo sapiens
excavated in Middle Awash. It dated about 160, 000 years BP.
Socio-economic transformation related to cultural evolution. Cultural evolution grouped under
Stone, Bronze, and the Iron ages. Stone tools grouped into three viz. Mode, I, II, and III. Mode
I stone tool called Oldowan. Because the first evidence of this material reported at Oldowan
Gorge, Tanzania. These tools characterized by crude and mono-facial styles. These material
produced by direct percussion i.e. using stone directly to striking. Mode II got the name
Acheulean based on the first repot that came at St.Acheul, France. Based on the evidence that
material produced by indirect percussion, i.e. using another tool like hand axe or hammer to
striking the stone. This material has bifacial, pointed and convex features. Mode III called
Sangoon and it is refined production of obsidian, a black glass volcanic rock. Flexibility is the
feature of this material.
Example materials are excavated in the Horn. Fossilized animal bones dated 3.4 million years BP
were excavated with stone-tool-inflicted marks at Dikika in 2010. It is the oldest evidence of
stone tool in the world. Based on artifacts Homo habilis made Oldowan tools (Mode I). This
material evidence discovered near Gona (2.52 millio years BP) in 1992 and at Shungura, both in
the Afar region. Homo erectus produced Acheulian tools dated 1.7 million years BP. Homo
erectus invented fire and stared burial practice. Acheulian tools aged over 1 million years
unearthed at Kella, middle Awash, in 1963, as well as Konso. Sangoon tools dated back to 300,
000 BP produced by Home sapiens. In central Ethiopian Rift Valley, at Gademotta site
unearthed evidence of this tool with confirmation dated back to 200,000 years BP. In Ethiopia,
Gorgora, Ki’one, and Yabello and Midhidhishi and Gudgud in Somalia have offered noteworthy
information about Stone Age communities.
Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic are the three periods of Stone Age. Paleolithic or Old Stone
Age covers from 3.4 million to 11, years BP. During this period human beings developed
language, sheltered in caves as, and used stone, bone, wood, fur and skin materials to prepare
food and clothing. Work division based on sex and age started during this period. So, able-
 bodied males hunted fauna (animals) whereas children and females gathered flora (plant). The
Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age period covered from 11,000-10,000 BP. It was a transition
period from Paleolithic to Neolithic. Neolithic or New Stone Age covered from 10,000-6,000
BP.
2.2. Neolithic Revolution (New Stone Age)
This period covered from 10,000-6,000 BP. During this period, human beings started a new way
of settlement and livelihood. Regarding to settlement, they transformed from a mobile to
sedentary way of life. Their livelihood also shifted from hunting and gathering to domestication
of plants and animals. The reasons behind their transformation are climate change and the
increment of hunter and gatherer population led to decline of a number of animals and
accessibility of plants. Food gatherers also understood the growing cycle of most grass types.
Thus, they began to grow most common and yielded more editable-seeds of plants.
In various parts of the world domestication process took place independently. In the elevated and
wetter parts of the Horn, eragrotis teff, dagussa (eleusin coracana), nug (guzotia), ensete
ventricosum etc, were cultivated. In Emba-Fakada around Adigrat in Tigray as well as in
Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea discovered Neolithic material cultures like polished axes, beads,
ceramics, grinding stones, stone figures and animal remains. In Lalibela Cave disclosed remains
of domesticated cattle, chickpeas and vegetables. At Laga Oda rock shelter in Chercher found
this type of stone tools. It used for cutting grass and rock paintings of tamed animals. Around
Lake Basaqa near Matahara town excavated evidence of cattle domestication. Nidamawa and
Zebu (Bos indicus) cattle were domesticated in Sudan (Playa Napata and Kado), Libya
(Cyrenaica) and West Africa (Futajalon). Those cattle species latter on expanded to Ethiopia and
the Horn.
2.3. Peopling of the region
2.3.1. Language and Linguistic Processes
In Ethiopian and the Horn spoke approximately 90 languages with 200 dialects. As Linguistics,
the languages of the region grouped into two major language supper families namely Afro-
Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan. Afro-Asiatic has sub-division of families. These are Cushitic, Semitic
and Omotic language families.
 Cushitic divided as:
 Northern: represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea bordering the Sudan.
  Central: Agaw, including Awign, Kunfel, Qimant, Hamtanga and Bilen.
 Eastern: Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba,
Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, Sidamo, Somali, Tambaro, Tsemai…
 Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania.
 Semitic further divided;
 North: Ge’ez, Rashaida (spoken around the Eritrea-Sudanese border), Tigre (spoken in the
Eritrean lowlands), Tigrigna (spoken in the highland Eritrea and Tigray).
 South:
 Transvers: Amharic, Argobba, Harari, Silte, Wolan and Zay.
 Outer: Gafat (extinct) and Gurage
 Omotic divided more than 33 languages viz. Anfilo, Bambasi, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-
Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi, Dorze, Gamo, Ganza, Gayil, Gofa, Hamer, Hozo,
Kachama-Ganjule, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Nayi, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho,
Shekko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse, etc.
Nilo-Saharan: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu,
Majang, Mi’en, Murle, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri and Uduk.
Language classification does not remain static. Intense linguistic processes that brought by
population movements, warfare, trade, religious and territorial expansion, urbanization, etc.
affected languages. In this process, some languages died out or have been in danger of extinction
while others thrived over time.
2.3.2. Settlement Patterns
Population spatial distribution in northeastern Africa is the result of long historical processes.
Since early times, Cushitic and Semitic peoples have inhabited in the area between the Red Sea
in the east and the Blue Nile in the west. From these areas they have dispersed in different
direction. In due course, Cushitic becomes the largest ethnic group in the Horn of Africa and
even spread from the Sudan to Tanzania. Similarly, the Semitic the second largest group spread
over a large area and finally settled in the north, north central, northeastern, south central and
eastern parts of the Horn. The Omotic people’s lives southwestern Ethiopia along the Omo River
basin. Exceptions, the Bambasi and Boro have lived in Benishangul-Gumuz and Anfilo in
Wallaga. Yet, in earlier times, they extended much further to the north. Nilotes are largely settled
along the Ethio-Sudanese border. Some of the Chari-Nile family, identified as the Karamojo
cluster, inhabited as far as Turkana Lake.
2.3.3. Economic Formations
Plant and animal domestication led to humanity to adapt two interdependent modes of life: arable
and pastoral farming. While there may be pure pastoralists, it is very rare to think of a farmer
without a head of cattle or two. Similarly, in the Horn, these two forms of livelihood have
coexisted and are quite often interrelated. But topographic features and climatic conditions
largely affected economic activities of the region.
A predominantly pastoral economy (rearing camel, goat, cattle, etc) has characterized the eastern
lowlands of Afar, Saho, and Somali as well as Karayu and Borana Oromo. Awash River gives
life for Afar and Karayu, Whereas, Somali depend on the Wabi Shebelle and Genale (Jubba)
rivers. Since 10,000 years BP mixed farming practiced in the highland population of Cushites,
Semites, and Northern Omotic groups. But the southern Omo predominantly practiced
pastoralism and fishing. Many Omotic groups engaged handcraft (metallurgy, weaving and other
crafts) and trade. The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo have been shifting cultivators.
They have used sorghum as the staple food. As millet, cotton, and other crops cultivated sparsely
populated western lowland areas. Cattle in the majority of Nilotic communities have high
economic and social value, supplemented with agriculture, fishing and hunting.
2.4. Religion and Religious Processes
2.4.1. Indigenous Religion
Since ancient times peoples of the region followed various beliefs and practices. Belief in a
supreme being is a distinctive mark. Sacred special powers attributed to natural phenomena.
Spiritual functionaries have officiated rituals and propitiated divinities as intermediaries between
society and the spirits.
Waqeffanna of the Oromo is based on the existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa. The
power of Waqa manifested through Ayyana (spirits), Abdari (plant fertility spirit), Atete (animal
fecundity spirit), Balas (victory spirit), Chato (beasts’ defender), Gijare (father’s and mother’s
spirit), Jaricha (peace spirit), Qasa (health deity), Ekera (dead ghost residing at Hujuba/grave).
Irrecha thanksgiving festival has been celebrating the edge of the ever-flowing river and the
mountain top in autumn and spring respectively. Revered experts Qallu (male) and Qallitti
(female) have maintained a link between the Ayyana and believers through Dagala (ecstasy) at
Galma (ritual house). The Jila/Makkala (delegates) made a pilgrimage to get the consecration of
Abba Muda (anointment father) dwelling at Goro-Fugug, roving within the southern highlands of
Ethiopia and the Horn, until c. 1900.
In Hadiya’s Fandanano (original creed), the Supreme Being is known as Wa’a, who is believed
to have created the world (Qoccancho), and whose eyes are denoted by Elincho (sun) and Agana
(moon). Spirits like Jara (male’s protector), Idota (female’s guard), Hawsula and Woriqa
attracted prayers and sacrifices. Some connoisseurs are believed to have the power to bring rain
during drought. The Kambata have had Negita/Aricho Magano (Sky God) and Magnancho
(religious officials). The Gedeo have had Mageno (Supreme Being) and Deraro (thanks giving
rite). The Konso religion has been centered on warship of Waaq (Wakh). The Gojjam Agaw
called the Supreme Being Diban.
Among the Gurage, there have been Waq/Goita (Supreme Being), Bozha (thunder deity) and
Damwamwit (health goddess). The Yem worshipped Ha’a (Sky God); the So’ala clan was in
charge of Shashokam (the most vital deity), religious functions were performed through couriers
in each village called Magos. The Konta spirit-cult was called Docho. The Wolayata called God
Tosa and spirits Ayyana, including Tawa-Awa/Moytiliya (father’s spirit dwelling Dufuwa/grave),
Sawuna (justice spirit), Wombo (rain spirit), Micho (goat spirit), Nago (sheep spirit), Kuchuruwa
(emergency spirit), Gomashera (war spirit), Talahiya (Omo spirit), ets. The Sharechuwa
(religious practitioners) have had Becha/Kera Eza Keta (ritual house).
Yero Keficho Supreme Being, the spirit Eqa, and all spirits fathers host Dochi-nayo
(Ibedechino/Ibede-gudeno). Harvest spirit/Kollo’s sacrifice is Dejo. Earth and area spirits are
known as Showe-kollo and Duke-baro, respectively. There are also local spirits like Channa’s,
Damochechi, Sharada’s Yaferochi, Adio’s Wogidochi, and Gepetato (hill kings) identified by the
Yetecho clan. Dugo clan members led spiritual services.
Among the Boro clans (Enoro, Endiwo and Dowa), supernatural being is called Iqa. Among the
various prayer rituals, Gure shuka is designated for ecological preservation through slaughtering
animals at mountain tops. Shode de’na is slaughtering when unexpected disease occurs.
Marrowa shuka is slaughtering to prevent children from diseases, for wealth rehabilitation, and
to promote a harmonious life and productivity in the family. Rituals are led by recognized elders.
The Nuer believes in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven) coming through rain, lightning and thunder,
and the rainbow is his necklace. Sun, Moon and other entities are also signs of God. There are
also clan sprites such as Wiw (sprit of war) associated with thunder.
An interesting feature of indigenous religion is the way in which its beliefs and practices are fuse
with Christianity and Islam. This intermixing of the religious is known as syncretism.
2.4.2. Judaism
In the northern and northwestern Ethiopia, the Bete-Israel (literally, ‘house of Israel’/ Ethiopian
Jews), formerly known as “Falasha,’’ practiced Haymanot (religious practice different from
Rabbinic Judaism). Many of their accounts trace the origin of the same people from Dan Tribe
that migrated to Ethiopia led by the sons of Moses during the Exodus (1400-1200 BC). Other
claim they arrived with Menilik I, believed to be the son of King Solomon (r. 974-932) of Israel
and Queen Saba (Sheba), also known as Azeb (Makeda). Another group is said to have arrived in
Ethiopia led by persons known as Azonos and Phinhas in the six century AD. Still others are said
to have been Jewish immigrants who intermarried with the Agaw groups. On the other hand,
scholars like Taddese Tamirat and Kay Shelmay argue that they are remnants of Old Testament
followers of Orthodox Christianity and local converts, not migrants.
2.4.3. Christianity
In 334, during the reign of King Ezana (r. 320-360) Christianity became a state religion and
dropped pre-Christianity gods like Ares (the war god), Arwe (serpent-python god), Bahir (sea
god) and Mider (earth god), and embraced Christianity. The two Syrian brothers, Aedesius and
Frementius (Fremnator) were served as instrument in the conversion. When Fremnatos (also
known as Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) visited Alxanderia, Patriarch Atnatewos (328-373)
appointed him as the first Bishop of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC). The consecration of
bishops by the Coptic Church continued until 1959, when Abune Basilios became the first
Ethiopian Patriarch.
During the reign of Ella Amida II (478-486) Christianity expanded to the mass of the people by
the Nine Saints, who came mostly from different regions of the Byzantine Empire. Those saints
built several churches, such as Debre Damo, and translated the Holy Bible and other spiritual
texts into Ge’ ez. The expansion of Christianity continued and gained fresh momentum during
the Zagwe dynasty (1150-1270) and the early medieval period (1270-1527), when many
churches and monasteries were constructed. These churches and monasteries are not mere
religious centers, but have served as repositories of ancient manuscripts and precious objects of
art throughout the ages.
The Jesuits attempted to convert EOC to Catholicism from the mid-sixteenth to the early
seventeenth centuries, which Taddesse calls “evangelizing the evangelized.” However, this led to
bloody anti-Catholic rebellion and civil war that directly led to the expulsion of the Jesuit in
1632. Missionaries’ religious expansion was one of the dominant themes of the treaties
concluded between European diplomats and Ethiopian authorities in the nineteenth century. The
Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (founder of the Lazarist mission), Giustino De Jacobis (founder of the
Capuchin order) and Cardinal Massaja were the more prominent ones. The Anglican Church
Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary Society of London (CMSL), and Wesleyan
Methodist Society led by Gobat, Isenberg and Krapf introduced and expanded Protestantism.
2.4.4. Islam
In 610 AD, Prophet Muhammad started preaching Islam in Makkah, but he faced oppositions
from the Quraysh rulers. To avoid persecution, he sent some of his early followers to Aksum.
Jafar Abu Talib led the first refuges. In his advice to his followers, the Prophet described the
Ethiopian rulers as “….a king under whom none are persecuted. It is a land of righteousness,
where God will give you relief from what you are suffering.” The then Aksumite king, Armah
Ella Seham/Ashama b.Abjar (Ahmed al-Negash in Arabic sources), duly gave them asylum.
When the Quraysh leaders asked him to repatriate the refugees, Armah is said to have replied “If
you were to offer me a mountain of gold I would not give up these people who have taken refuge
with me.”
Then, peacefully Islam spread to the Horn, including trade. The Muslim communities on the
islands developed a sultanate that predominantly influenced pastoral communities of the coastal
areas in the early tenth century. In the speared of Islam into the interior, however, the Dahlak
rote played a minor role. Because Christianity in Aksum and the successors states of northern
Ethiopia strongly entrenched. Thus, the port of Zeila on the western coast of the Gulf of Aden
served as an important gateway for Islam, which was firmly established in the coastal areas by
the eighth and ninth centuries. From there, it radiated to the eastern, northeastern, central and
southern part of the Horn through the agency of Muslim clerics who followed the footsteps of
traders. A religious leader by the name of Sheikh Hussien played a vital role in Islam’s
expansion into Bale, Arsi, and other southern part of the Horn. Another Islamic center in Bale is
the Sof Umar cave. Harar also played a pivotal role in the expansion of Islamic learning. Islam
was introduced into Somali territories through the Indian Ocean coasts of Benadir (Moqadishu,
Brava and Merca) in the eighth century. Mosques and other centers became the depositories of
cultures, traditions and literature of the local Muslims.
 UNIT THREE
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
TO THE END OF THE 13th CENTURY
3.1. Emergence of States
State refers to an autonomous political unit having population, defined territory, sovereignty and
government with the power to decree and enforce laws. State was the outcome of regular cultural
process. Favorable environmental conditions helped to hasten the rate of transformation in some
regions. Religious leaders such as shamans played prominent role in maintaining the social and
religious affairs of their people during the initial formation of the states. As production became
market oriented, religious elites were gradually replaced by chiefs, who began collecting regular
and compulsory tributes which amounted to protection payments with which they maintained
themselves, their supporters chiefly the army, the bureaucracy and other followers.
One important factor for the emergence of states was the beginning of sedentary agriculture.
Peoples had to descend from mountainsides to build houses near cultivated plots fencing both
farming fields and residences, and harvested crops had to be stored and protected from humidity
and rodents. Families preferred to live together forming larger communities for better security
and to help each other in hard works. Using stick or hoe for planting was gradually replaced by
ox-drawn plough and farmers acquired surplus produce to exchange with better tools and clothes
with the artisans who were able to specialize in the production of these items. Gradually,
intermediaries (traders) also began to buy the products of both to take to predetermined places or
markets for exchange. Therefore, states were formed mainly through the expansion of agriculture
that gave rise to class differentiation. Furthermore, the growth of trade facilitated the
development of states.
Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa where early state formation took place.
From small beginnings, such states gradually developed into powerful kingdoms and even
empires with a well-demarcated social structure. Geographical proximity to and control of the
international water bodies like Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean along with their ports as
well as rich interior favored some of them to become stronger than their neighbors and
eventually dominated them.
 3.2. Ancient States
3.2.1. North and Northeast
Punt

Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn. The evidence on Punt comes from
Egyptian hieroglyphic writings, accompanied by vivid a painting that describes series of naval
expeditions, which the Egyptian Pharaohs sent to Punt. Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.) sent
expedition to collect myrrh, ebony and electrum (gold and silver alloy). During Pharaoh Asosi,
treasurer of God Bawardede took dancing dwarf “dink" to Egypt from Punt. The best described
and illustrated expedition was the one undertaken by the order of the famous Egyptian Queen
Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.). She sent five ships under the leadership of Black Nubian Captain
Nehasi via Wadi-Tumilat. The expedition was warmly welcomed by the Puntites King Perehu
and his wife Ati. The expedition was able to return collecting frank incense, cinnamon, sweet
smelling woods (sandal), spices, ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard and leopard skins, ostrich
feathers and egg, live monkeys, giraffes, people etc. In return, axes, daggers, swords, knives,
sickles, clothes, bracelets, necklaces, beads and other trinkets were imported from Egypt to Punt.

Scholars have not reached agreement as to the exact location of Punt. The varieties of incense
and myrrh mentioned in the writings have suggested northern or northeastern Somalia to some
scholars while others are inclined more towards Northern Ethiopia because of the reference to
gold, ebony and monkeys. The latter reinforce their guess arguing that at that early period,
Egyptian sailboats might not have been strong enough to pass through the Strait of Bab-el
Mandeb into the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean. Considering the two suggestions, still some
others argue that it probably stretched from Swakim or Massawa to Babel Mandeb (Gate of
Tears) and Cape Guardafui.
Da’amat
Da’amat had a center a little to the south of Aksum. The king of Da’amat used politico-religious
title known as Mukarib. Various gods and goddesses like Almouqah (principal god), Astarr
(Venus god), Na’uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin (moon god) were worshipped in
Da’amat and other pre-Aksumite cultural centers, similar in South Arabia at the time.
Among the major cultural centers in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea were:
  Yeha: is located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum and was the oldest of these centers. It
probably emerged around 1, 000 BC as a small emporium where South Arabian
merchants and their agents bought and stored commodities coming from the interior. Its
(zenith) was from about 750 to 500 B.C. Remains of walls of some of its buildings and
stone masonry as well as still standing temple and inscriptions indicate Yeha’s glory.
 Hawulti Melazo: is located to southeast of Aksum, where stone tablets that are inscribed
in rectangular temple surrounded by a wall decorated with paintings representing herds of
cattle have been excavated.
 Addi-Seglemeni: is located at 10kms southwest of Aksum, from where a stone slab is
found and the oldest Ethiopian monumental inscription is discovered.
There were also other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi
Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda etc.
The Aksumite State
The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C. Initially, its power was
limited to a relatively small area comprising the town of Aksum and its environs. Gradually,
however, it expanded to include large territories in all directions. In its heyday, Aksumite
territories extended from the Red Sea coast in the East to the Western edge of Ethiopian plateau
overlooking the vast Nile Valley in the west and from the northern most corner of Eritrea and
possibly as far south as northern parts of Shewa.
According to Periplus of Erithrean Sea, Adulis on the western coast of the Red Sea was the
major port of Aksum. The long distance trade routes from Adulis and other posts on the Red Sea
coast passed inland through such centers as Kaskasse, Coloe, Matara and even further west
across Takaze River. The document also mentioned ports of Aden (Eudaemon) Gulf like
Avalites (Zayla) and Malao (Berbera), and Indian Ocean Benadir Coasts like Serapion
(Moqadishu), Nicon (Brava) and Merca. The major items of export of the Aksumite state
consisted mainly of the natural products such as ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and some
spices (like ginger, cassia and cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise
shells and some curiosity animals like apes.
In turn, a number of manufactured products like garments and textiles from Egypt, India, the
Roman Empire, and Persia; glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other places; metallic sheets,
tools or utensils of various kinds, oil and wine from Italy and Syria were imported. Zoscales (c.
76-89), the then king of Aksum, used to speak the Greek language, the Lingua Franca of Greco-
Roman world. Aksum also had relations with Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Laodicea (Asia Minor).
The Adulis inscription written in Greek about an unknown king, who eventually was published
in Cosmas Indicopleustes’ book, the Christian Topography, describes commercial activities of
the Red Sea areas. It also mentions the internal long distance trade between Aksum and a distant
region called Sasu, most probably in Beni Shangul and the adjoining lands beyond the Blue Nile.
A big caravan made up of close to five hundred merchants some of them special agents of the
kings of Aksum would take to Sasu cattle, lumps of salt (probably salt blocks) and iron to
exchange for gold. Yet, as they did not speak each other’s language, and did not even trust to be
near to each other to bargain through signs and gestures, the whole exchange was done without
one side seeing the other. This was a good example of silent trade. Aksumite kings had extensive
contacts with the outside world notably with the South Arabian region, leading to exchange of
ideas, material and spiritual culture. Sometimes such contacts involved conflicts between the two
regions. One of such known recorded conflict between areas on both sides of the sea took place
around 200 A.D.
Accordingly, peoples in Southern Arabian Peninsula, in present day Yemen, had difficulties in
defending themselves against the army of the Aksumite king, Gadarat. From the third to the
seventh centuries, Aksumite kings like Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ousanas II, etc. minted and
issued different kinds of coins in gold, silver and bronze for both overseas and local transactions.
Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i. e. Roman Empire, Persia, China and
Aksum) at the time. It was a major naval and trading power from the first to the seventh
centuries. Aksumite ships were the main means of transporting goods. Aksum was the only one
with sufficient sources of timber for ship building and in those days, the technology for it existed
in Adulis. Aksum had a large fleet of ships, which was used not only for trade but also for its
wars across the Red Sea. Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of Aksum beyond
Himyar and Saba, but the local prince Dhu-Nuwas was converted to Judaism, marched to Zafar
and Nagran, and killed many Christians.
Byzantine Vasaliev Justinian (r. 527-65) with sanctification of Patriarch Timit III (518-538)
provided Kaleb with a number of ships to transport armies led by Julianos and Nonossus against
Dhu Nuwas. Dhu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed Abraha as governor of Arabia that
continued until 570 A. D. Kaleb was succeeded by his son Gabra Masqal (r.535-48) who built a
church at Zur Amba in Gayint. It was during Gabra Maskal that Yared developed Ethiopian
Orthodox Church liturgical songs and hymns. The Aksumite state begun to decline since the late
7th century because of internal and external challenges. Environmental degradation, decline in
agricultural productivity and possibly plague infestation started to weaken it. With the
destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702, the international lifeline of the state
was cut. The whole network of Aksumite international trade came under the control of the rising
and expanding Arab Muslims, isolating the Aksum state from its old commercial and diplomatic
partners.
Consequently, the Aksumite state declined economically. This naturally led to the decline of its
political and military power not only on the Red Sea coast but also in its interior provinces,
where Aksumite hegemony was challenged by local rebellions. The recurring rebellions of the
Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the collapse of the Aksumite
state. However, as a civilization, Aksum had a profound impact upon the peoples of the Horn of
Africa and beyond, and on its successors i.e. the Zagwe, ‘Solomonic Dynasty’, the Gondarine
period etc. Some of its achievements include Sub-Saharan Africa’s only surviving indigenous
script and calendar as well as EOC hymns and chants, paintings etc; diversified ceramic and
lithic tools, ivory curving, and urbanization and sophisticated building traditions (palaces, stele,
rock-hewn churches…). It also developed complex administrative and governance system, and
agricultural system including irrigation etc.
Zagwe Dynasty (c.1150 to 1270)
After its decline, the center of Aksumite state shifted southwards to Kubar rural highland in the
territory of the Agaw, one of the ancient inhabitants of the land between the Eritrean Plateau and
Jema River, and to the west up to the Blue Nile valleys. This apparently gave Agaw elites the
opportunity to take part in Aksumite state structure serving as soldiers and functionaries for at
least four centuries. After integrating so well with Aksumite ruling class, they successfully took
over the state administration. Accordingly, the Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot married
Masobe Worq, the daughter of the last Aksumite king Dil Na'od. Later he overthrew his father-
in-law and took control of power. Merra-Teklehaimanot's successors include Yimirahana
Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibela, Ne'akuto La'ab, and Yetbarek.
The agaw rulers renewed cultural and trade contact with eastern Mediterranean region. The most
important export items included slaves, ivory and rare spices while cotton, linen, silver and
copper vessels, various types of drags and newly minted coins were imported. Furthermore, the
Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's paintings and the translation of some religious
works from Arabic into Ge'ez. Hawever, zagwe rulers are best known for construction of famous
monolotic churches of Lalibela. The idea behind the collection of 11 churches was to replicate
the holy land in Ethiopia. Zagwe rulers wanted to establish the second Jerusalem, and mitigate or
even avoid difficulties, which Ethiopian Christians encountered in their journey to the Holy
Lands. This was done by constructing churches based on the model of Holy Lands in Israel.
The Zagwe Dynasty came to end due to internal problems of royal succession and oppositions
from groups claiming descent from the ancient rulers of Aksum.
The latter considered Zagwe kings “illegitimate rulers” based on the legend of the Queen of
Sheba. The legend was in turn based on a book known as Kebra-Negest (Glory of Kings) that
was translated from Coptic to Arabic and then into Ge’ez. Based on the legend, the
powerclaimants contend that “Solomonic” Dynasty ruled the Aksumite state until its power was
“usurped” by the Zagwes. Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285), who claimed decent from the last
Aksumite king Dilna’od, assisted by ecclesiastical hierarchy and engaged the last king of Zagwe,
Yetbarek in battle. Yetbarek was killed in Gaynt and Yekuno-Amlak took the state power
proclaiming the “restoration” of “Solomonic” Dynasty.
3.2.2. East, Central, Southern, and Western States
3.2.2.1. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat
Bizamo: was a kingdom located on the southern bend of Abay River just opposite to the present
districts of Gojjam and around the current Wambara area. It was founded in the eighth century
and had early connections with Damot.
Damot: was a strong kingdom that expanded its territories into most of the lands the south of
Abay and north of Lake Turkana as well as west of Awash and east of Didessa. Motalami was a
prominent king of Damot in the thirteenth century.
Enarya: was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia. The royal clan was Hinnare
Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso). Enarya's kingship was a divine one: the king (HinnareTato) was
secluded and considered as sacred. He communicated with visitors through an intermediary,
AfeBusho. The real power rested with Mikretcho (council) including Awa-rasha (king's
spokesperson) and Atche-rasha (royal treasurer). The kings had residences in Yadare and Gowi.
In the ninth century, Aksumite king Digna-Jan is said to have led a campaign into Enarya,
accompanied by Orthodox Christian priests carrying tabotat (singular tabot, also called tsellat,
replica of the Ark of the convenient) in the ninth century.
Gafat: historically, the territory of Gafat lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River adjoining Damot
on the south western periphery of the Christian Kingdom. It was inhabited by Semitic speaking
population related to Harari and the Gurage. It is not clear from available records whether the
Gafat formed a “state” or not, but Gafat mountains provided a rich source of gold. Despite efforts
by Christian evangelists, the Gafat largely remained practitioners of their own indigenous
religion. As of early medieval period, Gafat was paying tribute to the Christian Kingdom mainly
in cattle, which came from six districts, among which Gambo and Shat are Gafat clan
names.Gafat’s ruler bore the title of Awalamo.
3.2.2.2. Muslim Sultanates
After the spread of Islam since the beginning of the eighth century, viable Muslim communities
and states had been established at many locations especially along the main trade routes from
Zeila and its many branches penetrating the interior. These states include:
Shewa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed decent from Meca, set up the Makhzumite
Sultanate in 896 A. D (283 A.H.) on northeastern foothill of Shewa.
Fatagar: was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in the eleventh century. It was a hilly
lowland area with thoroughly cultivated fields of wheat and barley, fruits, and extensive grazing
grounds full of numerous herds of cattle, sheep and goats.
Dawaro: located south of Fatagar between upper waters of Awash and Wabi-Shebelle extending
to Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast. We have valuable information on Dawaro by
an Egyptian courtier Ibn Fad Allah el-umari. It was much smaller than Ifat, but resembled it in
many aspects. Dawaro had a currency called hakuna for transaction.
Bali: was an extensive kingdom occupying high plateau, separating basins of Shebelle and Rift
valley Lakes. It was separated from Dawaro by the Wabi-Shebelle River and extended
southwards to the Gannale Dirre River. Bali was one of thelargest of Ethiopia’s Muslim
provinces. Its economic activity resembles those of other nearby Muslim lands. Trade was
mainly based on barter exchanging cattle, sheep, cloth etc. It had strong army composed of
cavalry and infantry.
Ifat: was a state located adjacent to Shewan Sultanate. Its territory ran from northeast-
southwesterly in the Afar plain eastward to the Awash. It was established by Umar Walasma,
who claimed descent t from Hashamite clan and said to have come from Arabia between 1271
and 1285. He intervened between quarrelsome Makzumite princes Dil-Marrah and Dil-Gamis,
weakened and annexed the sultanate of Shewa. The sultanate was fertile and well watered. Its
inhabitants earned their living from cultivation of wheat, sorghum, millet and teff, and animal
husbandry. Sugar cane, bananas, variety of fruits, beans, squashes, cucumbers, and cabbage
completed the diet. Khat was described for the first time as being consumed as a stimulant.
Moqadishu: Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil established the moqadishu sultanet (c. 1269)
Others: mutually independent states like Arababani (between Hadiya and Dawwaro), Biqulzar,
Dera (between Dawaro and Bali), Fadise, Gidaya, Hargaya, Harla, Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah
(West of Dawaro and North of Bali in Arsi) and Sim were established and flourished.
3.3. External Contacts
Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with Egypt since at least 3,000 B. C. These relations may be
the region’s earliest contacts with the Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman World. It had
very close relations with all commercially active South Arabian Kingdoms starting sometimes
before 1,000 B.C. The introduction of Christianity to Aksum established a new pattern of
relation between the region and Egypt. Until the introduction of Islam into Egypt and the general
reduction of the Christians into minority, relations between the two were fairly smooth and
friendly. Following the introduction of Christianity, Aksum established close relationship with
the East Roman or Byzantine Empire with which it shared common commercial interest in the
Red Sea area against their rival Persians.
Yet, in the 7thc, this relation became complicated and began to deteriorate. The rapid expansion
of the Muslim Arabs through the near and Middle East, North Africa and the Nile valley led to
the decline of Aksumite land routes and shipping lines. Successive Egyptian Muslim rulers
began to use the consecration and sending of a bishop as an instrument to further their own
foreign policy objectives and to squeeze concessions from Ethiopian Christian rulers, who
reacted by threatening to divert the Nile. The coming to power of the Mamluk was followed by
the reciprocal persecution of religious minorities. Moreover, the Mamluk presented a barrier to
the contacts between Christian Ethiopia and European states. However, the tradition to visit
Jerusalem and other holy places in the Middle East had begun at the end of the first millennium
AD.
In order to reach the places, Ethiopian Christian pilgrims used the land route to Egypt. From
Cairo, again they used the land route to the Holy land. Consequently, there were considerable
numbers of Ethiopian Christian communities found in different regions, in Egyptian monasteries,
in the holy places of Palestine and Armenia, and in Italian city-states in subsequent centuries.
The communities living in different parts of the world served as an important link or bridge
between Ethiopian Christian Kingdom and Europe. When pilgrims met their fellow Christians of
Europe in the holy places, they transmitted information about the EOC and its exceptional
liturgical practices. They also explained about the territorial extent of the Christian Kingdom.
From the information, the Europeans began to consider Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as a very
powerful and wealthy state existing in the Horn of Africa.
Consequently, they wanted to use this imaginary strong Christian power in their struggle against
the Muslim powers in the Holy land. Around the middle of the 12th century, a myth about a very
rich and powerful Christian ruler known as Prester John began to circulate in Europe. The legend
was developed when the balance of the crusade war fought over Jerusalem between the
Christians of Europe and the Muslims of the Middle East was in favor of the latter. In 1165, a
letter addressed to European kings, thought to be sent by the Prester John appeared in Europe
mentioning about the enormous power of the Prester John. The geographical location of the
country of Prester John was not known to Europe for over a century. However, the Europeans
began to regard Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as the land of Prester John since the only Christian
kingdom between the Red Sea and the Indian sub-continent was the Ethiopian Christian
Kingdom. Then, they began to search for the location of the Kingdom and to make an alliance
with it.
3.4. Economic Formations
Agriculture and Land Tenure System
The mastery of the technology of irrigation also contributed to the growth of agricultural
production. Small valley head wetlands were drained for dry season cultivation. The people used
diverse soil fertility enhancement strategies like manuring, composting and spreading residues’
ashes as well as fallowing, crop rotation, intercropping and contour plowing. In times of peak
harvest seasons, farmers also organized teamwork.
The rules according to which members of the society hold share and use land constitute what is
known as the land tenure system. The most ancient system of land holding which survived in
many parts of Ethiopia and the Horn is the communal land tenure system. Communal right to
land is a group right. Here group refers to the family, the clan and the other lineage groups to
which the individual belonged. Each of these groups had communal right to the land they lived
in and freely exploited the resources of the land. Peasants in the north had rist rights in their
respective areas.
Rist is a kind of communal birthright to land by members of the families and clans whose
ancestors had settled and lived in the area over long periods. It is inherited from generation to
generation. Most of the subjects of the state had rist rights. The rist owners were known as bale-
rist. Yet, they paid tributes to the state and all land belonged to the state theoretically. Tribute
was collected through a complex hierarchy of state functionaries or officials who were given gult
right over the areas and populations they administered on behalf of the central government. Gult
is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’ produce. The tribute collected by bale-gults, partly
allotted for their own up keep and the rest were sent to the imperial center. Gult right that
became hereditary is known as riste-gult, whereby officials transfer their position to their
offspring.
Handicraft
Indigenous handcraft technology had existed since the ancient period. The social, economic and
political conditions of ancient states had allowed the emergence of artisans in various fields with
diverse forms and applications including metal work, pottery, tannery, carpentry, masonry,
weaving, jewelry, basketry and others. Metal workers produced spears’ points, swords , javelins,
bows, arrows, traps, slings, slashers, shields, knives, axes, sickles, hoes, ploughshares, spades,
machetes, hatchets, iron tripods, ornaments etc. Carpenters engaged in carving wood implements
like doors, windows, stools, chairs, tables, beds, headrests, mortars, bowls, beams, yoke, stilt,
coffins etc …while potters produced ceramic utensils like saucepan, ovens, jar, pot, kettle,
cooking tripod, plates, granary etc. Tanners produced leather tools used for bed, bed cover,
saddles, harness, ropes, footwear, prayer mats, sacks, honey and butter container, drinking cup
and clothes until replaced by weavers’ cotton dresses. However, except the carpenters and
masons in some cases, the artisans were mostly despised and marginalized. The ruling classes
mostly spent their accumulated wealth on imported luxurious items rather than the domestic
technology. The general public attitude towards artisans was not at all encouraging.
Consequently, the locally produced agricultural implements and house furniture did not show
any significant improvement and sophistication.
Trade
Trade was another important economic activity of ancient states that obtained considerable
income from both internal and international trade. The major socio-economic and political
centers of earliest states seem to have also been major trade centers with wide ranging contacts in
various directions within the region itself and with merchants coming to the area across the
international water bodies. A network of roads connected the centers with the coast and various
dependencies in the interior. Local and international merchants frequented these roads. The
region was crisscrossed by various trade routes connecting various market places in all
directions. The regular flow of trade was so vital to the states in that one of their major concerns
was to protect the trade routes and make them safe from robbers.
3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements
Architecture
As the states expanded, architecture also began to flourish and one of the unique architectural
technologies was the engraving of stele around the third century AD. There were totally fifty
eight steals in and around Aksum that can be grouped into well-made and decorated, half
completed and megaliths (not hewn). As local tradition says, the steles were engraved
specifically at Gobodara from which they were transported and planted in Aksum. The longest
one of these stele measures 33meters heights (the first in the world). It is highly decorated in all
of its four sides. It represents a-14 storied building with many windows and a false door at the
bottom. It also bears pre-Christian symbols, which are a disc and a crescent (half-moon) at the
top. Some scholars suggest that this giant stele was broken while the people were trying to erect
it. The second longest obelisk measures 24 meters height that was successfully erected and
represents a ten-storied building with many windows and a false door at the bottom. The third
longest stele measures 21 meters and represents a nine-storied building with many windows and
a false door at the bottom. It is smooth at the back of its side with no decoration.
Zagwe architecture used a softer material like sandstone, which was cut and shaped all round,
except the floor, into a variety of delicately decorated churches. Further refinement can be
observed in the construction and decoration of the rock-hewn churches in the Zagwe period. That
said, Zagwe rulers are best known for the construction of cave, semi-hewn and monolithic
churches:
1. Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar with natural cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel.
2. Semi-hewn: this and the monolithic churches that have become UNESCO world heritage are
unique in costructions. Semi-hewan is with detailed interior decoration and partial decoration
outside. They are not totally separated from the surrounding rock. Their roofs or walls are still
attached to the rock, eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos,
Bete Gabri’el-Rufa’el and Bete Abba Libanos.
3. Monolithic:detailed decoration in the interior and exterior parts. They are completely
separated (carved out) from surrounding rock, eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam
and Bete Medhanialem. Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem is the largest
of all and Bete Giyorgis is said to be the most finely built in the shape of the Cross.
The Zagwe churches are regarded as some of the finest architecture of artistic achievements of
the Christian world and that is why they were registered by UNESCO as part of world cultural
heritage in 1978, two years before that of the Aksumite stele.
Writing System
The Sabean language had an alphabet with boustrophedon writing type that is paleographical
writing from left to right and right to left alternatively. The earliest Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea
and Ethiopia date to the ninth century BC. One peculiar feature of Sabean inscriptions is absence
of vowels as most of the words are written in consonants. For instance, Da’amat was inscribed as
D’mt, while its successive kings are written as RDM, RBH and LMN using title, mlkn. After the
seventh and sixth centuries BC, however, variants of script arose, evolving in the direction of the
Geʽez script (an alpha syllabary). This evolution can be seen most clearly in evidence from
inscriptions mainly graffiti on rocks and caves.
By the first century AD, "Geʽez alphabet" arose, an abjad (26 consonant letters only) written
left-to-right with letters identical to the first-order forms of modern vocalized alphabet. Though
the first completely vocalized texts known are inscriptions by Ezana (who left trilingual
inscriptions in Greek, Sabean and Ge'ez) c. 330 AD, vocalized letters predate him by some years,
as vocalized letter exists in Wazeba’s coin some 30 or so years before. The process was
developed under the influence of Christian scripture by adding vocalic diacritics for vowels, u, i,
a, e, ə, o, to the consonantal letters in a recognizable but slightly irregular way, so that the system
is laid out as a syllabary. This indigenous writing system has immense contribution to the
development of literature, art.
Calendar
People needed to know and remember the times when the rains would begin and end as well as
the rise and fall of the water level. The responsibility of understanding these vital climatic cycles
fell on expertise. In due course, calendars were invented. In most cases, the length of the month
was based on the movement of the moon or the apparent movement of the sun.
Oromo calendar has been based on astronomical observations of moon in conjunction with seven
or eight particular stars or group of stars called Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars consisting of Lemi,
Busan, Algajima, Bakkalcha, Arba Gaddu, Walla and Besa). There are 29.5 dates in a month and
354 days in 12 months of a year. Pillars (dated 300 B.C.), which were discovered in northwestern
Kenya from 1978-86 by Archaeologists Lynch, Robbins and Doyl represent sites used to develop
the Oromo calendar. In connection with this, an Oromo named waqlim is said to have taken art
of shaping phallic bowls to Zimbabwe c. 900 A. D.
The Sidama calendar rotates following movements of stars with 13 months a year, 12 of which
are divided equally into 28 days while the thirteenth month has 29 days. The Sidama week has
only 4 days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado and Qawalanka) and hence each month has 7 weeks.
Nominated Mote (King) is presented to Fiche Chambalala, New Year ritual, and the ceremony is
known as Qetela or popular demonstration.
Ethiopic solar calendar has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6 (is added every 4 years)
Epagomenal days, which comprise a thirteenth month. A gap of 7–8 years between Ethiopic and
Gregorian calendars results from alternative calculation in determining date of Annunciation.
Thus, the first day of the year, 1 Meskerem/Enkutatash is usually September 11 (Gregorian).
However, it falls on September 12 in years before the Gregorian leap year. The Ethiopic solar
calendar has evolved to become the official calendar of the country.
The Muslim (Islamic) calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a year of 354 or
355 days. It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which Mohammed and his followers made
flight from Mecca to Medina and established the first Muslim community (ummah). Dates in this
era are usually denoted AH (After Hijra, "in the year of the Hijra"). Years prior to the Hijra are
reckoned as BH ("Before the Hijra").
Numerals
Geʽez numbers comparable to those of the Hebrew, Arabic and Greek appears at beginning of
fourth century AD. However, they lack characters for 100 multiples. Numbers are over- and
underlined in proper typesetting to create single bar but some less sophisticated cannot render.
 UNIT FOUR
3. POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE 13th TO THE
BEGINNING OF THE 16th CENTURIES
1.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonid’’ Dynasty
In 1270, the Zagwe dynasty was overthrown by Yekuno Amlak, who defeated Yetbarek, the last
king of Zagwe. Three factors that helped Yekuno Amlak to claim the power:
1. Strong military
2. Political (ideological) reason – propagated the anti-Zagwe movement
3. Economic reason – he controlled the profitable trade routes
The “Solomonids” claimed that the Zagwe was casted as “usurper”, the kings were illegitimate
rulers. The claim has been elaborated in the Kibre Negest (“Glory of Kings”) that associated
Ethiopia with the Judeo-Christian tradition. The Kibre Negest claims that Ethiopian ruling class
descended from the line of Menilek I, son of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon of Israel and
the ancient rulers of Aksum. The book delegitimizes the power of the Zagwe and legitimizes the
power of the new dynasty. Thus, the reign of Yikuno Amlak marked the restoration of the
“Solomonid” dynasty.
1.2. Internal Political Conflict
The formative years of the “Solomonids” faced two major challenges:
A) establishing a consistent modality of a succession to the throne (problem of succession)
B) formulating of an effective policy for regulating Christian-Muslim relation in Ethiopia
The succession problem erupted following the death of Yekuno Amlak and his son, Yagba
Tsion. The crises of succession problem have been partly resolved in 1300 during the reign of
Widim-Ra’ad (r. 1299-1314) following the establishment of a 'royal prison' at Amba-Gishen
located in present day southern Wollo where all male members of the royal family were
confined until one among them was installed in power. Loyal soldiers to the reigning monarch
guarded the royal prison. When the monarch died, court dignitaries would send an army to the
royal prison to escort the designated successor and put him on the throne. This practice continued
until Amba-Gishen was destroyed by Imam Ahmad Ibrahim Al-Ghazi’s force in 1540.
1.3. Power Consolidation and Spatial Extension

When Yekuno Amlak ascended the throne, the size of the territory of the Christian kingdom only
limited to Eritrea, northern, north eastern and central Ethiopia. Yet, until the coming of Amde-
Tsion (r.1314-44), the center and the territorial limit of the Christian Kingdom was mainly in
present day Tigray, Lasta, medieval Amhara and Shewa.

Upon becoming a King, Amde-Tsion embarked on two major projects:

i. Solidifying the power of the “Solomonid” Dynasty in the Christian provinces
ii. Enlarging the kingdom by conquering other political units (the Muslim sultanates, the
Ethiopian Jews land and the Omotic states of the South).

As soon as he ascended the throne, Amde Tsion made campaigns to the northern Christian
provinces of Eritrea and Tigray, and suppressed the revolts in Enderta. In the immediate
aftermath of the suppression of the revolts, Amde Tsion established an effective administration
over these regions.

Under Amde Tsion, the Christian kingdom saw a rapid territorial expansion. In the process of
consolidating his power, Amde-Tsion expanded his territory into the south and conquered the
vast kingdoms of Damot and Hadya between 1316and 1317. Subsequently, Gojjam and north of
Lake Tana basically the land of Bete-Israel (located between Dambiya and Tekeze River) were
annexed around this time. In the southeast, Amde Tsion reduced the Muslim sultanates which
concentrated from the Gulf of Aden to the Awash valley into tributary status. These states were
Ifat, Dawaro, Sharkha and Bali.

Amde-Tsion’s expansionist campaigns were motivated by the ambition to seize new lands and
gain control over the lucrative trade routes dominated by the Muslims (in short terrain and trade).
He was in full control of all the trade routes and sources of trade of the Ethiopian region in the
early 1330s. The rapid territorial expansion of the Christian Kingdom resulted in the subjugation
of the indigenous people in one hand and the mixture of linguistic, religious and cultural features
on the other hand.
1.4. Administration and Military Organization of the Ethiopian Christian Kingdom
1.4.1. Administration
The medieval Christian kingdom was not a unitary state; it was a loose confederation of
numerous principalities with diverse religious, ethnic and linguistic traits. The administrative
system of the kingdom consisted of three concentric circles around the core. These were:
 1. The innermost circle - constituted the core provinces directly controlled by the emperor
and administered by his representatives. Centralized administration appeared stronger.
2. The second circle (the largest part) – included the territories whose rulers, upon the
submission to the king, payment of tribute and fulfillment of obligations, could retain
their autonomy and hereditary positions. They were heavily garrisoned by chewa, a
military regiment.
3. The third circle – constituted territories that lay beyond the control of the king. The
authority of the monarch was symbolic. The local rulers recognized as autonomous
actors.
Despite the appointment of numerous titled officials at both the royal court and local levels, a
centralized system of administration was never fully achieved. King Zara-Yacob (r.1434-1468)
was particularly determined to establish a centralized administrative system by strengthening the
central authority. However, his radical reform faced opposition and finally failed.
1.4.2. Military Organization
For much of the medieval period, the kingdom’s army consisted of four types of regiments:1)
regular troops of the emperor, 2) regular troops of the individual military leaders, 3) specially
mobilized territorial troops, and 4) irregular troops.
The spearhead of the traditional army units were regiments called chewa (military regiment).
Other terms used to describe units or armies were serawit, hara (army) and chefera (body of
troops). A network of chewa regiments formed the core of the state’s army from the late 14 th
century to the early 16th century.
The military units had diverse religious and ethnic composition. To motivate the army the kings
promoted them to high positions. For example, Yekuno Amlak bestowed titles for his loyal and
trusted commanders and military officers. The most prestigious titles of the time included:
azmach, dejjazmach, ras, fitwarari, balambaras, azazh and basha.
During the reign of Amde Tsion, a significant reorganization and enhancement of royal army
occurred with the introduction of new units. The first unit consisted of territorial forces after the
provinces from which they were recruited such Amahara, Shewa, Hadya, Gojjam, Gondar e.t.c.
the second unit consisted of elite contingents with prestigious names signifying their military
powers, such as tekula (Jakal), Qeste Neheb (arrow of a bee) and Korem (cavalry). The third unit
was identified by their weapon and equipment that the soldiers wielded, such as Tsewareyane
warmat (carriers of spear), Tsewareyane warmat abbiyan (carriers of large spear), Tsewareyane
asayeft (carriers of swords).
Emperor Zara Yacob reorganized the chewa regiments by keeping them in the royal camp. He
also attempted to introduce new technologies and methods of warfare from Mamluk Egypt and
Christian Europe. Emperor Libne Dingil formed a large army: as shihab al-Din described it “as
numerous as locust.”
1.4.3. Temporal Administrative and Military Decline
The dominance of the Christian kingdom began to decline in the last three decades of 15 th
century. Factors for its decline were:
1. The internal political rift, which began after the death of King Zara Yacob. This time
onwards, the power of the monarchy weakened and the economy suffered. Less powerful
monarchs assumed power and they rival one another, which resulted in the decline of the
imperial power and the growing of the power the local governors.
2. Failure of national integration – the cultural assimilation and political integration of the
new conquered regions were not fully realized. Emperor Zara Yacob made serious
attempts to forge a unified nation from various communities. However, in his efforts to
achieve national unity, he attempted to superimpose religious nationalism over his
subjects, ultimately resulting in substantial failure. Thus, national integration failed.
1.5. Economic bases of the Christian kingdom
Land, labour and trade routes were the major economic bases of the Christian kingdom. Land
was the cornerstone of the country’s economy, supporting farming, animal husbandry and
mining of minerals (gold, bronze, silver and copper). The “Solomonid” kings granted extensive
land for their followers in exchange for their military service. Moreover, a significant portion of
the wealth came from tribute imposed on depended peripheries.
After conquering the Muslim states in the east, the “Solomonid” kings could tap into a profitable
source of wealth through their control over trading activities. They generated revenues by
imposing taxes over goods and involving on commercial activities through their agents.
1.6. Cooperation, Competition and Conflict between Christian and Muslim Rival
Powers
By the end of 13th century, trade and Islam gave a rise for powerful Muslim states in the
Ethiopian region, such as Ifat, Adal, Dawaro, Bali, Hadya and Fatagar.
1.6.1. The relation between Ifat and Adal
Adal was a small sultanate located in the Harar plateau. In 1288, Adal was conquered by the
Walasma ruler of Ifat. However, shortly afterwards, Adal regained its sovereignty. This is
because during Amde Tsion’s conflicts with Ifat, Adal operated independently from Ifat. During
the time of Jamaladdin, Adal and Ifat formed an alliance against the Christian force, but
defeated.
After the crushing defeat of the Muslim alliance in 1332, Adal became subordinate to the
Walasma rulers of Ifat, and the arrangement continued until 1415, when King Yishaq captured
Zeila and killed sultan Sadaddin. The Walasama ruling family wer forced to flee to Yemen but
later returned. From then on, they no longer held the title “sultan of Ifat” but the “sultan of
Adal.” Adal was no longer part of Ifat, rather, Ifat was part of Adal. However, Adal inherited the
adminisratve and political tradition of Ifat.
1.6.2. The Relation between Christian kingdom and Muslim states
The interactions between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim sultanates swung between peace
and hostility. Peaceful cooperation was achieved through the implementation of a tributary
system. Many Muslim principalities continued to be governed by their hereditary rulers as long
as they acknowledged the suzerainty of the Christian monarch, paid tribute guaranteed the safe
passage of trade to the coast. On the other hand, refusal to pay tribute and the prevention of the
passage of messengers and agents were factors precipitating hostilities and armed confrontations,
all stemming from the desire for economic and political hegemony. Here religious difference was
not a primary factor for the conflict. For instance, determined to expand the power of Christian
kingdom, Yekuno Amlak reduced Ifat to a tributary status. Amde Tsion’s campaign against
Muslim states was provoked by the attack of Haqqadin I of Ifat and the imprisonment of his
commercial agent by Haqqadin I in 1328.
Newaye Maryam (1371-1380) launched a campaign against Adal after Haqqadin II (1363-1386)
refused to pay tribute. The confrontation of Dawit (1380-1412), Tewodros I (1412-1413) and
Yishaq (1413-1430) with Adal rulers was the result of the desire to assert dominance on both
parties. Zara Yacob was forced to fight and kill Ahmad Badlay at the battle of Yeguba in 1445
after Ahmad refused to pay tribute. Peaceful relation resumed after Sultan Mohammed (1445-
1471) sent the required tribute for the Christian monarchs. Lebne Dengel made a campaign
against Emir Mahfuz after the later refused to pay tribute, which resulted in his death.
1.7. Interaction and integration of Peoples and Cultures
The successive conquests of the Christian kingdom brought into the fold a diverse of array of
peoples with varying identities. These peoples continuously interacted with one another,
resulting in the process a shared sense of belongingness. The intricate web of interactions among
the diverse people of Ethiopia laid the condition for the possibility of conceiving a composite
version of Ethiopian history. The major events that facilitated the integration of the people were:
1.7.1. Expansion of Christian Kingdom
The expansion of Christian Kingdom in the medieval period promoted the integration of Ethiopia
in two respects. First, it broadend the support base for the kingdom by attracting more people in
the highland plateau who needed little prompting to identify with the Christian kingdom and its
Christian religion. Second, the expansion fascinated the outlying kingdoms and people with the
grandeur of the imperial center and the power of its religion. The legend of Queen Sheba and the
spread of Amharic language had a pivotal role for integration of the people.
1.7.2. Population Movement, Interaction, and Integration
As the Christian kingdom expand, a good number of Ethiopians have travelled over time in
search of land or on raiding expedition, or to escape famine, or to conduct trade, or in pursuit of
religious studies and on pilgrimages. These travels led to interaction among diverse people.
For example, the Amaro and konta believed to have immigrated from the Amhara of the north.
The Wolayta dynasty of Tigre associated with Tigray immigrants. The Dawuro believed to have
established by the refugees from Dawaro. The Gurage traced their origins from Gondar. The
Kaffficho claimed that they had connection with the Agaws. The Muslim of Shewa and Gurage
claim to have hailed from the locality of Tigray
1.7.3. Roving Court
The Christian kings governed the vast territories from the mobile camps basically from Wollo
and Shewa. These royal camps played a crucial role as an integrative force. It remained the
central hub of political and economic activity for all subjects, which served as center of exchange
of customs, traditions, and items. Thus, it fostered integration.
1.7.4. Establishment of Military Garrisons
The military regiments of the Christian kingdom also played a crucial role in both political and
cultural integration. The military garrisons of chewa regiments were established in the newly
conquered territories. The soldiers of the chewa regiments formed strong integration with the
local inhabitants through marriage and other social ties. This integration allowed the soldiers to
promote Christianity, language, class manner, and the land tenure system to the regions they
were stationed in.
1.7.5. Warfare
Throughout history, various Ethiopian social groups have engaged in conflicts for a multitude of
reasons, such as acquiring of cattle, slaves, territory, control over trade routes, fulfilling ritual
obligations or display of masculinity. These conflicts facilitated interactions among different
groups.
1.7.6. Market Centers as Cultural Melting Pots
Markets have served as a platform for interethnic interactions. Local and regional markets
facilitated direct contact between different groups, and indirectly through caravan traders.
Markets attracted numerous traders from diverse ethnic and religious background (Christians and
Muslims). The major markets in Ethiopia that had an integrative role were: Dabarwa (Eritrea),
Mandalay (Tigray), Qoreta (Woldiya), Wasel (Wara Illu), Jigjiga, Harar, Charchar, Weez Gebya
(Shewa), Suq-Woyzaro (Damot), Suq Amja and Gandabalo (Awusa).
1.7.7. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church and Monastic Networks foster Integration
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church has historically been a force of integration particularly in
religious and cultural planes. It played a significant role in uniting diverse groups whose
heterogeneity was quite marked, particularly in the wake of territorial expansion of the kingdom.
Two factors which prompted this role were the internal revival within the church and the
emergence of monastic networks. The revival of the church led to the rise of monastic activities,
particularly in Amhara and Shewa, by monastic figures like Abba Eyesus-Mo'a of Debre Hay
and Abune Tekle-Haymanot of Debre Asbo (later Debre Libanos). These monasteries became
the epicenters of the dissemination of Christianity, with organized missionary activities dating
back to the 13th century.
Christianity was evangelized without completely eradicating the traditional beliefs and practices.
Nevertheless, Emperor Zara Yacob’s religious reform, which aimed to maintain the “purity” of
Christianity were a serious blow to this practice of syncretism. His reforms had grave
consequences for people suspected of magical practices and monastic communities accused of
alleged heresies. While the Ewostatean movement, active since 14 th century and centered on the
issue of the observance of Sabbath, was peacefully resolved, others, like the Stephanites who
refused to bow before religious icon, faced horrific persecution. Despite his zealous efforts to
draw a clear line between Christian and indigenous practices, Zara Yacob had little success in
eradicating the non-Christian practices within the Christian faith. As a result, Christianity
continued to intertwine with traditional belief, give a rise to syncretism.
1.7.8. Islam Promoted Integration, Unity and Collective Identity
Islam had played a crucial role in Ethiopia in uniting diverse groups who had either abandoned
their indigenous beliefs or converts from other faith to embrace the tents of the Islamic faith.
Basic Islamic cultural institutions began to develop in Ethiopia since the 14 th century. Islamic
culture flourished in the region particularly in Harar and Wollo. Islam offered wide room for
local customs in so far as they did not contradict the fundamental tents of the religion.
The missionary activities of Muslims intertwined Ethiopia with networks of supra-ethnic
alliances. Mutual accommodation was common in Ethiopia between Muslims and other religious
groups.
1.8. External Relations
1.8.1. Relations with Egypt
From the late 13th century onwards, the Christian Kingdom continued to maintain relations with
Egypt, which was mainly religious in character. In 1272, Yekuno-Amlak sent an emissary to
Egypt’s Sultan, Baybars, requesting an Abun from the Coptic Church. Furthermore, both Egypt
and Ethiopia continued to act as protectors of religious minorities in their respective domain.
Egypt also wanted to ensure secure flow of the Nile River.
In the early fourteenth century, Mohammed ibn Qala’un persecuted the Copts and destroyed their
churches in Cairo. In response, Amde-Tsion demanded the restoration of the churches and
warned that failure to do so would result in the diversion of the Nile waters. Patriarch Marqos
(1348- 63) sent a message to Sayfa-Arad (r.1344-71), revealing his imprisonment by the then
Egyptian Sultan. Sayfa-Arad is said to have mobilized a huge army against Egypt after which the
Sultan released the patriarch and sent a delegation to the King. Besides, Patriarch Matewos
(1328-1408) delegated by the Sultan, established harmonious relations between King Dawit and
Egypt. The Sultan is said to have sent a piece of the "True Cross" and in return, Dawitis said to
have given a number of religious paintings to the Sultan.
In 1437/8, Zara-Yaqob wrote a friendly letter to Sultan Barsbay requesting the protection of
Christians in Egypt. Three years later, however, Patriarch Yohannes XI wrote Zara-Yaqob a
letter stating the demolition of the famous church of Mitmaq (Debre-Mitmaq). Then Zara-Yaqob
sent an envoy to Sultan Jaqmaq (1438-53) with a strongly worded letter. In reply to this message,
Jaqmaq sent an envoy to Ethiopia, with complimentary gifts to the King but rejected the
reconstruction of the church.
1.8.2. Relations with Christian Europe
Amde Tsion sent a message to King Philip of France in 1332. The Christian Kingdom
maintained relations with Christian Europe Gian Galeazzo Visconti’s coronation in Milan in
1395. The earliest known message to Ethiopia from a European monarch is the letter of King
Henry IV of England dated 1400 A.D. and addressed to “Prester John”, the purported king of the
Christian Kingdom. King Dawit received some Italian craftsmen consisting mainly of
Florentines. In 1402, King Dawit sent his first delegation to Europe led by a Florentine man
called Antonio Bartoli.
Alphonso de Paiva V of Aragon received a delegation from Yishaq in the city of Valentia, in
1427. Yishaq’s delegation to Europe was to ask for more artisans and military experts. The
embassy of the Duke of Berry consisting craftsmen, Neapolitan Pietro, a Spaniard and a
Frenchman reached Ethiopia during the reign of Yishaq.
In 1450 a Sicilian Pietro Rombulo, who had been in Ethiopia since the last years of Dawit's
reign, was now sent to Europe as Zara-Yaqob’s ambassador. An Ethiopian priest, Fikre-Mariam
and two other individuals accompanied him. The mission was to Alphonso of Aragon (also ruled
as king of Naples and Sicily). King Zara-Yaqob sent delegates to Alphonso to get political,
military, and technical assistance.
The most authentic pieces of evidence on Ethio-Europe links are the maps of Egyptus Novelo (c.
1454) and Fra Mauro's Mappomondo (1460) which clearly depicted many places and peoples.
Venetian Gregorio or Hieronion Bicini visited Ethiopia in 1482. Pedros da Covilhao/Peter de
Covilham arrived at the court of Eskindir (1478-1494) in 1493. Queen Elleni (the daughter of
Hadiya Garad and married to King Zara Yaeqob) played an important role in the strengthening
of these relations. She had foreseen the threat that came from the Ottoman Turkish who showed
a clear interest to support the Muslim Sultanates. She also had foreseen the possibility of
consolidating relations with and getting support from Portugal that was against the Turks. In
1508, Portugal sent an envoy to act as an ambassador to Christian Ethiopia. Around 1512, Queen
Elleni, the mother and regent of Lebne-Dengel sent an Armenian called Mathew to Portugal. The
Portuguese court doubted his authenticity and was received coldly. The Portuguese Embassy led
by Rodrigo di Lima, Duwarto Galliba and Francisco Alvarez reached Ethiopia in 1520 and
remained for six years. The objective was to establish a naval port against the expanding Turkish
power in Red Sea Area. The mission was not successful.
 UNIT FIVE

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE EARLY SIXTEENTH

TO THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES

5.1. Conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal and Aftermath

The first half of 16th c was the most turbulent period in the history of Ethiopia and Horn. The
principal events occurred at the time and left lasting imprints in the socio-political map of
Ethiopia were the war between the Christian kingdom and the sultanate of Adal, the Oromo
population movement and the Jesuits interlude.

The conflict spanning for two centuries, to control the long distance trade in Zeila and levy
tribute, the war attained its climax between 1529 and 1543. The war between the two rivaling
power assumed a new momentum with emergence of a new leadership in the Adal, under Imam
Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, whose origins are obscure. Imam Ahmed “Gragn” (the left
handed) was borh in Hubat and he began his military career with Garad Abun ibn Adash.

It was one of the Imam’s remarkable achievements in leadership that he mobilized the pastoral
communities of the Afar, the Somali, the Harla, Harari and others to a common cause. He
convinced them not to fight amongst themselves but to unite and expand to the Christian
Kingdom and resolve their pressing material needs while at the same time guarding Islamic
doctrines and practices from the infiltration of any alien religious doctrine. He was able to gain
acceptance as Imam and consolidated his army to fight the Christian Kingdom.

However, shortly, Adal fell to Imam Ahmed’s army. By the time Imam Ahmed was strong
enough for military confrontation in 1520, he refused to pay tribute and this was followed by a
campaign against the Christian Kingdom in 1527. The Imam’s army fought fiercely and
controlled the territories including Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata and
putting the Christian Kingdom at risk.

In 1528, realizing the rising threat, Lebne-Dengel mobilized a vast force from his domain and
encamped about fifty kilometers east of what is now Addis Ababa. In addition to logistical
problems, the leadership of the army of Christian Kingdom failed to adopt a common strategy to
defeat Adal’s force. On the other hands, Imam Ahmed's highly motivated but small-sized army
faced no such logistical challenges. The Imam’s army had also an excellent leadership
characterized by better mobility and flexible tactics with a unified command. As a result, the
larger and well-equipped Christian army was defeated in one of the most decisive engagement at
the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529, near present day Mojo.

After the victory, the Imam’s army made a large-scale control of the territories of the Christian
Kingdom Lasta, Begemedir, Dembia, and Tigray. By 1535, Imam Ahmed’s empire stretched
from Zeila to Massawa on the coast including the Ethiopian interior.

One of the most illuminating figures during the war was the wife of the Imam, Bati Del
Wanbara. She was the daughter of a Muslim military commander of Adal known as Mahfuz.
Tradition claimed that Del Wanbara had encouraged her husband to avenge the death of her
father. She accompanied her husband during pregnancy. Indeed, she delivered her two sons
during the campaigns of 1531 and 1533 in Ifat and present day Tigray respectively.

On the part of the Christian Kingdom, the military set back forced the reigning king, Lebne
Dengel, to retreat finally dying in 1540 as a fugitive. His son and successor, Gelawdewos (r.
1540-1559), continued to face a more intensified war as Imam Ahmed had received 200 Muslim
Turkish musketeers and ten cannons in 1541. Lebne Dengel also in 1535, four hundred
Portuguese soldiers, armed with matchlocks arrived in the Christian court in 1541. The force was
led by Christopher da Gama, the youngest son of Vasco da Gama. However, in August 1542 the
Christian army was defeated in Ofla, in today's southern Tigray. In the battle, about two hundred
Portuguese were killed and their leader Christopher da Gama was beheaded.

After his victory at Wafla , Imam Ahmed was so confident about his army ‘s ability to repulse
any future attack by the Christian force that he sent his Musketeers allies back home and let his
army camp.

An important anecdote that should be mentioned here is the role of Lebne-Dengel's wife
Seblewongel. On the part of the Christians, preparations were made for final confrontation under
the leadership of Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59). The Queen mother, Seble-Wongel, advised
the reigning emperor how to prepare and march for the battle of Woyna-Dega (Zantara). Due to
limited resources, the monarch employed hit and run strategy, which severely affected Imam’s
army. Imam Ahmed’s army could not use its previous advantage of easy mobility because they
did not know where the attacks came from. On February 25, 1543 while Imam Ahmed was
encamped near Lake Tana, he was attacked and killed after a fierce fighting at the battle of
Woyna-Dega.

Soon after the battle, Muslim communities in the highlands submitted to Gelawdewos and he
was tolerant toward them to promote national conciliation and to develop revival of smooth
relations with the Muslim world. Besides, Gelawdewos was able to restore many of the pre-
1520s territories and tributary regions. The king attempted to reconsolidate the state through
campaigns to different areas and camping Chewa (regiment) in border areas. By the early 1550s,
Gelawdewos had established a strong Christian Kingdom. However, the control over the Muslim
dominated areas was not an easy task. In the period, the growing challenge to the Christian state
came from the retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal, the Ottoman Turks, Jesuit interlude,
and Oromo advance into the center. Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn alWaazir Mujahid was
ready to wage war against the Christian state for revenge. In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur
confronted Gelawdewos and killed the king himself.

Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563) who succeeded Gelawdewos defeated the Turks' force and
reclaimed territories in the coast including Dabarwa. However, in the early 1560s, Yishaq
revolted and allied with the Turks against him. Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598) had to
defend his terittory from the Turks while fighting with the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama,
Enarya and the Oromo. The emperor then marched to the north, defeated Turkish forces, and
restored the territories.

The Muslim-Christian conflict had resulted 1. Huge human and material cost. 2. Both the
Muslim Sultanate and Christian Kingdom were weakened thereby paving the way for the success
of the Oromo population movement. 3. On the positive side, the war had arguably resulted in
cultural interaction among the peoples of Ethiopia. 4. Linguistic and religious interactions
accompanied by intermarriages among peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn.

5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies

The Portuguese and Ottoman interventions in the affairs of the country reflect their competing
political ambitions around the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. The rulers of the Christian
Kingdom may have regarded an alliance with Roman Catholicism as a tactic to secure sufficient
modern weaponry and training to restore its lost territories. In 1557, several Jesuit missionaries
along with their bishop, Andreas de Oviedo, came to Ethiopia to expand Catholicism. The Jesuits
promoted Catholic doctrine of two different and therefore separate, natures of Christ-divine and
human, which was contrary to Monophysite theology of Ethiopian Orthodox Church. EOC
taught that Christ, through union or Tewahedo had a perfect human nature inseparable from the
divine. The leading members of the mission who played key role in efforts to evangelize the
country include Joao Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez and Alfonso Mendez.

The attempt to establish diplomatic and military relation between Portugal and the “Kingdom of
Prester John” first under Manuel I (1495-1521) and Later under Joa III (1521-1557). The
leading members of the mission who played key roles in efforts to evangelize the country
included Joa Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez, and alfonso Mendez.

The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59), hoping that the
rest of the society would follow suit. Gelawdewos listened and engaged in doctrinal debates with
the missionaries, but he was not prepared to give in. Instead, he defended the teachings of
Orthodox Christianity in a document entitled the Confession of Faith. Minas and Sertse-Dengel,
who succeeded Gelawdewos one after the other, were too busy fighting against the Oromo and
the Turkish forces to engage the Jesuits in their courts. The Jesuits got relative success with
Emperor Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4), who was said to have been sympathetic to Catholicism.
However, he was overthrown by Yaqob (r. 1598-1603; 1604-7)

Susenyos who was challenged by provincial leaders, who refused to pay tribute, integrated the
Oromo with the forces of the central government to consolidate his power and stabilize the
country. Probably as a means to this, Susenyos sought for an alliance, which he got through the
diplomatic advisory of Pedro Paez. In 1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism and announced
it to be state religion later in 1622. In the meantime, in 1617-8 several anti-Catholic voices
mounted following the changes in liturgy and religious practices.
Even worse, with the monarch’s consent, another Spanish Jesuit, Afonso Mendez ordered
reconsecration of Orthodox priests and deacons and rebaptism of the mass. Besides, he called for
the suspension of Old Testament customs such as male circumcision and the observance of the
Sabbath. Additional pronouncements include prohibition of preaching in Ge’ez, fasting on
Wednesdays and Fridays, reverence for Ethiopian saints and the Ark of Covenant (Tabot).
Meanwhile, he ordered eating pork, Latin Mass and Gregorian calendar to be adopted. The
reforms led to revolts led by the ecclesiastics and the nobility. Even loyal followers of the
emperor including his own son Fasiledas (r. 1632-67) were opposed to the changes initiated by
the Jesuits.

The Jesuit’s success in their mission to convert Ethiopia to Catholicism was short lived and met
anti- catholic resistance and leading the country in to a civil war. In a battle in June 1632, large
number of peasants lost their lives in one day. Finally, the emperor abdicated the throne in favor
of Fasiledas, who reversed the Catholic transformation. Fasiledas restored the position of
Orthodox Church as the state religion, expelled the Jesuits and punished local converts including
Susenyos’ brother and the most fervent supporter of Catholicism, Se'ela Kristos and Azazh Tino.
Fearing another religious conflict, Emperor Fasiledas introduced a “closed-door” policy, which
isolated the country from all Europeans for about a century and a half. Conversely, he initiated
and adopted a policy of close diplomatic relations with the Islamic world and formed an alliance
with the neighboring Muslim states to ensure that no European crossed into the Christian
Kingdom. As a result, in 1647, he concluded an agreement with the Ottoman Pasha at Suakin
and Massawa to the effect that the latter should block any European from entering in to his
territory. By doing so, Fasiledas was able to restore peace and order. Ethiopia’s diplomatic break
from Europe remained effective until the beginning of the nineteenth century with the exception
of secret visits by a French Doctor Charles Jacques Poncet and the Scottish traveler James Bruce
in 1700 and 1769, respectively.

Yet, the Jesuit intervention triggered doctrinal divisions and controversy within the Ethiopian
Orthodox Church that was divided into disputant sects and reached its peak during the Zemene
Mesafint. Tewahedo teaches Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ: first in eternity as a Divine Being
the eternal birth and second, born again from St. Mary into the world as a perfect man and
perfect divinity united in one nature, thus Tewahedo (United). It was dominant in Tigray and
Lasta. Qibat (Unction) was also developed from Hulet Lidet doctrine and accepted the eternal
birth as the first birth of Christ, but claimed that at the moment of his incarnation, when he was
born into the world, Holy Ghost anointed him. This sect was dominant in Gojjam. Sost
Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace) taught that Christ was first born in eternity
as divine being, was born again in the womb of St. Mary and anointed by Holy Ghost. This sect
was dominant in Gonder and Shawa.

5.3. Population Movements

The population movements have played important roles in shaping the history of Ethiopia and
the Horn. Population movements occurred due to pull and push factors, People moved from
place to place due to natural and social. Specifically, people move out from their habitats in
search of resources and better living environment in general. In Ethiopia and the Horn, the
causes of the movements could be attributed to the region's long socio-political conditions
involving military conflicts, drought and demographic factors. The medieval population
movements had extensive effects including peoples intermingling resulted in change of the
original culture and evolution of new identities.

5.3.1. Population Movements of the Argoba, Afar, and Somali

The military conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal in the late
fifteenth and the early sixteenth centuries was partly responsible for the population movement of
the Argoba, Afar and Somali.

Argobba: There are two versions on the origins of the Argobba. The first holds that they
descended from the followers of the prophet Muhammad who came and settled in Ifat. The
second claims there are not Muslim-Arab immigrants as they are one of the ancient peoples that
accepted Islam. They were major agents of Islamic expansion and state formation in the Horn.
For instance, the Makhzumite and Walasma dynasty established the Shewan and Ifat Sultanates
respectively.

Afar: The Afar lived predominantly in North Eastern Ethiopia and NorthernDjibouti and in
southern Eritrea. They had an indigenous government system known as makabanto. The Afar
first mentioned by an Arab geographerIbn Said (1214-86). They were actors in the conflict; the
Christian –Muslim conflict forced the Afar to move in different directions. The Afar has many
historical famous cities such as Maduna and Abasa. It is also a center of Islamic learning led by
preacher like Tola Hanfire.

The Somali: The Somali practiced pastoral economy and led a nomadic life for centuries.
Historically a council known as Shir governed the society. The decision making process was
highly democratic, adult males allowed equal participation. The council ruled including resource
allocation, marriage, trade and crime. The guurti (council of elders) was the highest political
organ mandated resolving conflict.

Ibn Said noted that Merca town located on souther Somali was a major urban center and that
brought the Somali together in 13th c. The Somali were a strong force behind the strength of
Imam Ahmed. Yet, their movement did not last for long as they returned to their home base
following the defeat of Imam Ahmed in 1543.

5.3.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

A. The Gadaa System

The Gadaa system was an institution through which the Oromo socially organized themselves,
administered their affairs, defended their territories, maintained law and order, and managed
their economies. Studies do not clearly indicate when and how the Gadaa system emerged.
However, it is clear that for long the society organized their politics, economy, social, cultural,
and religious affairs through the Gadaa institution. The account by Abba Bahrey indicates that
during the early sixteenth century, the system fully functioned because of which the Oromo were
well organized. Thus, it is reasonable to think that the Oromo had practiced the Gadaa system
long before the sixteenth century movement.

Recent studies based on the Gadaa calendar and Gadaa centers suggest that the system evolved
from the earlier Cushitic age-set social organization. Time computation and recording history
was based on the eight-year segment of time. In the system, eight years represented one Gadaa
period, 5-gadaa periods or 40 years represented one generation and nine generations represented
an era. Accordingly, the earliest eras of Gadaa but still obscure were those of Bidiri Dhoqqe.
Prior to the beginning of Gadaa Borana-Barentu around 1450 AD, the Oromo passed through
known eras of Taya, Tasaa, Munyo, Suftu, Maddile, Abroji, Dhittacha and Warra-Daye
(warden), each of which survived for an era. Gadaa was interrupted and revitalized during
various eras because of various internal and external factors.

The Gadaa system constituted elements of democracy such as periodic succession and power
sharing to prevent a one-man rule. The Gadaa system organized the Oromo society into age-
grades and generation sets delineating members' social, political, and economic responsibilities.
In the system, ten age grades and five classes operated in parallel. Sons joined the first grade as
members of Gadaa class (generation class or set) forty years after their fathers and were initiated
into the next higher grade every eight years. The following table shows a common version of
age-grades and roles associated to them.

Yuba 49 to 80 senior advisors, educators and ritual leaders The gadaa/luba assumed power for
eight years. The head of the government was known as Abba-Gadaa literally “father of the
period” who was assisted by several elected representatives from among the generation set.
These included Abba Bokku (father of scepter), Abba Chaffe (head of the assembly), Abba-
Dula(war leader), Abba Sera (father of law), Abba Alanga (judge), Abba Sa'a (father of treasury)
and other councilors.

B. The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

The factors for the Oromo population movement are both natural and man-made. Natural factors
include demographic pressure and subsequent need for land to accommodate the growing human
and livestock population. Furthermore, the conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim
Sultanates from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries might have pressurized mainly pastoral
Oromo groups to leave the lands they inhabited for other areas. Then they organized under the
Borana and Baretu confederacies and move in their common Gada center, Madda- Walabu.

From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars. Accordingly, the first Gadaa i.e Melba
(1522-1530) fought and defeated Christian regiment Batra Amora led by Fasil and occupied Bali
while Mudena (1530-8) reached the edge of Awash River. The Kilole (1538-46) controlled
Dawaro after defeating Christian regiment Adal Mabraq while Bifole (1546-54) advanced to Waj
and Erer. The Michille (1554-62) scored victory over Hamalmal's force at Dago, and Jan Amora
forces as well as Adal led by Emir Nur Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo. The Harmufa (1562-70)
fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina and Wayyata; occupied Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc.

In 1574, Sartsa Dingil’s (r.1563-97) cavalry led by Azzaj Halibo defeated Robale gadaa(1570-
78) at Woyna Daga, but Robale recovered by defeating Zara’a Yohannis’ force. The Birmaji
(1578-86) controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama to Wolaqa and overwhelmed the Daragoti
regiment. The Mul’ata (1586-94) seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat, Dambiya and Tigray.

The Dulo (1594-1602), Melba (1603-10), and Mudena(1610-18) expanded to West and Northern
parts of the Horn of Africa while others like the Warday moved to Kenya and Bur Haqaba and
Majertin in Somalia. In addition to the wars between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim
Sultanates, the organization of the Oromo under the Gadaa system played crucial role in the
success of the Oromo population movement.

In the course of their movement into various regions, different Oromo branches established
Gadaa centers. Accordingly, Oda Nabee of Tulama, Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi),
OdaBultum of Itu-Humabenna, Oda Bisil of Mecha and Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha became
major Gadaa centers. Other places, which became Gadaa centers, were Gayo of Sabbo-Gona,
Me'e Bokko of Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu, Oda Hulle of Jimma, Oda Garado of Waloo, etc. Gadaa
leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna Sorra of Guji, Makko-Bili of Mecha, Babbo
Koyye of Jimma and others established Gadaa centers and laid down cardinal laws in their
respective areas.

5.4. Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and Religious Diversities

The territorial and religious expansion by the Christian kingdom diffused Christian tradition
from north to the south. Similarly, the wars of Imam Ahmed and the population movements of
the Argoba, the Afar and the Somali caused the expansion of Islam into the central parts of
Ethiopia.

The Oromo contact with diverse peoples in the sixteenth century brought far-reaching
integrations among peoples across ethnic and religious background. First, the oromo controlled
large territories. Second, it leads to the integrations of peoples The Oromo integrated non-
Oromo through two adoption mechanisms: Guddifacha and Moggasa. Guddifacha refers to the
adoption of a child by a foster parent. In this system, the child enjoyed equal rights and
privileges with a biological child. Likewise, Moggasa was a system of adopting non-Oromos
commonly known as Oromsu. Moggasa was the practice of incorporation of individuals or
groups to a clan through oath of allegiance with all the rights and obligations that such
membership entailed. Moggasa was undertaken by the Abba Gadaa on behalf of the clan. The
adopted groups gained both protection and material benefits. Third, interaction resulted in the
exchanges of institutions.

The case in point is the adoption of monarchical systems and the integration of the Oromo to the
Christian and Muslim cultures. It is important to mention the rise of nobles in the northern
Oromo in politics particularly during the Gondar period, Zemene-Mesafint and the making of
modern Ethiopia.

5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Regions

5.5.1. Peoples and States in the East

The Emirate of Harar

During the reign of Emir Nur Mujahid , Harar became a walled city. Emir Ali Ibn Da’ud (1647-
62) founded a new dynasty that ruled the Emirates for over two centuries and a half. It was later
strengthened by Amirs like abdul Shakur (1783-94). The Amir’s council, Majlis, supervised the
mosque land called waqf, and assisted the Amirs. The Amir would gradually extend their
authority over the surrounding afar, Argoba, Oromo and Somali through trade, inter-marriage,
and Islamic teachings.
5.5.2. Peoples and States in Central and South Central Parts
The Kingdom of Shewa
The Kingdom of Shewa was formed by Negasi Kristos (r.1696-1703), originally from Geramidir
in Menz. Claiming lineage from abeto Yaqob, son of Emperor Lebne Dengel, he is traditionally
considered the founder of the Shewan branch of the “Solomonids” The second king was Merid
Azmatch Sebestie/Sebastyanos (r.1703-18).

Abuye/ Abiyye (1718-45) made Haramba, his capital and tried to subjugate the surrounding
Oromo before he was killed by the Karrayu Oromo. In addition to his unsuccessful attempts to
control the Afar and Abitchu Oromo, Amaha Iyesus/ Amayyes (r.1745-75) declared authority
over Bulga, Efrata, Menz and Tegulet with his capital at Doqaqit which later shifted to Ankober.
Asfa-Wosen (r.1775-1808) conquered Antsokia, Asbo, Gedem, Gishe, Merhabete, Morat and
Shewa Meda. The dynasty became very strong under Negus Sahle-Sellasie (r.1813-47), the
grandfather of Emperor Menilek II. During his reign, many travelers visited Shewa and he even
signed “treaty of friendship and commerce” with the British in 1841.

Shewa’s economy was mainly based on agriculture supplemented by trade and craft. Near the
capital, Ankobar, there was an important trade center in Aleyu Amba administered by the
Shewan court.

Gurage

The Gurage are divided into the Western and Northern Gurage. The first are also known as Sebat
Bet Gurage and include: Chaha, Muher, Ezha, Gumer (Inamor, Enner, Endegegna and Gyeto).
The latter are variously known as Kistane, Aymallal or Soddo Gurage. Additional groups
included Dobbi, Gadabano and Masqan. The staple crop in Gurage land is enset.

The Gurage had traditional system of governance developed over the centuries. It is known as
the Yajoka Qicha among the Sebat Bet and the Gordanna Sera among the Kistane. There was,
however, no centralized leadership. Power was vested in clan or lineage groups. The descent
groups displayed corporate rights, obligations, and influence.

Silte
The people settled in the south and western parts of Ethiopia during the conflict between
Christian highland kingdom the Adal Sultanates as well as the Oromo population movements
because of this the Silte benefited the integrations of various peoples. Enset the predominant
crop and also Khat and Berbere (red pepper), the two major cash crops.

Hadiya

The origin of the state of Hadiya goes back to the thirteenth century. The people were
heterogeneous both linguistically and culturally. From the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries,
Hadiya’s political importance was considerable with sizable population and vast territory.
However, descendants of the old Hadiya can be traced from four different linguistic clusters: the
Oromo, the Sidama, the Kabena and Alaba, and the Hadiya proper with its sub-groups-the
Mareko, Lemu, Soro, Shashogo and Badowacho. Despite sporadic clashes, Hadiya’s relation
with the Christian state was largely stable , particularly after the marriage of Emperor Zara
Yacob to the Hadiya princes Ite Zan Zela , more famous knoan as Queen Elleni.

Kambata

By about 1550-70, four communities of separate origin coalesced to form the contemporary state
of Kambata (Dubamo, Donga and Tembaro). The formation of the nucleus of the state, the
ethno-genesis of Kambata also benefitted from Omotic and Semitic peoples who moved into the
region at different times. At the end of the sixteenth century, the groups were recognized as and
conscious of the name Kambata related to one of the seven dominant clans (Kambata Lamala) in
the region. The Kambata had a traditional administrative institution called the Hambericho
Council. The peoples were Enset caltivaters.

Halaba

The people known by their indeginous administration was the Woma (king) and the Halabi
Ogete , was an assembly of village leader. Sera were the traditional administration and judicial
system. Their economy was agriculture and livestock.

5.5.3. Peoples and States in the South

Sidama
The Sidama had an indigenous system of governance led by the Mote (king). The Mote exercised
political and administrative authority in consultation with the council of elders called Songo.
Songo members raised any agenda for discussion within the council and submitted their
decisions to the Mote for approval. Although there was no written constitution, rules were known
by heart through generations and practiced accordingly.

The cultural and ritual leader in Sidama society was the Woma. He was selected for his ability as
a peacemaker, bodily perfection, oratorical ability, wisdom and caution.

Sidama society was divided into generation-sets called Luwa. The system had five grades each
lasting for eight years. These are Darara, Fullassa, Hirbora, Wawassa and Mogissa. Candidates
for Luwa received a five-month military training and war songs like gerarshaunder the leadership
of the gaden with his deputy called Ja’lawa. The gaden settled disputes within his Luwa, besides
handling the defense of Sidama society together with the Mote. Another important institution of
Sidama society is Seera. Seera was the social constitution of the Sidama people governing social
life based on the Sidama moral code, halale (the ultimate truth) to judge the right and wrong.
Although it was not written and defined with strict enforcement mechanisms, people abide by the
rules of halale to avoid curse or ostracization by the society.

Gedeo

The dominant tradition relates the ancestors of the Gedeo to Daraso, who was the older brother
of Gujo (father of Guji Oromo). Accordingly, the seven major Gedeo clans descended from the
seven sons of Daraso. The clans were grouped in two houses, the first being the shole batte
(senior house) where the first four clans and the second called sase batte (junior house) where the
last contain three clans.

Konso

Agriculture was and remains to be the major economic activity of the Konso. Farmers practiced a
fairly balanced and integrated system of specialized agricultural technology. They adopted soil
conservation techniques notably the construction of terraces, which proved helpful to convert
rugged and hilly areas into permanent cultivation.
Until the late nineteenth century, the Konso people lived in walled villages (paletas) which were
further divided into wards called Kanta.

5.5.4. Peoples and States in Southwest

Wolayta
The Wolayta-Malla and the Tigre dynasties successively ruled Wolayita kingdom from the 13 th c
to the late 19th c. At the apex of the hierarchy was the Kawo (king) , assisted by the advisor’s
council. Their dominant crop was Enset.

Yem

Initially, an indigenous dynasty called Dida or Halmam-Gamma ruled Yem from its palace in
Dudarkema/Zimarma near Oya. Its last Amno (king), Oyikam/ Ammo Dasha was ousted from
power in the 14th c. This was followed by the establishments of a new dynasty clled Mowa
(Howa), its center at Angari. Besides being at the top of the political ladder, the Amno (king) of
Yem acted as a chief priest with attributes of divinity. A state council of 12 members named
Astessor with its chairperson Waso assisted the Amno in administering the state. Its economy
combined agriculture, trade and crafts.

Dawuro

Dawuro inhabited by three major clans namely Malla, Dogolla, and Amara. By about 1700, the
Kawuka dynasty had created a big state from a great number of petty chieftainships on the
territory between the Gojeb and Omo rivers in the north, east and south and the Kafa high
mountains in the west. Among the rulers of the Kawuka dynasty of Dawuro, Kati Irashu and Kati
Halala were famous. Dawuro is known for defensive stone fortifications. Their economy based
on mixed agriculture.

Gamo
The Gamo inhabited areas from Lakes Chamo and Abaya to the Gughe Mountain and beyond. A
set of interrelated indigenous laws called the Woga defined land-use in the Gamo highlands. The
cultivation of enset had been central to the subsistence of Gamo highlands (geze) while maize
and sweet potato were staple food crops in the lowlands (bazo).

Between the sixteenth and the nineteenth centuries, the Gamo lived in scattered settlements and
organized in different communities called dere. The dere were politically autonomous villages
(units) but shared three essential features. These were: 1) each dere had kawo (hereditary ruler)
who also offered sacrifices and symbolized the unity of the people. 2) every dere had its own
initiates called halaqa and; (3) every dere had its own assembly place called dubusha, where
communal matters were discussed and disputes solved.

Ari

The Ari society was organized in to ten independent clans headed by a hereditary chief known as
babi, who was assisted by godimis, (religious leaders), zis (village head) and tsoikis (intelligence
agents). The chief exercised both political and ritual power over his respective domain.

Kafa

The kingdom emerged in the fourteenth century. Around mid-seventeenth century, the state had
come to prominence. The ruling Minjo dynasty and the medieval kingdom of Ennarya had close
contact, from were the royal title, tato (king), and Christianity were introduced. The Tato was
assisted by a council of seven advisors called Mikrecho. The Mikrecho served to moderate the
power of the king but they played important roles in succession as well. The political center of
the kingdom was Andaracha. Its economy based on Enset caltivation. Major trade items, such as
musk, coffee, slaves, Ivory, gold, honey-wax, and civet. The Kafa had a tradition of digging deep
trenches called Kuripo as defensive barrier.

5.5.5. Peoples and States in the West

Anywa
The Anywa predominantly inhabited areas along Pibor, Sobat, Gila, Akobo, Agwei, Oboth,
Baro, and Alwero Rivers on the western borderlands of the present-day Gambella. Local
traditions attribute the origin of the southern Anywastate to a certain founding father called
Oshoda. The other Anywa had a governance system whereby each village lived under a chief
called Kuaari who along with the nobles, Nyiye, managed the distribution of farm and grazing
fields, settled disputes.

Majang

Linguistic evidence traces the origin of the Majang to the Boma plateau in South Sudan.
Gradually, they moved northwards and settled in near Dembi Dolo in the north. The Majang
practiced shifting cultivation, animal husbandry, beekeeping, hunting and fishing.

Nuer

The Nuer lived in areas that extended across the savannas and marshes of the Bahr el-Ghazal and
the Upper Nile regions of the Sudan. Since the nineteenth century, they had been largely settled
in the plains of Gambella along the Sobat and Baro Rivers and partsof the Sudan. The Nuer had
an age-set system combining social and political functions. Nuer boys had to pass through a
rigorous test and a series of rites connected with it before they were initiated into adulthood.

Berta and Gumuz

The Berta and Gumuz inhabited the area around the lower course of the Abbay and had a long-
standing trade contacts with norther sudan that resulted in strong Islamic influence. Gold
deposite of these areas had attracted others for long.

Kunama

The Kunama people also called the Baza are one of the ancient inhabitants of western Eritrea on
the Gash and Tekkeze Rivers and in today’s northwestern and western Tigray. The Kunama had
a customary institution called sanga-anene mandated with the administration of the society.
Other responsibilities of the sanga-anene included granting asylum to new comers in the
sanctuary of their compounds and performing rituals as part of reconciliation process in case of
homicides. The office of the sanga-anene was held by male members of the society. The office
was transmitted hereditarily from the eldest brother to the next born through matrilineal line.
Agriculture is based on the use of hoe, spades, sickles and the ox (camel)-drawn plough. The
staple crop among the Kunama is sorghum (kina), which also has a ceremonial value. Other
crops grown are millet (bortaor beca), pulses and maize (afokina). The Kunama also keep
livestock mainly goats, sheep, oxen, and camels.

5.6. The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint

5.6.1. The Gondarine Period
A. Political Developments
The Gonderian period, which lasted for 130 years, can be sub divided in to three periods, based
on political and cultural criteria. There are foundation and glory (1630-1706), insecurity (1706-
1720), and revival and steady decline (1720-1780s). The foundation of Gonder as a permanent
royal capital followed the movement of the royal court to the Lake Tana region. Emperor Sartsa-
Dengel established his royal capital at Enfrazin 1571. Emperor Susnyos also tried to establish his
capital near Gonder at places like Qoga, Gorgora, Danquz, and Azazo. Finally Gonder was
founded as a permanent capital in 1636 by Emperor Fasilade. The emperor selected Gonder as
his royal capital for the purpose of directly supervising the collection of customs on the Red Sea-
Lake Tana- Enaryaroute. It was also near near the main caravan route from Mettema to Lake
Tana, joining the route from Enarya to the Red sea. The mountain that formed a semi-circle
around the town also afforded protection. Its location was also at considerable distance from the
malaria in the lower regions of Lake Tana.

Gonder achieve its glory during the reigns of Fasilades (1636-67), and Iyasu I (1682-1706) with
the throne name of Adyam Saggad), also known as Iyasu the Great. Fasilades established the
royal capital, restored the Alexandrian faith,and expelled the Jesuits. However, Gonder’s
remarkable period of glory was that of Iyasu I. He managed to restore the state controlled over a
large territory. He obtained vassalage of Musa, the Naib of Massawa, and he was the last
emperor based at Gonder to reach as far as Enarya in the Gibe region in 1704. He also stretched
the symbolic presence of the state in Tigre and Shewa. He also introduced customs, and
undertook tax and land reforms. As such, he is considered as the last powerful emperor before
the rise of Tewodros II in the modern period.
A period of insecurity commenced in 1706, when Iyasu the Great was assassinated by a faction
spearheaded by his own son, Tekkle-Haymanot. With this assassination, a period of instability
began, characterized by intrigues and poisoning of reigning monarches. Tekle Haymanot was
crowded in 1706 before the death of his father and was in turn assassinated by Tewoflos in 1708.
Tewoflos was again killed in 1711 by Yostos, who was also poisoned in 1717 and replaced by
Dawit III, who himself was poisoned and replaced by Bakkafa in 1721. All these events
transpired within the context of factionalism, regionalism and religious controversies.

The Gonderian period showed signs of revival with the ascendancy of Bakkafa in 1721. He tried
to restore stability by strengthening the army units , most of which were recruited from among
the Oromo units. He also benefited from the political wisdom of his escort , Etege Mentwab ,
also known as Berhan Mogasa , who become the of the dominat political faction after he was
incapacitated after 1728.

However, Gonderine politics witnessed a period of decline after 1730. Three regionally based
polical factions emerged, all aiming to control the power of the Ras Bitweded (effective king
maker). These were the Qwaregnoch, headed by Etege Mintwab and her kins from Qwara, the
Oromo factions from Wollo led by Iyoa’s maternal uncles and the Tigray factionled by Ras
Mikeal Sehul. In a way, Etege Mentewab was the architect of all these factions. Everthing started
when she arranged a political marriage between Wubit, a woman born to an Oromo family in
Wollo, with her son Iyasu II (1730-1755). Iyoas, the outcome the marriage, took power in 1755
and invited his maternal uncles to the royal court, which they began to dominant.

To counterbalance the dominant of the Oromo faction, Mintewab invited Ras Mikael Sehul from
Tigray to Gondar. The powerful Tigrean lord killed Iyoas and enthroned Yohanes II,marking the
trimph of regional lords over the monarchy. It should be noted that ethnic identity wielded
minimal sway over the political upheavals in Gonder, with regional identity assuming greater
significance. The primary contenders were engaged in a power struggle to dictate to the emperor
and attain the prestigious designation of Ras Bitweded (“king-maker”).

Cultural Achievements of the Gonderine Period

Despite the enduring and notorious political turbulence, Gondar has bequeathed to history a
multifarious and illustrious legacy. It was a center of state administration, learning, commerce,
education, art and craft for more than two centuries. Gondar set the cultural ethos of the region
and witness several cultural developments. The cultural achievements led some writers to
describe the period as the Ethiopian Renaissance.

Architecture: Gonderine Kings built impressive secular building like castle, bridges, residences,
bath, library, tower and fortifications. Many churches with different shapes were also built. In the
city’s most impressive compound, known as Fasil Ginb, there were several palaces built by
emperor Fasilades, Yohannis I, Iyasu I, Dawit III, Bakkafa and Queen Mentewab. Gonarine
architecture could be said to have started during the reign of emperor Sartsa-Dengel , who built
his castle at Guzara, near the town of Enfraz at about 1586. Although Bahir Gimb Mikael was
constructed during the reign of Lebne Dengel, the distinctive pointed oval dome situated over the
center of the church is credited to Sartsa-Deengel.

Both castle and bridge construction predates the reign of Fasilades. Emperor Sartsa-Dengel built
a very fine bridge near his palace at Guzara, over the Garno (Arno) River. Emperor Susenyos
likewise erected a bridge over the Blue Nileat Alata. As a result these achievements, a distinct
Gonderine architectural style emerged, which continued from the second half of the sixteenth
century to the political decline of Gondar in the middle of the eighteenth century.

Painting: the period also saw a wealth of religious paintings on manuscripts and on wood,
ornaments, weapons and other accessories. The churches built by Queen Mentwab were notable
for their beautiful paintings, cross and art works. The distinctive style of Gondarine art has been
given special recognition by Ethiopian art historians.

Literature: the imperial and provincial scriptoria produced a great number of manuscripts.
Besides the Gospels, the Miracles of Mary, the lives of Ethiopian saints and the Litanies, many
other kinds of illuminated manuscripts were also produced. There was a rich tradition of book-
making, Gondar is also known for its music and poetry.

Trade and Urbanization:

Gondar also has the distinction of establishing the first daily market in Ethiopia. The city became
the residence of diverse foreign communities; Iberian (Portuguese and Spanish), Indian, Greek
and Armenian. The city had an estimated 60,000-70,000 population. In addition to its political
and commercial importance, it served as religious center of Christians, Muslims and Bete-Israel.
Besides, it served as the center of Ethiopian Orthodox Church (residence of the Abun and Echeg
until the middle of the nineteenth century. Many churches served education center, which
comprised three levels: Nebab Bet (reading school), Qedasse bet (Liturgy school) and higher
schools, namely Zema bet (music school) , Qene bet (Poetry school), and Metsehaf bet
(interpretation of holy books). Its churches were also centers of excellence in teaching
aqwaqwam and liturgical chants.

5.6.2. The Zemene-Mesafint (Era of Princes, 1769-1855)

The Zemene Mesafint was a period of decentralization, i.e. the increase of power of regional
lords, following a period of political and cultural prosperity. This period is often dated between
1786 (the ascent to power of Ras Ali I, the founder of the Yejju dynasty), and 1853 ( the defeat
of the last of the Yejju princes, Ras Ali II, at the battle of Ayshal by Dajjach Kassa Hailu (the
future emperor Tewodros II). The process of the erosion of royal power was intiated by Ras
Mika’el, who deposed king Iyoas in 1769. He then started taking strong measures against the
nobility, which made him highly unpopular because of which coalitions of lords of Gojjam,
Amhara, Lasta and Wollo defeated him at the battle of Sarbakussa in 1771. Then, several
influential war lords evolved over the main political regions: Tigray, Semen, Dembiya,
Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Damot, Mecha and Gojjam.

Among these, the most powerful group was the Yejju (Waraseh) dynasty from Yejju. From its
base at Debre Tabore, it controlled the emperors in Gondar for some seven decades. Yejju rule
reached its Zenith under Gugsa Marso (1803-1825) who made incessant struggle against Ras
Walde-Silassie of Enderta and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of Agame. His son Yimam (1825-
8) defeated Hayle- Mariam Gebre of Simen in 1826. Marye, another of Gugsa (1828-31) and
Sabagadis fought at the battle of May Aslamay (Dabra Abay) in 1831; both of them were killed
even if it was the Yejju who got the final victory.

Major features of Zemene- Mesafint include:

 Changes in the interregional balance of power from central authority to a decentralized or

multi –centered political structure.
 Reductions of the emperor’s office to that of a puppet king who reigned but did not rule.
  Conflict among regional rulers and warlords over the control of the emperor in Gondar
 Christological factions resulting in the division of the church
 Decay of “classical” Gondarine culture like Ge’ez literature, painting, architecture etc.
 The decline of the military regimental system, the emperor there by being forced to rely
on his lords for military support.
 Peaceful consolidation of some areas as independent princedoms such as Shewa
 Growing contacts of regional lords with different foreign powers and making and
unmaking of fragile coalitions and alliances to advance political interests.

On the other hand, the Zemene-Mesafint also witnessed other developments. These include:

 The emperor remained a symbol of political unity and sources of legitimacy

 The Yejju elites were keen to preserve the unity and territorial integrity of the
kingdom
 Despite their strength , the regional lords only vied to be king-makers, and did not try
to ascend the throne themselves, keeping alive the myth of “solomonid” dynasty in
Gondar
 Diversification of powers and political centers resulted in the multiplication of courtly
culture which was previously limited the royal court
 The influence of different regional and ethnic cultures broadened the cultural
diversity of Ethiopia, fuelling cultural changes.
 The internal struggle of the period contributed to the emergence of independent
kingdoms which later spearheaded the unification of Ethiopia.

UNIT SIX

INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF ETHIOPIA AND

THE HORN, 1800-1941

6.1. Nature of Interactions among Peoples and States of Ethiopia and the Horn

6.1.1. Peoples and States in South-Central, Southwestern, and Western Ethiopia

Qabena:- with elements of Hadya-Guraghe coalition, it emerged as a strong political entity in
the south central Ethiopia in the second half of the 19 th century. It became a center of Muslim
revivalist movement to the northeast of the Gibe River. Stirred by Muslim refugees from Wollo,
and with possible connections even with the Mahdist Sudan, the movement swept across a large
part of the region and was attended by a fast spread of Islam.

The Five Gibe States:- monarchical states emerged among the Mecha Oromo in the south west
at the expense of the Gadaa system in the early 19 th century. The war leaders of the Gadaa
system (Abba-Dula/Moti) and powerful individuals accumulated wealth from the control and
taxation on long distance trade and used the opportunity to establish hereditary leadership. These
states were:-

I. Limmu-Enarya:-The Abbaa Dulas of Limmu like Tesso fought and defeated the rulers of
Enarya like Badancho, Gu’amcho and Banaro at different times. Finally, Bofoo/Abba Gomol
(r.1800-25) established Limmu-Enarya. Bofo abdicated in favor of his son, Ibsa/Abba Bagiboo
(r.1825-61). The Kingdom reached the height of its power during Ibsa’s reign, when he
incorporated areas including Hagalo, Badi-Folla etc. Ibsa was succeeded by Abba Bulgu (r.1861-
1883).

II. Gumma: Jilcha Abba Bal’oo of Chira killed Sarbaroda of Dagoye clan and began state
formation. He was succeeded by his son Oncho (1810-1830), who completed the state formation.
He was in turn succeeded by Jawwe (r.1840-1854).

III. Gomma: formed by Abba Bokee (1800-1829), who was succeeded by his son Abba Manoo
(1829-1840).The latter conquered Qattuu and converted to Islam by Muslim Ulama/scholars. He
converted the masses of Gomma to Islam much earlier than other Gibe states.

IV. Jimma: an influential woman, Makahore, emerged at Oda Hulle in the eighteenth century,
but it was Ose Kobi (Abba Faro) who becomes the first monarchy. He was succeeded by
Dangila (Abba Magal). The process of state formation was completed by Sanna/Abba Jifar I
(r.1830-55) who formed Jimma Kingdom and left a consolidated state to his successors like
Abba Rebu (1855-59), Abba Boqa (1859-1861) and Abba Gomol(r.1861-75). The most famous
among the Jimma monarchs was Abba Jifar II (c. r.1875-1934). Apart from agriculture and trade,
the kingdom's economy depended on iron mining and smelting at Dakkano and Kito,
respectively.

V. Gera: The process of state formation in Gera was completed during the reign of Tullu Gunji
(r.1835-38). Abba Rago I (r.1838-48) succeeded Tullu Gunji.

The monarch’s officials in almost all the Gibe states include Abba Gurmu (next to the king),
Abba Mizan (treasurer and foreign affair minister), Abba Dango (immigration chief), Lammi
(ambassador/royal messenger), Abba Qoro (district governor), Abba Ganda (village chief), Abba
Busi (tax head), Abba Jiga (murder judge) and Abba-Qawe (body-guard). Contrary to the Gadaa
values that did not levy any kind of taxation, under monarchical systems farmers were forced to
pay crop tax measured by traditional instruments called buchano (about 15 kilograms) and later
guboo (25 kilograms) on each crop.

The Leqa States

I. Leqa-Naqamte: was founded by Bakare Godana in 1840, and reached its height under his
successor Kumsa Moroda (later Dejazmach Gebre-Egzi'abiher). He promoted handcraft work,
gold washing, coffee planting and game reserves/hunting.

II. Leqa-Qellam: It was founded by Tullu and became powerful under his son, Jote being
centered at Gidami and controlling the surrounding areas including Sayyo-Dambi Dollo.

Ilu: the Tume clan leader Chali Shono (also known as Abba Bor) set up the well consolidated
and prosperous state in the early nineteenth century.

Nilotic Sheikdoms: A number of Shiekdoms were established through parallel imposition of

Arabic-speaking Sudanese mercantilists over Berta and Gumuz inhabitants. The merger came to
be known as ‘Watawit’. Among these Watawit’ Sheikdoms, Asosa or Aqoldi got preeminence
under Sheikh Khojale al Hasan. Bela/BeniShangul became famous under Abd al Rahman
Khojale, while Khomosha reached its zenith under Khojale Muhammad Wad Mahmud.
Similarly, Guba was founded to the north of the Abbay River along the Ethio-Sudanese border.
Economically, the Sheikdoms depend on agriculture, gold mining, and frontier trade. The rich
gold of the area also attracted foreign powers like the Egyptians and Mahdists who attempted to
control the sheikdoms at different times.
6.1.2. Trade and Trade Routes

The main trade routes linking various territories of the Horn attained prominence during the 19 th
century, partly because of the revival of external trade in the Red Sea region. During this period,
two main trade lines linked various territories of Ethiopia and the Horn. One route linked peoples
and states of the southwestern Ethiopia with the northern part of the Ethiopian region. The main
market centers along this line were Bonga, Hirmata (in Jimma), Saqa (in Limmu), Billo(in Leqa-
Naqamte), Asandabo (in Guduru), Basso-Yajube (in Gojjam), Yifag and Darita (in Begemider)
and Gondar. From Gondar, one line bifurcated to westward through Chilga to Matamma-
Qallabat (Gallabat) taking commodities to be sold to the Sudanese merchants called Jallaba. The
other route passed through Adwa, Asmara and entered Massawa. Still another split at Basso to
move via Ancharro and Dawwe in Wollo and Awusa in Afar to Tajura, Obbok and Rahe’ita in
Djibouti.

The second major trade route also began from Bonga and passed through Hirmata to
AgabjaAndode-Toli to Soddo in southwest Shewa; Rogge near Yerer. Then, the line passed
through Aliyu Amba or Abdul Rasul in northern Shewa and ran eastward to Harar. From Harar,
the route branched into Zeila and Berbera, the most important commercial centers in Somalia.
Ethiopian products were mostly sold in the Middle East.

In the trade between the interior and the coast, varieties of items were exchanged. The main
sources of exported items were the southwestern regions. Among these were gold, ivory,
rhinoceros horn, skins, civet, musk, honey, wax, coffee, various spices and slaves. Likewise,
imported products included mirrors and ironware. The major medium of exchange were salt bars
(amole), iron bars, wines, cowries’ shells, beads, pieces of cotton cloth (abujadi) and Maria
Theresa Thalers (MTT). Amole was mined in the Afar plains bordering eastern Tigray where it
was also suitably shaped for transportation. The town of Mekelle prospered as the salt was cut in
and distributed to the highlands from the area under the supervision of the governor of Enderta.
He assumed the title of Balgada and collected the tributes as tax judge. MTT was a silver coin
introduced from Austria to the Horn of African region at the end of the eighteenth century. It
bore the image of Maria Theresa, the Austrian queen; hence the name.
At each market center, local peoples were active traders. However, Muslim merchants were the
most dominant that traveled from interior to the coast. Among these were northern Muslim
merchants (Jabarti), Muslim Oromo merchants of southwestern region known as Afqala, and the
Sudanese merchants known as Jallaba. Similarly, the Argoba from the Kingdom of Shewa were
active merchants in the trade between Harar and the northern Somali coast.

6.2. The Making of Modern Ethiopian State

The Process of Territorial Unification

The man who ended the Zemene Mesafint was Kasa Hailu of Quara. He started his career as
assistant to his half-brother, Dejjazmach Kinfu of Dembya, who died in 1839. Ras Ali II then
gave Quara to his mother, Etegge( Empress) Menen. Kassa was annoyed by this and become a
shifta (bandit). Kasa’s fame soon spread in the area and he became a major concern to the Warra-
Sheh (Yejju) ruling house. As a result, they decided to pacify Kasa through marriage
arrangement. Hence, Kasa married Mentwab, the daughter of Ras Ali II and he was appointed
the governor of Quara. However, Kasa felt that he was not well treated by Ras Ali and Menen,
and he resumed his shiftnet. A series of battles then followed. First, Kasa defeated Dejjach
Goshu Zewde of Gojjam at Gur Amba on November 27, 1852. Kassa defeated the four
dejazmaches sent by Ras Ali II (Birru Aligaz, Aben, Yazew and Belew) at Taqusa (Gorgora
Bichign) on April 12, 1853. This was followed by his victory over Ras Ali at Ayshal on 29 June
1853 and Dejjazmach Wube of Simen and Tigray at Deresge on 8 February, 1855. Then he was
crowned by Abune Salama, the Coptic bishop at Deresge Mariam on 9 February 1855, with the
throne name of Tewodros II (1855-1868), King of Kings of Ethiopia.

Tewodros II then pursued his victory by marching first to Wollo and then to Shewa. He wanted
to create a strong central government by appointing individuals who would be accountable to
him. However, he faced resistance from Tadla Gwalu of Gojjam, Agaw Niguse and Tassema
walde Mikael of Simen, Tasew Gobezie of Walqayit, Amade Bashir of Wollo, Seifu and
Abboyye of Shewa. His imprisonment of Europeans, who happened to be in Ethiopia, provoked
the British to send a huge military expedition. His army was defeated at the battle of Maqdela, on
April 13, 1868. Emperor Tewodros committed suicide rather than captured by British.
Following the death of Emperor Tewodros, three contenders to the throne emerged; namely,
Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta, Kasa Mircha of Tigray and Menilek of Shewa. Gobeze
immdediately assumed the throne as Emperor Tekle-Giorgis II (1868−71). Although he made
attempts to create a smooth relation with Kasa Mircha, the quest for state power put them in
enmity and it was brought to an end following a battle at Assam (near Adwa) in July 1871, in
which the latter became victorious. Kasa, who was crowned as Emperor Yohannes IV in January
1872, embarked on a state building project with an approach that differed from that of Tewodros.
Yohannes IV (1872-1889) attempted to introduce a decentralized system of administration,
permitting regional rulers to exercise a great deal of autonomy. A good example of this was his
recognition of Menilek as Negus of Shewa in 1878 by the Liche agreement. Similarly, Yohannes
designated Ras Adal Tesema of Gojjam as Negus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam and Kafa in 1881.

Emperor Yohannes IV sought to end the religious controversy within the EOC as well as effect
religious unity in the country as a whole. In this regard, he presided over the Council of Boru
Meda (1878) where Tewahdo was declared the only doctrine of the EOC. This was followed by a
campaign to convert Muslims and adherents of other religions into Orthodox Christianity.
Accordingly, the leading Wollo leaders such as Mohammed Ali and Amede Liben heeded the
Emperor's call, rather reluctantly, converting to Christianity and changing their names to Ras
Michael and Dajjach Hayle-Mariam, respectively. Others accepted the Emperor's demand
outwardly but remained Muslims, becoming "Christians by day and Muslims by night". Others
resisted and fled Wollo to Arsi, Gurage, Jimma and the Sudan while others revolted under the
leadership of Sheikh Tola (Talha) Jafar that led to harsh measures of Emperor Yohannes IV.

He lost his life fighting the Mahadists at Metemma on March 9, 1889. Although the Emperor had
designated Mengesha Yohannes as his successor, rivalry for power split the monarch's camp and
thus, Mengesha was unable to make a viable bid for the imperial throne. As a result, the throne
was assumed by Negus Menilek of Shewa who became Emperor Menilek II (1889-1913). Ras
Mengesha refused to submit to Emperor Menilek. The tension was resolved after Menilek led a
campaign to force Mengesha's submission in 1889. Ras Mengesha was appointed as governor of
Tigray after a temporary arrangement in which Ras Mekonnen Wolde Mikael ruled the area for
about a year.

Territorial Expansion
Emperor Tewodros II, Emperor Yohannes IV and other regional lords made territorial expansion
their mission in the 19th Century and struggled to achieve that goal. Yet, the most successful was
Menilek of Shewa. This was because Menilek had access to modern firearms, his control of
resource rich areas that enabled the emperor to build military muscle, and the determination of
his generals. The process of territorial expansion by Menilek can be divided in three phases:
when he was king of Shewa (1865-89), from his coronation to the battle of Adwa (1889-96) and
the aftermath of Adwa (1896-1900).

Menilek had already incorporated the Tulema and eastern Mecha Oromo territories before 1870s
after controlling local leaders notably Ashe Rufo of Salale, Dula Ara’e of Gullale, Tufa Muna of
Gimbichu, Ture Galate of Soddo and others. Some Oromo leaders such as Ras Gobena Dache,
Fitawrari Habte-Giorgis Dinagde, Dejjach Balcha Safo (AbbaNefso) and others helped Menelik
in this process of expansion.

The northern Gurage, the Kistane, peacefully submitted to Menilek from 1875-76 because of
their religious affinity and geographical proximity to the Kingdom of Shewa, and for fear of their
local rivals notably the surrounding Oromo. On the other hand, the western Gurage, led by Hasan
Enjamo of Qabena, strongly resisted Menilek's force until Ras Gobena broke their resistance in
1888.

In the areas south of the Abbay River, particularly in Horro Guduru, Ras Adal Tesema of
Gojjam had already established his control since the mid-1870s. Although the Gojjam force was
crushed by Moti (King) Abishe Garba’s Horro force at Chomman, Adal’s force ambushed
Abishe and his entourage at a place called Kokor. Thus, the Gojjam force controlled the area
until June 6, 1882, when it was defeated at the battle of Embabo by the Shewan force.

After the Battle of Embabo, Leqa-Naqamte, Leqa-Qellem, and Jimma Abba Jifar submitted to
Menilek peacefully, who promised them to recognize and maintain their autonomy. Meanwhile,
Garbi Jilo (of Leqa-Billo), Tucho Dano (Leqa-Horda), Ligdi Bakare (LeqaNaqamte), Genda
Busan (Sibu-Sire), Mardasa Konche (Nonno Migira), and Turi Jagan (Nonno Rogge) formed a
coalition and defeated Menilek's army led by the Nadew brothers, Dasta, Dilinesaw and
Tesemma at the Battle of Gurra Doba. Similarly, in the west of the Dhidhessa River, an alliance
of Wachu Dabalo of Sibu, Jorgo Dagago of Noole Kabba and others fought Menilek's local allies
like Moroda and Amante Bakare at Sambo Darro.

In the Gibe areas, Firissa of Guma fought Menilek's army from 1889 to 1901. Similar resistance
was posed by Abba Bosso of Gomma, although defeated by Ras Demisew Nesibu in early 1900.
Also, Ras Tesemma Nadew’s force incorporated Ilu Abba Bor into the imperial state after
fighting with Fatansa at Qarsa Gogila.

Of all the campaigns Nigus Menilek conducted before he became emperor, perhaps, the most
sustained bloody wars were those against the Arsi Oromo. There were altogether six campaigns
from 1882-6. Menilek encountered fierce resistance from the Arsi led by notables like Sufa
Kuso, Damu Usu, Lenjiso Diga, Gosa Dilamo and Roba Butta. Initially, the Arsi defeated
Menilek's force at Dodota and Qal’ata. Yet, with intelligence service of local supporters, Ras
Darge Sahile-Selassie's force defeated the Arsi at the battle of Azule on 6 September 1886. The
battle of Azule was followed by what is known as the Anole incident of 1887, which inflicted
heavy damage on the Arsi. [There is disagreement among historians on the veracity of the
incident and on whether there is a need to highlight it, as the campaigns of territorial expansion
were often attended by atrocities as was the case for instance in Kafa and Walayta].

In the east, Menilek's commander, Dejjach Wolde-Gabra'el, fought against the Itu in 1886 and
incorporated Chercher. A year later, Dejjach Mekonnen’s army marched into Harar. The
resisting forces of Emir Abdullahi (r.1885-1887) of the Harari and Bakar Ware of the Eastern
Oromo were defeated in the final engagement at Chalanqo on 6 January 1887. This was followed
by the appointment of Dejjach (later Ras) Makonnen Wolde Mikael as governor of the province.

The Great Famine or Kifu Qen (Evil Day) of 1888-92 also contributed to Menilek's territorial
expansion to parts of southern Ethiopia. Accordingly, Menilek's army occupied DawuroKonta
and Kambata in 1889 and 1890, respectively. From the early 1890s to 1894, Menilek's army
controlled Bale, Sidama, Gamo Gofa and Wolayta. In the campaign to Wolayta, Emperor
Menilek and many notables such as Ras Mikael of Wollo, Fitawurari Gebeyehu Gurmu, Liqe
Mekwas Abate Buayalew, Dejjach Balcha Safo, Ras Wolde-Giorgis, and Abba Jifar II of Jimma
participated. Wolayta's resistance led by Kawo (King) Tona against Menilek's force was defeated
in 1894 in which large number of people lost their lives. This was followed by the incorporation
of Gedeo, Borana and Konso. The incorporation of Kafa paralleled the Wolayta experience in
terms of human cost. In 1897, the king of Kafa, Tato Gaki Sherocho, fought and lost to Menilek's
army led by Ras Wolde Giorgis. Beni-Shangul was incorporated after the Battle of Fadogno in
1897/98. This was followed by the occupation of Maji in 1898/99. Tesema Nadew also
controlled Baro (Sobat) and Nasir in Gambella around this time.

After Menilek, the process of centralization and establishing a unitary state continued by
abolishing regional autonomies in the early decades of the twentieth century. In the process,
Wollo (after the battle of Segele in 1916 when Nigus Mika’el was defeated), Begemedir (after
the battle of Anchim at which Ras Gugsa Wole was defeated in 1930), Gojjam in 1932 and
Jimma in 1933 were reduced to mere provinces by Teferi-Mekonnen (Haile-Sillassie I).

6.3. Modernization Attempts

Emperor Tewodros had relatively better information about western governance and technologies
than his predecessors. As a monarch, Tewodros took a number of military, administrative and
socio-economic reform measures. As regards the army, Tewodros introduced military titles, like
Yasr Aleqa (corporal), Yamsa Aleqa (sergeant), Yeshi Aleqa (major) etc. He tried to organize
and replace the regional armies of the Zemene-Mesafint with salaried national army. He tried to
manufacture firearms at his workshop, Gafat (near Debre Tabor) with the help of European
missionaries and Ethiopian artisans. At Gafat, about 35 cannons were produced of which the
biggest one was known as “Sebastopol." He also tried to build a small navy in Lake Tana.

Moreover, Tewodros II began the construction of Ethiopia’s first embryonic road network to link
Debre Tabor with Gondar, Gojjam, and Maqdela. He also attempted to put an end to the slave
trade. Other reform attempts include land reform and banning of polygamy. The use of Amharic
writing became more developed, and a library was established at Maqdala, all of which
contributed to the development of literary Amharic. He wrote letters to different foreign powers
in Amharic. He tried to reduce the amount of land held by the church as well as the number of
priests and deacons serving every church. This brought him into conflict with the EOC, which
precipitated his downfall. However, his reforms were not fully materialized owing to internal
and external challenges.
Emperor Yohannes IV was the first Ethiopian monarch to appoint foreign consul who served as
his representative in London. He hired a French mechanic (Renen), a Hungarian gunsmith
(Andre), and an Italian builder (Giacommo) and a Greek Physician (Nicolas Parisis). He was also
the first to introduce modern smallpox vaccine replacing traditional inoculation. His reign also
witnessed extensive treatment of syphilis in several towns.

The post-Adwa period was marked by the establishment of Emperor Menelik II of postal service
and telecommunications/ telephone-telegraph system, the construction of railway line from
Djibouti to Addis Ababa, the opening of the Bank of Abyssinia in 1905 and the introduction of
his own silver coin to replace MTT.

His reign also witnessed the opening of Itege Hotel (now Taytu Hotel) in 1907, Menilek II
School in 1908 and the foundation of Russian Red Cross hospital in 1906 and Russian-run
Menilek II Hospital in 1910. In terms of administration, the emperor introduced European style
ministerial system in 1907. Accordingly, he appointed Afe-Nigus Nesibu Meskelo (Minister of
Justice), AzazhMetaferia Melke-Tsadiq (Minister of Imperial Court), Bejirond MulugetaYigezu
(Minister of Finance), Fitawrari Habte-Giorgis Dinagde (Minister of War), Negadras
Hailegiorgis Weldemikael (Minister of Commerce and Foreign Relations), and Tsehafe-Tizaz
Gebreselase Welde Aregay (Minister of Pen).

Emperor Menilek II when he was sick, he designated Lij Iyasu as heir to the throne and Ras
Tesemma Nadew as regent in 1908.

Lij Iyasu (r. 1913-16) also took several reform measures. The reforms are the banning of the
Quragna system, a system that involved chaining the plaintiff and defendant until justice was
settled. He tried to reform the Leba Shay, a customary method of detecting criminals or theft. He
setup municipal police called Tirnbulle for Addis Ababa. He initiated auditing of government
accounts. He tried to integrate Ethiopian Muslims into the administration structure. His rule also
witnessed introduction of a flour mill, sawmill, a grinding-mill, a tannery, a soap-factory, etc.

The two rulers of the diarchy (Dual Rule), Empress Zewditu and Ras Teferi (r. 1916-1930) had
different views of western culture. Ras Teferi had keen interest to boost the country’s image on
the global stage through modernization. A number of reforms based on European model were
taken following his coronation as Emperor Haile-Selassie I in 1930. Some of these were the
promulgation of Ethiopia’s first constitution in 1931, the establishment of Kebur Zebegna
(Imperial Body Guard) with the help of Belgian military mission in 1930, and the opening of
Ethiopia’s first Military Academy at Holeta with the help of a Swedish military mission in 1934.

6.4. Socio-Economic Developments

6.4.1. Agriculture and Land Tenure

The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries witnessed an increasing demand for farming and
grazing land. The role of agriculture in the politics of the period could be understood from the
competition to control surplus producing areas. The quest for land was one factor for territorial
expansion by Menilek. Land was required, among others, to settle and feed the warriors and their
families. Hence, the incorporation of the southern half of the country into the imperial state
resulted in the redefinition of access to resources in these regions. The state institutionalized
different forms of surplus expropriation and mechanisms to ensure political control in the regions
that had peacefully submitted and those that resisted. The former relatively enjoyed self-
administration but were subjected to pay qurt-gibir (fixed tax). The latter were placed under the
naftegna-gabbar system whereby local peoples were made to pay tribute payers to naftegna.
Literally, naftegna means man at arms. In this context, naftegna refers to northern soldiers
stationed in the southern territories under the imperial banner.

The major force of change was the exploitative nature of the system that altered both settlement
pattern and agricultural system. One effect of the naftegna-gabbar system was the creation of
classes like ballabat (landlords), gabbar and tenants. The landholders were largely government
agents while the local population was reduced into gabbar and later tenants. One major factor
that brought change to agricultural practices was the beginning of the qalad system (land
measurement) in the 1890s. Qalad introduced new practices in which certain social classes
gained access to land while at the same time it resulted in the dispossession of the local peasantry
in parts of the south. Later, land was categorized into lam (cultivated), lam-taf (partly cultivated)
and taf (uncultivated) to facilitate taxation.

6.4.2. Slavery and Slave Trade

Slave trade expanded in the Horn expanded due to increased demand for slaves in foreign
markets, particularly in the Middle East in the 19 th century. Slaves were sold to Egypt, Arabia,
Ottoman Turkey, Persia, and India through the Sudan, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden ports.
Slaves were required for agricultural works, in the army and as sources of revenue. Thus, several
regional and local rulers acquired slaves through raiding, kidnapped, war captivity, debt bondage
and purchase from open markets. Major sources of slaves were southern and southwestern parts
of Ethiopia. For instance, slave raiders captured Bilile from Guma in 1837 and sold her to a
German prince, Herman Pickler Muskau at Cairo who changed her name to Mahbuba and made
her his mistress. Similarly, Hika (later Onesimos Nasib) was kidnapped in 1869 in Hurumu when
he was four years old. He was sold at Massawa, later freed by a Swedish mission, after which he
translated the Bible into Afan Oromo at Menkulu (in Eritrea). Aster Gano was also sold into
slavery from Limmu, but she was emancipated in 1886 and assisted Onesimos in the translation
of the Holy Bible.

Emperors Tewodros II, Yohannes IV and Menilek II tried to stop the slave trade although not
slavery itself. Ras Teferi banned slave trade in 1923 and issued a decree in 1924 to emancipate
slaves. The Office for the Abolition of Slavery was set up in 1932. Freed slaves were kept under
the supervision of Hakim Warqineh Eshete. The Italians proclaimed the abolition of slavery
immediately after their occupation of the country. After liberation, the Emperor issued another
decree in 1942 abolishing any forms of slavery and the institution of slavery.

6.4.3. Manufacturing

The opening of legations in the post-Adwa period was followed by the coming of many
expatriates, who either came with the skill or became agents of the introduction of modern
manufacturing. Armenians, Greeks, Italians and Indians brought entrepreneurial capacity to
develop local manufacturing industries. Among these, the Holeta Grain Mill and Massawa Salt
Processing were set up in 1896 and 1904, respectively. About 25 factories were established in
Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa, Asmara and Massawa up to 1927. These included cement factories,
wood and clay workshops, tanneries, soap and edible oil plants, ammunition factories, breweries,
tobacco processing plants and grain mills. Artistic Printing Press and Ambo Mineral Water plant
were established before the Italian occupation. More than 10 manufacturing industries were set
up after 1928, including during the short lived Italian occupation.
6.4.4. Urbanization

The expansion of both local and long distance trade since the early nineteenth century had
transformed old markets into towns. In addition, the railway connecting Djibouti and Addis
Ababa began operation in 1917, followed by the evolution of several fast growing towns,
including Dire-Dawa, Adama, Mojo, Bishoftu and others. On the other hand, many centers that
once served as "royal camps" evolved into towns. Conversely, many towns declined when "royal
camps" shifted to other centers. One of the towns that grew through such process was Addis
Ababa. Empress Taytu Betul chose the place for its hot springs, Fel-Wuha (Hora Finfinne) in
1886. Similarly, in southern Ethiopia, a number of towns emerged as of the late 19 th century
when Menilek's generals established katamas (garrisons) including Gobba, Ticho, Gore and
Arjo, in order to maintain control of the occupied provinces.

6.5. External Relations

6.5.1. Agreements and Treaties

As of 1804, regional rulers made independent foreign contacts and signed treaties. The agents of
these relations were mainly travelers. Travelers came to Ethiopia and the Horn with the motives
of adventure and scientific research. They were also sometimes involved in fostering friendship
and trade relation on behalf of their governments. Some of them, however, came with covert
mission of colonialism. Meanwhile, various rulers of Ethiopia and the Horn had also dispatched
their own delegations to various countries of the world.

One of the earliest private travelers was Henry Salt who reached the court of Ras Wolde-Selassie
of Tigray on 28 August 1805. He came for scientific reasons, but he claimed that his mission was
to establish friendship between Great Britain and Ethiopia. He returned to Ethiopia in 1809 and
concluded agreement with the Ras.

Other travelers, including Christian Kugler, also arrived in the 1830s. Captain W.C. Harris,
leading an official British mission, visited Shewa and signed a treaty with Negus Sahle-Selassie
(1813-47) in 1841. John Bell and Walter Plowden came in the 1840s and signed treaty with Ras
Ali I in 1849. Travelers from Germany like Eduard Ruppell arrived in 1846. The Italian
Geographic Society arrived in 1869.
Furthermore, other regional lords had connections with religious centers in the Middle East. For
instance, when Egyptians threatened the Ethiopian religious community settlement at Deir Al-
Sultan in Jerusalem, lords like Ras Ali and Dejjazmach Wube sent letters to Queen Victoria of
England in the early 1850s to request support against the Egyptians.

Tewodros II seemed more oriented towards obtaining western military support to avert foreign
aggression. Yohannes IV tried to create strong relations with Europeans so as to regain lost
territories, delimit boundaries, defend the sovereignty of the state, and solve external challenge
more through negotiation than war.

Yohannes IV and the British Rear Admiral William Hewett on behalf of Egypt signed a treaty of
Hewett /Adwa Treaty at Adwa on 3 June 1884. The purpose of the treaty was to safely evacuate
Egyptian troops trapped by the Mahdists troops along the Ethio-Sudanese border through
Ethiopia. In return, Bogos was to be restored to Ethiopia and the latter was to use Massawa as a
free port for the transit of goods.

Based on this agreement, Emperor Yohannes facilitated the safe evacuation of Egyptian troops
through his territory. Britain restored Bogos to Ethiopia. However, Britain secretly transferred
Massawa from Egypt to Italy in February 1885. One consequence of the treaty was Mahdists'
determination to avenge Yohannes that led to the battle of Metemma on 9 March 1889, which
claimed his life.

While he was king of Shewa, Menelik established commercial relation with Italy that helped
him to acquire arms. Menelik’s relations with Italy reached its climax with the signing of the
Wuchale Treaty (in Wollo) on 2 May 1889. It was drafted by Count Pietro Antonelli, the Italian
envoy. The treaty has twenty articles and was written both in Amharic and Italian languages.
Moreover, when Ras Mokonnon visited Italy in October 1889, the Italians made him sign an
additional Napales convention, which introduced the phrase “effective occupation” of Italy to
legitimize the territories that the Italians had come to occupy after the treaty. Accordingly, the
Italian government formally declared Eritrea as its colony in January 1890.

The most controversial element of the Wuchale Treaty was Article XVII. The Italian text said
that Ethiopia “consents to use” Italian support for concluding foreign affairs. While the Amharic
text said that she “may use” the Italian support. Based on the Italian version, Italy announced
that all foreign powers had to deal with Ethiopia only through Italy. European powers except
Russia gave recognition to this Italian claim.

Italian action to colonize Ethiopia through a combination of tricky treaties, persuasion and
subversive methods failed. Menilek publicly abrogated the Wuchale Treaty in February 1893.
Tigrian lords including Ras Mangasha Yohannes, Ras Sebhat Aragawi and Dajjach Hagos
Tafari, who the Italians were hoping to use, began to fight against the Italians collaborating with
Emperor Menilek. Italian determination to occupy Ethiopia and Ethiopian resistance against
colonialism led to the Battle of Adwa (1 March 1896). The Ethiopians won a decisive victory.

After Adwa, different foreign countries opened their legations at Addis Ababa. Emperor Menilek
made boundary agreements with the neighboring colonial territories like French-Somaliland
(Djibouti) on 20 March 1897, British-Somaliland (now Somaliland) on 4 June 1897, with Anglo-
Egyptian Sudan on 15 May 1902, with the Italian colony of Eritrea on 10 July 1900 and also
with British East Africa (Kenya) in 1907 and Italian-Somaliland in 1908. These boundary
agreements shaped modern Ethiopian boundary.

Lij Iyasu showed a tendency to side with the Central Powers (Germany, Austro-Hungary, and
Ottoman Empire) during the First World War (1914-18) believing that the defeat of the Allied
powers (France and Britain) would allow Ethiopia to push Italy out of Eritrea and Somalia. He
also befriended the Somali nationalist leader, Sayyid Mohammed Abdille Hassan, against Italy
and Britain. One of the successes of Ethiopia’s foreign relation in the early twentieth century
was her admission to the League of Nations in 1923. A year later, Teferi made his grand
European tour.

6. 5. 2. Major Battles Fought Against Foreign Aggressors and Patriotism

Wad Kaltabu (1837): Kassa and Kinfu Hailu defeated the Egyptians in eastern Sudan.

Dabarki (1848): was fought between Kasa Hailu and Egyptian forces. Although they showed
extra ordinary courage, Kasa’s forces lost the battle owning to Egyptians’ superior military
organization, better training and arms. Yet, the military imbalance particularly, the modern
artillery and discipline of Egyptian troops gave him a lesson to modernize his military force,
acquire modern technologies.
Maqdela (1868): In 1862, Tewodros sent a letter to Queen Victoria requesting assistance
through Consul Cameron. Yet, Captain Cameron came back to Ethiopia via Egypt without
bringing any response. Suspecting him of plotting with Egypt, Tewodros imprisoned Captain
Cameron along with other Europeans. Consequently, Queen Victoria sent a letter through
Hormuzd Rassam, which did not satisfy Tewodros.

After some unsuccessful negotiations, the British parliament decided to take military action.
Subsequently, 32,000 troops led by Sir Robert Napier were sent through Massawa and reached
Maqdela guided by Dejazmach Bezibiz Kassa of Tigray (later Emperor Yohannes). On April 10,
1868, up to 8,000 Tewodros’ soldiers including his general Gebriye were defeated by the British
at the battle of Aroge. On April 13, 1868, Tewodros committed suicide at Maqdela. This was
followed by the burning of his fortress and looting of manuscripts, religious and secular artifacts
including his crown by the British troops.

Gundet and Gura: Egyptians showed a strong interest to occupy Northeast Africa with the
ambition of controlling the source of the Nile in the 19th century. Following their occupation of
the Sudan in 1821, they moved to occupy Ethiopia on several occasions. For instance, Khedive
Ismail Pasha sent his troops to invade Ethiopia in three directions in 1875. Mohammed Rauf
Pasha led the Zeila front and the result was the occupation of the Harar Emirate between 1875
and 1885. Werner Munzinger, the architect of the whole of Ismail’s scheme for invasion of
Ethiopia, led about 500 Egyptian troops through Tajura. But, Munzinger and his troops were all
killed by the Afars at the Battle of Odduma. Colonel Arendrup and Arakel Bey led 2,000 well-
armed troops through Massawa. Emperor Yohannes IV and his famous general and right-hand
man, Ras Alula Engida mobilized about 20,000 troops, and severely defeated the Egyptian troops
at the Battle of Gundet on 16 November 1875. Notwithstanding this setback, Egyptians again
reorganized their forces and sent their army led by Muhammed Ratib Pasha, Hassan Ismail, the
American General William Loring, General Charles Stone and Colonel Wiliam Dye. However,
the Ethiopian forces again defeated them at the Battle of Gura (7- 9 March, 1876). It is important
to stress that some Europeans and Americans were in the service of Egyptians. For instance, the
architect of the whole of Ismail’s plan, Werner Munzinger, was a Swiss born adventurer and
former French Consul at Massawa. Arendrup was a Danish Citizen, and General Charles Stone,
Loring and Dye were Americans.
Dogali: With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the Red Sea region acquired great strategic
significance. Italy’s interest in the Horn began when an Italian private shipping company
(Rubatino) bought the port of Assab from the local chiefs in 1869. Assab was transferred to the
Italian government in 1882. Massawa was also transferred by Britain from Egypt to Italy in
1885. Subsequently, the Italian forces occupied Sa’ati, Aylet and Wia in the then Mereb Melash
region. However, Ras Alula Engida defeated them decisively at the Battle of Dogali on 26
January 1887. Following this battle, Italy signed a Treaty of Neutrality with Menilek in October
1887 to isolate Emperor Yohannes.

The Battle of Metemma: In reaction to the Hewett/ Adwa Treaty, the Mahdists opened attack
on Ethiopia from 1885 to 1889. The first clash was at Kufit between Ras Alula and Uthman
Digna in September 1885. In January 1887, Yohannes ordered Nigus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam
to repulse the Mahdists. A year later, the Mahdists led by Abu Anja, defeated Nigus Tekle-
Haimanot’s troops at Sar-Wuha in Dembia. Meanwhile, the Mahdists were defeated at Gute Dilli
(in Najjo-Wallagga) by Menilek's commander Ras Gobana Dache on October 14, 1888. Yet,
Nigus Menilek and Nigus Tekle-Haimanot conspired against the emperor. As a result, Emperor
Yohannes first devastated Gojjam and, postponing his campaign to Shewa, marched to Mettema,
where he died fighting the Mahdists on 9 March 1889.

The Battle of Adwa and Its Aftermath

The disagreement on the Wuchale Treaty led to war between Ethiopia and Italy. This was
because Italians were determined to colonize Ethiopia whereas Ethiopians were ready not to give
in. The Italians crossed the Mereb River to conquer Ethiopia. Following Menilek's proclamation
for general mobilization, about 100,000 troops gathered at Wara-Illu in South Wollo. The force
led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu Gurmu defeated the Italians at Amba-Alage and forced them to
retreat to Mekelle. In January 1896, under the leadership of Ras Mekonnen, the Ethiopian forces
defeated Italians at Mekelle. At Mekelle, the Italians were brought under seige denying them of
access to a water well which they used from 7-21 January 1896. The strategy was commonly
called the “siege of Mekelle” and was considered to be designed by Empress Taytu. After some
negotiations, the besieged Italian troops were set free and joined their compatriots.
Ethiopian forces decisively defeated the Italian columns led by General Oreste Bartieri, Vittorio
Dabormida, Guiseppe Arimond, Matteo Albertone and Elena at Adwa on 1st March 1896. At this
battle, about 8,000 Italians were killed, 1,500 wounded and 3,000 were captured. On the
Ethiopian side, about 4,000-6,000 troops are said to have been killed.

Consequently, Italy recognized the independence of Ethiopia by the treaty of Addis Ababa
signed on October 26, 1896. A number of powers also recognized the independence of Ethiopia
and opened their legations in Addis Ababa. The battle of Awa has become a source of pride not
only for Ethiopians but also for Africans and also the black race in general. The victory of black
people over white colonizers inspired Africans fighting against colonialism. The well-known
Pan-Africanist, Marcus Garvey, inspired his followers in his “Back to Africa” movement. He
used phrases like “Ethiopia thou land of our fathers”.

6. 5. 3. Italian Occupation (1936-41) and the Patriotic Resistance

A. Background

The Fascists led by Benito Mussolini came to power in Italy in 1922. The Fascists were
determined to restore the power and glory of ancient Roman Empire by erasing the shameful scar
of Adwa.

The policy of subversion aimed at sowing dissatisfaction in Tigray, Begemedir, Gojjam and
Wollo. Beside their legation in Addis Ababa, the Italians had also consulates in provincial towns
such as Dessie, Adwa, Debre Markos and Gondar. These consulates played a significant role in
propagating dissatisfaction and gathering vital military and political intelligence. This
responsibility was entrusted to Corrado Zoli, the governor of Eritrea (1928-1930). The Italian
legation in Addis Ababa, headed by Guiliano Cora led the policy of ‘rapprochement’, a pseudo
reconciliation tactic which was trying to persuade the Ethiopian government to establish cordial
relations. For instance, the signing of the twenty-year Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of Peace and
Friendship in 1928 was the manifestation of the success of the rapprochement policy.

Mussolini, who had made all necessary preparations to launch an invasion against Ethiopia, was
only searching for a pretext. He found it in the Walwal incident. The Walwal Incident (5
December 1934) was lack of boundary demarcation and effective administrative control in the
frontiers. Taking the advantage of this porous border, the Italians occupied Walwal. When the
Ethiopians protested, the Italians refused to give back Walwal and even attacked the Ethiopian
soldiers who were stationed nearby. although the number of Ethiopians died during this border
clash was three times as high as the Italians, it was Italy which demanded apology and reparation
from Ethiopia. Then, Ethiopia took the matter to the League of Nations and a period of
diplomatic wrangling followed to resolve the dispute.

B. The 1935 Invasion and After

The Italians waged their aggression via two major fronts: the northern and the southern Front.
The war was started in the northern Front when the Italians crossed the Mereb River on October
3, 1935 and launched a three pronged invasion accross Adigrat, Adwa and Mekelle. The
Ethiopian counter offensive was led by Ras Emiru Haile-Selassie on the western front, Ras Kasa
Hailu (also commander of the entire northern front), Ras Seyum Mengesha led the central front,
and Ras Mulugeta Yigezu (War Minister) led the eastern front. The Ethiopian army launched a
major offensive against the Italians on January 20, 1936, intending to isolate Mekelle, but failed
to realize its objective due to lack of coordination among the above-mentioned commanders. The
Ethiopian force lost to the Italians at the first Battle in Temben on January 24, 1936. Then, the
Italian advance to the natural impregnable fortress of Amba-Aradom, to the south of Mekelle,
where Ethiopian forces were stationed, and scored yet another decisive victory in which Ras
Mulugeta Yigezu, lost his life. Besides modern weapons, the Italian force had superiority in the
air. Moreover, the forces of Ras Kasa and Ras Seyum were outnumbered by the Italian troops
and were defeat at the Second Battle of Temben (27-29 February 1936). Ras Kasa and Ras
Seyum narrowly escaped and joined the Emperor at Korem.

On the western front, the Ethiopian army under Ras Emeru put strong resistance against the
advancing Italian force. Thanks to Ras Emeru’s better leadership quality, the number of death of
Ethiopian soldiers was less than what it had been in the northern front. The series of battles
between the Ethiopian and Italian forces in the northern Front culminated in Maychew on 31
March 1936. Although the Ethiopian army (especially members of the Kebur Zebegna) under the
command of the Emperor put strong resistance against the Italians, they were not able to achieve
victory. Many Ethiopian soldiers lost their lives from ground and air bombardment. Then, the
Italian forces controlled Dessie and Addis Ababa on 4 April 1936 and 5 May 1936, respectively.
The Ethiopian army in the Southern Front was better equipped and well led. Ras Desta Damtew
(in the south) and Dejazmach Nesibu Zamanuel (in the southeast). The Ethiopian army lost to the
Italians at two major battles in the Southern Front: Qorahe (November 1935) and Genale Dorya
(12-14 January 1936). In the ensuing battles, the Askaris (Eritrea recruits) deserted the Italians
and joined the Ethiopian force which boosted the moral of the troops of Ras Desta. Ras Desta
continued to challenge the Italians until he was captured and executed at Goggeti in Guraghe in
early 1937. The number of soldiers the Italians lost during the fighting in the Southern Front was
larger than the North, which slowed their advance to the center; Badoglio entered Addis Ababa
before Graziani even occupied Harar.

On 2 May 1936, the Emperor fled the country and three days later the Italians entered Addis
Ababa. Between Haile Selassie’s departure and the Italian entry, Addis Ababa was beset by
burning of buildings, looting and random shooting. The major targets of the violence were the
rich, foreigners and the imperial palace. Many foreigners saved their lives by taking refuge in
foreign legations.

The Italians deliberately delayed their entry so that the people of the city would consider them
as ‘angels’ of peace, and easily accept their rule. After their control of the capital, Marshal
Badoglio immediately reported the situation to Mussolini. Benito Mussolini announced to the
Italians and the world about their control of Ethiopia using the phrase “Ethiopia is Italian!”

The Italians immediately merged Ethiopia with their colonies of Italian Somaliland and Eritrea.
Then, they named the combination of their colonies Italian East Africa (IEA) or Africa Orientale
Italiana (AOI). It had six administrative regions. These were: Eritrea (including Tigray) with its
capital at Asmara; Amhara (including Begemidr, Gojjam, Wollo and Northern Shewa) with its
capital at Gondar; Oromo and Sidama (including Southern and Southwestern provinces) with its
capital at Jimma; Eastern Ethiopia with its capital at Harar; Somalia (including Ogaden) with its
capital at Mogadishu; Addis Ababa (later changed to Shewa), the capital of the entire Italian East
Africa.

The governors of Italian East Africa successively were: Marshal Badoglio (till the end of May
1936), Marshal Graziani (till February 1937), and finally Amadeo Umberto d’Aosta (the Duke of
Aosta). A top-heavy bureaucracy and corruption characterized the Italian administration of IEA.
For instance, Badoglio reportedly pocketed about 1,700,000 Maria Theresa Thalers confiscated
from the Bank of Ethiopia. 50% of Amadeo Umberto’s administration was characterized as inept
and 25% as thieves. The Italians destroyed non-Italian foreign firms and replaced them with
governmental enterprises that controlled the industry, trade and agriculture.

The Italian administrative control and legacy was largely confined to urban areas as follows:

 Architecture- the Italians left an indelible mark in towns such as Addis Ababa,
Jimma, Adwa, Gondar, Desse, Harar, Asmara, Mogadishu and others.
 Introducing of urban facilities like clean water and electricity;
 Social legacies (expansion of prostitution, adoption of European habits-including
eating and dressing styles, and adoption of Italian words);
 The consolidation of cash economy;
 Road construction and development of motor transport;
 The sense of division, deliberately fostering ethnic and religious tensions etc
C. The Patriotic Resistance Movement

The first phase of resistance was the continuation of the war itself. It was the resistance waged by
three commanders of the Southern Front, Ras Desta Damtew, Dejjach Beyene Merid and Dejjach
Gebre Maryam Gari. A five pronged assault on the capital involving two sons of Ras Kasa Hailu
(Asfawesen and Aberra), Dejjach Balcha Safo, Balambaras (later Ras) Abebe Aregay, and
Dejjach Fikre-Mariam Yinnnadu in the summer of 1936. However, it failed because of lack of
cordination. Abune Petros, who was the spirit behind the offensive, was executed and became a
martyr.

The second phase covers from 1937 to the end of the Italian occupation in 1941. On 19 February
1937, two young Ethiopian patriots, Abreha Deboch and Moges Asgedom, hurled a bomb at
Graziani in the Genete-Le’ul palace compound at Sidist Kilo, wounding him seriously and
killing some others. This was followed by a reign of terror waged by the Black Shirts; who
chopped off heads, burnt down houses with their inhabitants, and disemboweled thousands in
Addis Ababa. About 30,000 Ethiopian were killed in three days’ campaign. Special targets of the
Fascist terror were educated Ethiopians (including members of the Black Lion Organization) and
EOC. 297 monks were executed in the monastery of Debre Libanos monastery on 21 May 1937.
This reign of terror marked the transition from the conventional resistance to guerrilla warfare
(2nd phase). There arose women who led their own army like Lekyelesh Beyan, who was
captured after an Italian air bombardment in January 1941. Kebedech Seyoum (the wife of
Dejazmach Abera Kasa), maintained peace and order in Salale as well as leading the resistance.

The patriots also included Dejjazmach Umar Samatar, Colonel Abdisa Aga, Dejjazmach Belay
Zeleke, Dejjazmach Gebrehiwot Meshesha, Dejjazmach Abbbai Kahsay, Woizero Shewareged
Gedle, Zeray Dires, Colonel Jagama Kello, Woizero Sinidu Gebru, Ras Amoraw Wubneh, Lij
Haile Mariam Mamo, Ras Abebe Aregay, Dejjazmach Habte Mariam, Colonel Belay Haile-ab,
Major Matias Gemeda, Captain Yosef Nesibu, Blatta Takele Wolde-Hawaryat, Dejjach Geresu
Duki, Bekele Woya, Lij Hailu Belew and many others.

Yet, the resistance was handicapped by the Ethiopian collaborators called the Banda. Another
weakness of the resistance movement was there was no one national organization to coordinate
the activities of the many patriotic groups dispersed in many parts of the country with no unified
command structure. Relations between guerrilla groups were characterized by parochialism and
jealousy. Some guerrilla groups spent more time fighting one another than attacking the declared
enemy.

Things began to change when patriots suddenly received external support from Britain when
Italy entered World War II on 10 June 1940 on the side of Germany against France and Britain.
Britain recognized Haile-Sellassie as a fully ally on 12 July 1940. The British brought the
Emperor to the Sudan to serve as a rallying point for the resistance. The British launched a
three-pronged attack on the Italians. In the north, General William Platt led the forces that
attacked the Italians in Eritrea. Colonel Sandford and Major Wingate accompanied the Emperor
from the Sudan into Gojjam at the head of British and Ethiopian troops called the Gedeon force
in January 1941. General Cunningham led the attack from Kenya and entered Addis Ababa on 6
March 1941. Emperor Haile-Selassie returned to Addis Ababa on 5 May 1941.

UNIT SEVEN

INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS, 1941-1995

7.1. Post-1941 Imperial Period

7.1.1. External Relations

Ethiopia and Britain

Britain recognized Ethiopia's sovereign status with mutual diplomatic accreditation, but it
continued to exercise the upper hand because of its role in the liberation of Ethiopia from Fascist
occupation. The British considered Ethiopia Occupied Enemy Territory Administration (OETA).
The 1942 Anglo-Ethiopian agreement gave Britain final authority over Ethiopia's foreign affairs,
territorial integrity, administration, finances, the military and the police. British citizens held key
posts in the Ethiopian government such as advisors and judges. The emperor had to obtain
approval from the Commander-in-Chief of the British Forces in East Africa, Sir Philip Mitchell,
to implement sovereign matters such as the declaration of war or declaration of a state of
emergency. The British assumed control over currency, foreign exchange and foreign trade.

The Emperor resented such restrictions to his powers and opened a diplomatic offensive to
remove them. As a result, Britain relaxed the restrictions imposed upon Ethiopian government.
Accordingly, the second Anglo-Ethiopian agreement (signed in 1944) lifted the priority accorded
to the British minster over all other foreign diplomats in Ethiopia. The Ethiopian government
could now employ non-British foreign personnel and it regained control over a section of the
Addis Ababa-Djibouti railwy. The British also agreed to evacuate their army from the region
once they had equipped Ethiopia's military force, a task mandated to the British Military Mission
to Ethiopia (BMME) that assisted in organizing and training of Ethiopian army until 1951.
Haile¬ Selassie I Harar Military Academy, which was established in 1958, was modeled after the
British Military Academy at Sandhurst. Nevertheless, Britain did not yield to Ethiopia's
territorial demands. Britain insisted that the Ogaden should be merged with the former Italian
Somaliland and British Somaliland to form what they called "Greater Somalia." Similarly, the
western and northern lowlands of Eritrea were considered to be part of the Sudan. Furthermore,
it wanted to integrate the Tigrigna speaking highlands of Eritrea with Tigray to form a separate
state. Therefore, Ethiopia's claims to Eritrea and Ogaden were rejected at the London Conference
of the Allied powers in September 1945.

The territorial issues were resolved only after a decade. The British left parts of Ogaden in 1948
and completely withdrew from the region in 1954. In Eritrea, people who wanted union with
Ethiopia rallied behind the Unionists while the Liberal Progressive Party and later the Muslim
League campaigned for separation and independence. In 1948, the question of Eritrea was
referred to the UN, which appointed a commission of five from Burma, Guatemala, Norway,
Pakistan and South Africa to find out the actual wishes of Eritreans. After a period of
investigation, Guatemala and Pakistan recommended granting Eritrea independence. While
South Africa and Burma recommended Federation, Norway recommended union with Ethiopia.
On December 2, 1950, UN decided by Resolution 390V to federate Eritrea with Ethiopia, which
came into effect in 1952. However, this arrangement satisfied neither the unionists nor the
independence bloc and nor the Emperor. The Eritrean Parliament, under pressure from the
emperor and the unionists, dissolved the Federation on November 14, 1962.

Ethiopia and the United States

American interest in the region began to grow chiefly after the US acquired an Italian
communication base in Asmara known as Radio Marina, later renamed Qagnew after the
Ethiopian force that fought on the side of the Americans in the Korean War (1950-3). The
Ethiopian vice Minister of Finance, Yilma Deressa, visited the US in 1943 to request expertise to
assist Ethiopia's development. In response, USA extended the Lend-Lease Agreement to
Ethiopia and sent a technical mission in May 1944. At the beginning of 1945, the emperor and
the US President Franklin D. Roosevelt met in Egypt and discussed, among other things,
recognition of the American Sinclair Company's prospecting for oil in the Ogaden.

The Point Four Agreement and the Ethio-US Treaty were signed in 1952 and 1953, respectively.
The first enabled subsequent US assistance in the military, agriculture, education and public
health, while the second extended the use of the Qagnew base by the US in return for military
assistance. Following the 1953 treaty, the US launched the American Military Assistance
Advisory Group (MAAG) to equip Ethiopia's armed forces. For example, over 2, 500 Ethiopians
received various forms of military training in the US between 1953 and 1968. The US also
supplied anti-tank and anti-aircraft weapons, naval craft, and weapons for the infantry. Sixty
percent of US military aid to Africa had been directed to Ethiopia by 1970.

Civil aviation, telecommunication, road transport, and education were other spheres in which the
Americans took active part. Ethiopia concluded an agreement with the Transcontinental and
Western World Airline (TWA) to establish Ethiopian Air Lines (EAL) in 1945. The Imperial
Board of Telecommunication was established with the help of the International Telephone and
Telegraph (ITT) organization between 1950 and 1952. With a financial loan from the
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the Imperial High Way
Authority (IHA) was set up in January 1951. Ethiopianization of such organizations took some
time due to shortage of Ethiopian personnel. For example, the IHA was run by the Americans
until 962; key management and executive posts of the Ethiopian Airlines were seized by the
Americans until 1971. In the field of education, the US offered scholarship opportunities for
many Ethiopians to attend in the United States for their second and third degrees. Meanwhile,
many American volunteers taught in Ethiopian schools under the Peace Corps Program.

7.1.2. Socio-Economic Developments

In the post-1941 period, agriculture provided employment for about 90% of the population,
generating about 70% of the GDP and supplying almost 100% of the country's income from
export trade. More than 66% of northern peasants cultivated less than 0.5 ha in the 1970s. The
government granted land to many of its supp011ers in southern Ethiopia. The tenant population
as percentage of total rural population in the newly incorporated regions varied from 37% in
Sidama Governorate General to a staggering 73% in Ilu Abba Bor and 75% in Hararghe, whereas
tenancy in the northern provinces averaged 11%, consisting mainly of religious minorities and
occupational castes. Tenants surrendered up to 60 % of their produce to landlords who mostly
lived in towns or the capital. In addition to formal tributes, smallholder and landless farmers
were obliged to make varied payments and to render labor services to the lords. Sharecrop
tenancy arrangements were so heavy that increasing production only increased the exploitation
of peasants. Such conditions discouraged peasants from maximizing their production beyond
subsistence levels.

The deteriorating economy, coupled with external pressure from donors, induced the government
to establish a Land Reform Committee in 1961. This later became the Land Reform and
Development Authority, later renamed the Ministry of Land Reform and Administration. The
condition of the farming population further worsened with the expansion of commercial farming
(mechanization of farming) in the 1960s and 970s that caused the eviction of tenants. The
government attempted to enhance the productivity of small farmers by launching comprehensive
agricultural package programs such as the Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit (CADU) and
the Wolayta Agricultural Development Unit (WADU).

Meanwhile, overall domestic output increased nearly three and a half times after 1950 and better
progress was registered in manufacturing. The number of industrial enterprises grew to over 400
and the industrial working force increased to nearly 60,000. The infrastructure expanded
considerably. Moreover, public revenue and expenditure both grew nine and tenfold respectively.
Banking facilities expanded with the State Bank of Ethiopia being formed in 1942. Also, a
private bank, Addis Ababa Bank, was established in 1963. There was relatively high level of
modernization that was reflected in music, sports, cuisine, and dress styles. However, much of
Ethiopia remained traditional with a low living standard; Ethiopia was one of the least developed
countries. While the manufacturing sector, producing only light consumer goods, contributed
less than 5 % of the national income, industrialization was limited to the capital and its vicinity,
Asmara and Dire Dawa. Industrial investment was also primarily of foreign origin.

7.1.3. Consolidation of Autocracy

Emperor Haile-Selassie embarked on consolidating his power through the bureaucratization of

government, the building of a national army and a centralized fiscal system. In order to staff the
expanding bureaucracy, education was promoted at both school and college levels. The two most
popular and prestigious secondary schools, Haile-Selassie I Secondary School and General
Wingate School, were opened in I 943 and I 946 respectively. The University College of Addis
Ababa (UCAA) was inaugurated in 1950. This was followed by the Engineering and Building
College in Addis Ababa, the College of Agriculture in Alemaya (Haramaya in Hararghe) and the
Public Health College in Gondar. These were brought together in 1961 to form Haile-Selassie I
University, which was renamed Addis Ababa University after 1974.

Another major preoccupation of the imperial regime was the strengthening of the military and
security apparatus. Thus, the ministries of Defense and Interior consistently received the highest
budgetary allocations. The traditional aristocracy, although well off economically, had lost most
of its political privileges. Based on the traditional shum shir, the emperor appointed and demoted
his ministers. The emperor appointed eleven ministers in 1943, but their subservience to the
monarch was stated in explicit terms. The prime minster was allowed to select his cabinet
members for approval by the emperor only in 1966. The most powerful of the ministers in the
post-1941 political order was Tsehafe-Tizaz Wolde-Giorgis Walde-Yohannis, who headed the
Ministry of Pen from 1941 to 1955, and held the portfolios of Justice and Interior ministries on
various occasions. In reality, he was the de facto prime minister. His access to the emperor and
the latter's trust in him made him very powerful. The royal family, leading members of the
nobility, and the abun were members of the crown council, which was an advisory body to the
emperor.

The 1931 constitution was revised in 1955. It clearly stated that the emperor's "personality was
sacred, his dignity inviolable and his power indisputable". However, the constitution introduced
universal adult suffrage and an elected chamber of deputies with a four-year term, and a senate
serving for six years and appointed by the emperor with certain property qualification. Yet, the
emperor was the head of the three branches of government: the executive, the legislative and the
judiciary. As the years progressed, the emperor started to dedicate his attention to foreign affairs.
He played a significant role in the Non-Aligned Movement and the drive for African unity.

7.1.4. Oppositions and the Downfall of the Monarchical Regime Plots and Conspiracies

Some patriots were opposed to the restoration of the emperor to the throne because he hdad fled
the country when it needed him most. This feeling of resentment was exacerbated by the
privileges and rewards accorded to exiles and bandas (collaborators). One such critic was
Dejjazmach Belay Zeleke, to whom the emperor had offered governorship of one of the southern
Ethiopian provinces to remove him from his base in Bichena District of Gojjam. Balay rejected
the offer, and forces from Dabra Marqos and Addis Ababa invaded Balay's district in February
1943. After three months of fighting, Balay surrendered and was detained in Fitche, from where
he escaped a few months later but was caught on his way to Gojjam with his brother Ejjigu,
taken back to the capital and publicly hanged.

Another dissident, Bitweded Negash Bezabih, plotted to assassinate the emperor and proclaim a
republic in 1951. Negash and his accomplices like Beqele Anasimos were arrested during one of
their clandestine meetings and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment.

The most fierce and sustained opposition came from Blatta Takele Wolde-Hawaryat, who first
hatched a plot with Yohannes lyasu as front and with the support of some contingents of the
army. Nonetheless, the plot was uncovered and he was detained. Released in 1945, he was
involved in another plot in 1946 and was detained up to 1954. He tried to assassinate the emperor
on November 17, 1969 but failed. He then barricaded himself in his house and engaged in a
shoot-out with the police in which he was killed.

The most serious challenge came in the form of a coup attempt by the Neway brothers, Brigadier
General Mengistu and Germame. As governor of Wolayta, Germame monitored police activities,
introduced a settlement program in which he distributed government holdings to landless
peasants and ordered written tenancy agreements. He was then summoned back to Addis Ababa
for explanation. Yet, unable to condemn Germame's intentions, Haile Selassie sent him to Jigjiga
where he continued his radical reforms. While the emperor was on state visit in Brazil, the two
brothers started detaining ministers and other members of the nobility. They also took over the
radio station and spoke about the backwardness of the country. Crown Prince Asfawosen was
declared to be a salaried constitutional monarch and delivered a speech on Radio Addis
explaining the rationale of the coup and promising the establishment of new factories, schools
etc. On December 14, 1960, a new government to be headed by Ras Emiru Haile-Selassie was
declared. Major General Mulugeta Buli was chosen as chief of staff of the armed forces.

However, the army and the air force refused to side with the rebels, and with the support of the
Americans and the patriarch, the loyalists, led by General Merid Mengesha and Ras Asrate
Kassa, crushed the coup and hunted fleeing brothers. They were spotted near Zuquala Mountain
and, in the following shootout, Germame died while Mengistu was wounded, captured, tried and
hanged. In the meantime, the emperor had triumphantly entered the capital. The regime made
some concessions, but did not address the root causes that triggered the coup. Thus, opposition
only grew more overt and began to gain mass support.

Peasant Rebellions

The First Woyane Rebellion of 1942-43

The inequities of the system, corruption and greed of the beherawi tor (Territorial Army) unit
stationed there and general administrative inefficiency led to the peasant protests. The 1942 land
decree also forced peasants to pay tax arrears whose collection was problematic. The nobility
took advantage of the popular discontent thanks to the able leadership of Blatta Haile-Mariam
Reda. Finally, the government's retribution against the Raya-Azebo on allegation of cattle raids
on the Afar territory sparked general rebellion. The first confrontation took place on January 11,
1942, when the imperial force was defeated and humiliated by the peasants. The rebels further
scored an astounding victory in Addi Awuna on May 22, 1943. Soon small towns around
Mekelle like Qwiha and Enda-Iyyasus fell to the rebels' hands on October 14, 1943. The imperial
army, supported by the British Royal Air Force, crushed the rebellion in October 1943. The
emperor ordered reprisals against peasants suspected of supporting the Woyane.

The Yejju Rebellion

Yejju peasants rose in 1948 after their appeal against land alienation was ignored by the
government. Led by Qegnazmach Melaku Taye and Unda Mohammed, peasants stormed and
freed inmates held in Woldiya prison. The nech lebash (settler militia) quelled the unrest and
eventually the leaders were caught and publicly flogged. Throughout the 1950s, localized
skirmishes expanded to Qobbo, Hormat, Tumuga, Karra-Qore, etc. led by notables like Ali
Dullatti (Abba Jabbi). Peasants revolted in 1970 against the introduction of mechanized
agriculture that encroached on pastureland, and killed Qegnazmach Abate Haylu, a member of
the local nobility and the main beneficiary of the process. Finally, the rising was suppressed by
the local militia.

The Gojjam Peasant Rebellion

Dejjach Kebede Tesema, governor of Gojjam appointed by the central government, initiated land
assessment and classification to determine taxation and raised tax rate from what it had been
prior to 1935. A revolt broke out in Mota, Qolla-Daga Damot and Mecha districts led by people
like Dejjach Abere Yimam in 1950. As a result, the tax rate was reduced by 1/3 and Kebede was
removed and replaced by Haylu Belew, a hereditary ruler of Gojjam.

Haylu's successor, Dejjazmach Tsehayu Enqu-Selassie, again appointed by the central

government, imposed contributions to build the emperor's statue in Debra Marqos. In addition,
peasants were ordered to pay tax arrears and register their arms with penalty fees. Meanwhile,
peasants were victimized by the ravages of the nech lebash under the pretext of eradicating
banditry. Above all, an attempt was made to introduce agricultural income tax, which the
parliament adopted in November 1967 and this sparked the 1968 uprising led by veterans of the
anti-Fascist resistance, who had taken titles for themselves such as leul and fitawrari. The
government was forced to transfer Dejjach Tsehayu to Kafa, declare amnesty, abandon the new
tax and cancel all tax arrears going back to 1950. Despite these concessions, the rebellion spread
throughout most of Gojjam, except Agaw-Midir and Metekel. Finally, the rebellion was crushed
by the combined forces of the army, police and nech lebash at the end of 1968.

The Gumuz Rebellion

The 1952/3 Gumuz rebellion is named after its famous leader, Abba Tone, who served the
regime as Abba Qoro (sub-district chief) responsible for tax collection, maintenance of law and
order as well as community mobilization for public works in time of peace and for war during
conflicts. The people were discontented with the unjust system in general and heavy taxation and
mal-administration in particular. Although Abba Tone reported the peasants' complaints to
higher authorities in Najjo and Gimbi, they were unable to resolve the problem. Meanwhile, the
Gumuz were determined not to pay taxes unless the government addressed their concerns. An
open clash broke out when tax collectors, with the backing of the police, attempted to force the
people to pay land taxes. In the fighting, Abba Tone and his followers were outgunned and
outnumbered by the police. Abba Tone was captured, detained and later released on pardon.

The Gedeo Peasant Rebellion

The Gedeo witnessed the denigration of their culture and an unprecedented level of land
expropriation by members of the northern nobility who were vying for coffee farms in the 1960s.
The major contender was the emperor's daughter, Princess Tenagneworq. Petitions to higher
authorities to curb the continued land alienation proved futile. Then peasants refused to pay erbo
(1/4 of agricultural produce payable to the landlords), armed themselves with traditional
weapons like spears, swords and arrows, and clashed with the imperial army at Michille in 1960.
Over a hundred peasants lost their lives while much of their property was destroyed and the
rebellion was suppressed. Finally, Afe Nigus Eshete Geda fined the hayicha (elders) accused of
supporting the revolt.

The Bale Peasant Rebellion

The causes of this rebellion included the introduction of the qalad and the accompanying land
measurement in 1951, high taxation, religious and ethnic subjugation (imposition of the Christian
settlers' culture on Muslims) that reached to unprecedented level after the appointment of Warqu
Enqu-Selassie as governor in 1963. Further, the Somali government extended material and moral
suppo11 as part of its strategy of realizing "Greater Somalia". The revolt broke out in El Kerre
led, by notables like Kahin Abdi. Initially, rebel groups conducted isolated hit-and-run raids
against military garrisons and police stations. Soon, however, they began to coordinate their
activities under an umbrella organization, the Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF),
engaging in conventional war.

Haile Selassie tried to win the population by developing alliances with notable Oromo leaders
and he was able to recruit some members of local ruling houses, but he failed to contain the
popular revolt, which quickly spread to Wabe, Dalio and Ganale Awrajas (sub-provinces). In
Gola-Abbadi forest, the rebels even attacked government aircraft. Further, the rebels killed
Girazmach Beqele Haragu of Adaba and Fitawrari Wolde-Mika'el Bu'i of Dodola in 1965 and
1966, respectively. The government put Bale under the martial rule of Wolde-Selassie Baraka,
the head of the Fourth Division Army, in December 1966. The army, police, Territorial Army,
nech lebash and wedo zemach (volunteers) launched massive operations in 1967. Meanwhile, the
rebels lost support from Somalia after Mohammed Siad Barre took power in 1969 and the
rebellion ended in the early 1970s after some of its leaders, including the self-styled General
Waqo Gutu, surrendered to the governmet forces.

Movements of Nations and Nationalities

The Mecha-Tulama Welfare Association (MTW A) was formed in January 1963 to expand
educational, communication and health facilities in Oromo land. Founding members of the
association included Colonel Alemu Qitessa, Qedida Guremessa, Lieutenant Mamo Mezemir and
Haile-Mariam Gemeda. In the next two years, the association attracted large number of members
of the elite, including such high-ranking military officers as Brigadier General Taddese Birru
(the Commander of the Fetno Derash/Rapid Deployment Force). It organized successful rallies
in Gindeberet, Dandi, Arsi (Dera and lteyya). Starting with development programs like building
schools and clinics, the association began to raise contentious issues including that of land.
Leaders of the association even went further and plotted to assassinate the emperor on the
anniversary of his coronation in November 1966, but the plot was foiled by security forces. A
bombing incident in one of the cinemas at the capital in which the association was implicated
finally led the regime to ban the association in 1967 followed by the imprisonment and killing of
its prominent leaders. Taddese was captured while retreating to the bush and sentenced to death,
which was subsequently commuted to life imprisonment and he was exiled to Gelemso, where he
remained until the outbreak of the 1974 revolution. The Derg executed Taddese for allegedly
instigating armed struggle in 1975.

The biggest challenge to the imperial regime came from Eritrea. Following the abrogation of the
federation, Eritrean exiles founded the Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM) in Cairo in 1958;
this later evolved into Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF, or Jabaha in Arabic) in 1961. Splinter
groups such as Popular Liberation Forces (PLF) and Salfi Natsenet Eritrea (Front for Eritrean
Independence) split from the ELF in June 1970, eventually leading to the founding of the
Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF, or Sha'abiya in Arabic) in early 1972.

The Ethiopian Student Movement (ESM)

Students at the University College of Addis Abab (UCAA) formed the University College Union
(UCU) to coordinate their activities in the late 1950s. The National Union of Ethiopian
University Students (NUEUS) was established in 1963 to coordinate the activities of university
students throughout the country. The parliament's rejection of the 1964 tenancy reform bill
triggered student protest in the following year, when students came out' demanding "Land to the
Tiller." Factors that contributed to sharpening the students' ideology included: increased
awareness of the country's backward conditions vis a vis other African countries which they
learned from politically more conscious scholarship students from different parts of Africa, and
the Ethiopian University Service (EUS), launched in 1964. The emergence in 1964 of a radical
group with Marxist-Leninist leanings known as "the Crocodiles" marked an increase in
militancy. The Main Campus Student Union (MCSU) and the University Students Union of
Addis Ababa (USUAA) with its paper Tagel (Struggle) were established in 1965 and 1966,
respectively. Outside the country, students were organized under the Ethiopian Students Union in
North America (ESUNA), with its paper called Challenge, and the Ethiopian Students Union in
Europe (ESUE), with its paper Tateq (gird yourself).

Throughout the 1960s, a rallying cry of student demonstrations was "Land to the Tiller," but
other local and global issues were also raised. With the students' demands for the respect of the
rights of nations and nationalities, the government was alarmed and started taking measures
against leaders of the movement ranging from press campaigns to detentions and killings.
Furthermore, the regime deported a large number of students to the torrid Gibe River Valley in
1972. Meanwhile, students' opposition was elevated to hijacking of aircrafts.

7.2. The Derg Regime (1974-1991)

7.2.1. Rise and Consolidation of the Derg

Soldiers and Non-Commissioned Officers (NCOs) stationed at Negele-Borana mutinied from

January 8 to 15, 1974, protesting against their bad living conditions. They detained the
commander of the ground forces who had been sent to pacify the situation. Meanwhile, soldiers
of the Second Division in Asmara, the Fourth Division in Addis Ababa and the Air Force in
Bishoftu (Debre-Zeyt) mutinied demanding salary increments, and other reforms.

Teachers throughout the country protested against the implementation of an education reform
program known as Sector Review, which they deemed disadvantageous for and biased against
the poor. The Ethiopian Teachers' Association (ETA) had coordinated demonstrations against the
program in December 1973. It called a general strike demanding a number of other social
reforms on February 18, 1974. On the same day, taxi drivers went on strike demanding 50%
increase in transport fees due to rise of petrol prices that followed the Arab-Israeli Yorn Kippur
war of 1973. Students, workers and the unemployed youth joined the protests, during which
vehicles, particularly buses and luxury private automobiles, were attacked.

The government responded by suspending the Sector Review, reducing petrol prices and raising
the salaries of soldiers. The cabinet of Prime Minister Aklilu Habte Wold was replaced by that of
Endalkachew Mekonnen on February 28. The Confederation of Ethiopian Labor Unions (CELU)
successfully staged a general strike on March 8. Then, 100,000 Muslim residents of the capital
and their Christian sympathizers came out demanding religious equality on April 20.
Meanwhile, the soldiers and NCOs' Coordinating Committee set up in February was joined by
officers like Colonel Alem Zewd Tessema of the Airborne Brigade, who then became its leader.
The Committee arrested Aklilu and hundreds of high-ranking officials in April. The Defense
Minister, Lt. General Abiy Abebe, set up the National Security Commission to restore order and
respect for the government authority. The Derg, which eventually seized political power, was
officially formed on June 28, 1974 when it held its first meeting at the headquarters of the Fourth
Division. "Derg", a Ge'ez word for "committee", was the Coordinating Committee of the Armed
Forces, the Police and the Territorial Army. Yet, officers above the rank of major, suspected of
supporting the old regime, were not included. Thus, Major Mengistu Haile-Mariam of the Third
Division of Hararghe and Major Atnafu Abate of the Fourth Division became chairman and
vice¬ chairman, respectively. The Derg also declared the motto, "Ethiopia Tikdem" ("Ethiopia
First"), "Yaleminim Dem" ("Without any bloodshed") and exercised power parallel with
Endalkachew's cabinet for some time. The emperor was caught in the middle, trying to keep a
balance between the two. However, Endalkachew was imprisoned and replaced by Lej Mikael
Emiru on August 1. Then, Anbessa Bus Company and St. George Brewery, in which the emperor
and the imperial family held more than 50% stakes, were nationalized. Moreover, a British
documentary film that revealed the hidden horrors of the Wollo famine was exploited by the
Derg to discredit the emperor. Finally, Emperor Haile-Selassie I was deposed and detained at the
Fourth Division headquarters on September 12.

The Derg then proclaimed itself the Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC). Soon,
civilian revolutionaries, who had started calling for the establishment of a provisional people's
government, started gathering around the Confederation of Ethiopian Labor Unions (CELU), the
university teachers' group known as Forum, and the students. The Army Engineers Corps, the
First Division (the former Bodyguard) and the Army Aviation also opposed the prospect of a
military government. However, the Derg imprisoned the leaders of CELU and the Forum. The
militant Army Engineering Corps was also violently crushed on October 7. Lieutenant General
Aman Mikael Andom, chairman of the PMAC, was shot dead on November 23 after a
disagreement within the Derg over the issue of Eritrea. Aman believed in peaceful approach to
resolve the Eritrean prolem, while some radical members of the Derg, chiefly the First Vice¬
Chairman Mengistu Haile-Mariam, advocated a military solution. At the same time, the Derg
announced the execution of some 52 prominent members of the old regime who had been
detained and half a dozen other leaders of the military units, who had opposed the Derg, as a
"political decision."

7.2.2. Attempts at Socio-Economic Reform

The Derg took a series of measures that aimed at fundamentally transforming the country. Edget
Behibiret Zemecha (Development through Co-operation Campaign) was inaugurated in
December 1974. In this campaign, all high school and university students and their teachers were
to be sent to the countryside to help transform the life of peasants through programs such as
literacy campaigns and the implementation of the imp nding land reform proclamation. However,
the campaign was opposed by most of the civilian left as a mechanism that the Derg designed to
remove its main opponents from the center. To appease the opposition, the Derg changed its
slogan of "Ethiopia First" to "Ethiopian Socialism."

Banks and insurance companies were nationalized following a series of proclamations in

February 1975. Over seventy private commercial and industrial companies were then
nationalized. On March 4, 1975, the Derg made a radical land reform proclamation, which
abolished all private land ownership and set the upper limit on family holdings at ten hectares.
Another proclamation nationalized all urban lands and extra houses on July 26, 1975. The
campaigns showed Derg's belief in mass mobilization. There was the "Green Campaign" of 1978
aimed at bringing about rapid economic development, the literacy campaign of 1979 aimed at
eradicating illiteracy, and the "Red Star Campaign" of 1982 that aimed at solving the Eritrean
problem once and for all. However, of these campaigns, only the literacy campaign registered
some degree of success. The land reform proclamation ended landlord exploitation, but failed to
make the peasant master of his land because the state ended up being the ultimate owner. On the
other hand, nationalization killed private initiative and introduced a highly bureaucratized
management of resources. The state, with its enhanced role and growing proportion, gained
tremendous capacity to reward or penalize. The Derg used peasant associations and cooperatives
with monopolistic government enterprises such as Ersha Sebil Gebeya Dirijit (Agricultural
Marketing Corporation) to control the countryside, and the kebele (urban dwellers' associations)
to control the towns.

7.2.3. Political Movements and Opposition

Initially, the leftist opposition to the Derg came from two rival Marxist-Leninist political
organizations: the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party/EPRP (formed in Berlin in 1972) and
the All-Ethiopian Socialist Movement (MEISON in its Amharic acronym), founded in 1968. In
the meantime, the Derg, pushed by the dominant leftist political discourse, gradually abandoned
"Ethiopian Socialism" and embraced Marxism-Leninism. With the setting up of the the
Provisional Office for Mass Organizational Affairs (POMOA) in April 1976, the Derg
proclaimed the National Democratic Revolution Program, which was the Chinese model for
socialist revolution, and identified feudalism, imperialism and bureaucratic capitalism as the
main enemies of the people. The Derg's leftist organization known as Abyotawi Seded
(Revolutionary Flame) was launched a few months later. In 1977, Emaledeh (Union of Ethiopian
Marxist-Leninist Organizations/UEMLO), composed of Marxist-Leninist Revolutionary
Organization/MLRO (Malerid in its Amharic acronym), Meison, Seded, Wezlig (Workers
League) and Ech 'at (Ethiopian Oppressed Masses Revolutionary Struggle) was established.

Meanwhile, the struggle between the EPRP and the Derg had created a civil war scenario since
September 1976, when the Derg started executing EPRP militants while the EPRP squads
assassinated the Derg members and supporters. The EPRP also tried to kill Mengistu himself in
mid-September. Then the Derg carried out massive search, arrest and destruction campaigns
against the EPRP and its sympathizers. The Derg and its civilian allies unleashed the "Red
Terror", initially targeting the EPRP, which was said to have declared "White Terror," and later
including others like Meison, EPLF and Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF).

The Derg itself was beset by internal struggles in late 1976. Mengistu had eliminated his
potential rivals, Major Sisay Habte and Major Kiros Alemayehu. Many other key members of the
Derg were accused of being EPRP members or sympathizers. On their part, members of the Derg
such as Lieutenant Alemayehu Hayle and Captain Moges Wolde-Mikael resented the growing
dictatorial power of Mengistu and his alliance with Meison and other pro-Derg leftist
organizations. Assisted by the chairperson, Brigadier General Teferi Benti, they adeptly
restructured the hierarchy of the Derg, resulting in the marginalization of Mengistu. Yet,
Mengistu struck first by executing Teferi and other dissenting members within the Derg on 3
February 1977. Subsequently, Mengistu reasse1ied his leadership of the Derg, assuming the roles
of both chairman and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. He subsequently appointed his
loyalists to key positions.

In the meantime, the Somali National Army had crossed the border into Ethiopia and carried out
military operations in Degahbour, Kebridehar, Warder and Gode, taking control of Jigjiga and
large pockets of land in the summer of 1977. Within a couple of months, the cities of Harar and
Dire Dawa were endangered. Yet, the government mobilized a force of about 100,000 peasant
militia and other forces that were trained at Angetu, Didessa, Hurso, Tateq and Tolay in a short
time. Finally, with the help of 17,000 Cuban troops and forces from Southern Yemen
Democratic Republic, the Somali Army was defeated at Kara-Mara near Jigjiga on March 4,
1978. The Derg had also severed relations with the USA in early 1977, when the American
cultural and military institutions ended their operations in the country. After a month, Mengistu
concluded agreements with Moscow for economic, cultural and military cooperation.

In the north, Eritrean insurgents encircled Asmara while a pro-monarchy organization, the
Ethiopian Democratic Union (EDU) marched in roads from the Sudan. However, the Eritrean
insurgents were pushed back by the end of 1978 and EDU was crushed near the Ethio-Sudan
borderland in places like Metema, Abder Raffi and Satit-Humera.

The Emaledeh began falling apart with the defection of Meison in 1977. The other competing
member organizations, Ech'at, Wezlig and Malerid, were successively expelled from Emaledeh,
and their leaders and members were either executed or detained as they tried to retreat to the
countryside. Only Seded remained as the authentic Marxist-Leninist organization in the country.
The Commission for Organizing the Party of the Working People of Ethiopia (COPWE) was set
up in December 1979. The Workers' Pai1y of Ethiopia/WPE was inaugurated in September
1984, during the celebration of the tenth anniversary of the coming of the Derg to power.

In the interim, CELU was replaced on January 6, 1977 by the All Ethiopia Trade Union (AETU),
which was later re-named Ethiopian Trade Union (ETU). Similarly, the All Ethiopia Peasants'
Association (AEPA) was formed on April 22, 1978 and was later renamed Ethiopian Peasants'
Association (EPA). The Revolutionary Ethiopian Women's Association (REWA) and
Revolutionary Ethiopian Youth Association (REYA) were established in 1980. After an election
which was predictably won by WPE, the Beherawi Shengo (National Assembly) proclaimed the
People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) in 1987, officially replacing the Derg. A
typically Communist constitution was put in place; Colonel Mengistu became President of
PDRE, secretary general of WPE and Commander in chief of the armed forces, with Fisseha
Desta as Vice President and Fiqre-Sellassie Wegderes as Prime Minister with five deputies.

In the meantime, the government responded to the 1984/5 famine by massive resettlement of the
affected peasants, mostly of Tigray and Wallo provinces, in Southwestern Ethiopia. The
villagization program that followed further alienated the majority of peasants. Moreover, Mikhail
Gorbachev's policy of perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost (openness) in 1985 was a blow to
Mengistu's agenda. He reluctantly declared a mixed economy, which was too little too late, in
March 1990.

On the other hand, the EPLF scored a major victory in March 1988 at Afabet, north of Asmara,
from its stronghold in Naqfa-Raza. It followed this significant victoy with the capture of the port
town of Massawa in 1990. Moreover, the TPLF (which grew out of Mahber Gesgesti Bihere
Tigray/Association of Progressives of the Tigray Nation or Tigrayan National Organization/
TNO, established on 17 September 1974) scored its most decisive victory at Enda-Selassie,
Western Tigray, in February 1989.

Meanwhile, disgruntled commanders of almost all military units coordinated and led a coup
against Mengistu when he left the country on a state visit to the German Democratic Republic in
May 1989. However, the coup was so poorly organized that loyal palace troops encircled the
leaders before they could even announce their intentions to the public. Mengistu returned
triumphantly to take his revenge. The coup leaders were all imprisoned or executed.

The TPLF, after liberating Tigray, continued to move forward and made organizational
adjustments to form a broader front known as the Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic
Front (EPRDF). The member organizations were TPLF, the Ethiopian People's Democratic
Movement (EPDM), the Oromo People's Democratic Organization (OPDO) and the Ethiopian
Democratic Officers' Revolutionary Movement (EDORM). The EPRDF forces drove the Derg
out of Gondar, Gojjam and Wallo, and parts of Wallaga and Shewa, approaching the capital from
the north and west in a series of stunning campaigns in 1990 and 1991. Other liberation fronts,
including the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), the Islamic Front for Liberation of Oromia, the
Afar Liberation Front, the Sidama Liberation Front, the Beni-Shangul Liberation Front and the
Gambella Liberation Front, also became active. OLF forces dismantled the Derg's 131st Brigade
in battle that liberated Asosa and Bambasi in the then Wallaga Province in 1990. In the
meantime, negotiations for a peaceful end to the conflict were undertaken between the
government, the EPLF, and the TPLF in Atlanta, Nairobi and Rome.

Mengistu fled the country first to Nairobi and then to Harare (Zimbabwe) on May 21, 1991. The
PDRE Vice President, Lt. General Tesfaye Gebre-Kidan, appealed for an en to the civil war on
May 23, 1991. Prime Minister Tesfaye Dinqa left for the London peace conference mediated by
the US Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs, Mr. Herman Cohen, on May 27, 1991.
EPRDF forces triumphantly entered Addis Ababa in the early hours of May 28, 1991.

7.3. Transitional Government

A handful of organizations, many of which were organized along ethnic lines, assembled to
review the draft Charter prepared by the EPRDF and the OLF on 1 July 1991. The gathering was
called the Peace and Democracy Transitional Conference of Ethiopia. The USA was at the
forefront in providing the necessary diplomatic backing for the Conference. The Conference was
attended by delegates from the UN, the OAU, the G7 Group, the US, the USSR, the Sudan,
Kenya, Djibouti and Eritrea. The Conference debated and approved the Transitional Charter on
the basis of which the Transitional Government of Ethiopia was created. Representatives of 27
organizations formed a Council of Representatives (COR), which acted as a legislative body
('Parliament'). This transitional parliament had 87 seats of which 32 were taken by the EPRDF
and the remaining 55 seats were divided among the 23 non-EPRDF organizations. At the same
time, a Council of Ministers was formed as an executive branch, with Meles Zenawi serving as
the President of the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE). Meles then appointed a Prime
Minister (Tamirat Layne) and a seventeen-member Council of Ministers. Key posts were given
to EPRDF and the OLF members.

The constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) was ratified In
December 1994, and it took effect following federal elections in mid-1995. The constitution
stipulates that the country would have federated states based on ethno-linguistic, identity and
settlement patterns. The federal arrangement sought to devolve power to the regional states by
accommodating the country's ethno-Iinguistic groups. After the election, Meles assumed the
premiership while Dr. Negasso Gidada, representing OPDO, became president (head of state).

Meanwhile, the EPLF set up a Provisional Government of Eritrea in 1991. This was followed by
a referendum to decide the fate of Eritrea, in which the majority of the population voted for
secession from Ethiopia. The Government of Eritrea was formed with Isayas Afwerki becoming
the first president of the country after independence in May 1993.