Indian philosophy

Indian philosophy consists of philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent. The

Indian philosophical traditions
philosophies are often called darśana meaning, "to see" or "looking at."[2][3] Ānvīkṣikī means
“critical inquiry” or “investigation." Unlike darśana, ānvīkṣikī was used to refer to Indian
philosophies by classical Indian philosophers, such as Chanakya in the Arthaśāstra.[3][4]

A traditional Hindu classification divides āstika and nāstika schools of philosophy, depending on
one of three alternate criteria: whether it believes the Vedas as a valid source of knowledge;
whether the school believes in the premises of Brahman and Atman; and whether the school
believes in afterlife and Devas.[5][6][7] (though there are exceptions to the latter two: Mimamsa and
Samkhya respectively). Yajnavalkya (c. 8th century Jain philosophy was propagated
BCE), an important Vedic sage by Tirthankaras, notably
There are six major (āstika) schools of Vedic philosophy—Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, associated with the thought of Parshvanatha (c. 872 – c. 772
[1] BCE) and Mahavira (c. 599-527
the early Upanishads.
Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta—and five major non-Vedic or heterodox (nāstika or sramanic) schools— BCE).
Jain, Buddhist, Ajivika, Ajñana, and Charvaka. The āstika group embraces the Vedas as an
essential source of its foundations, while the nāstika group does not. However, there are other
methods of classification; Vidyaranya for instance identifies sixteen schools of Indian philosophy
by including those that belong to the Śaiva and Raseśvara traditions.[8][9]

The main schools of Indian philosophy were formalised and recognised chiefly between 500 BCE
and the late centuries of the Common Era. Some schools like Jainism, Buddhism, Yoga, Śaiva and
Vedanta survived, but others, like Ajñana, Charvaka and Ājīvika did not.
Buddhist philosophy was Sikh philosophy was developed
founded by Gautama Buddha by Guru Gobind Singh (c. 1666–
Ancient and medieval era texts of Indian philosophies include extensive discussions on ontology (c. 563–483 BCE). 1708 CE).
(metaphysics, Brahman-Atman, Sunyata-Anatta), reliable means of knowledge (epistemology,
Pramanas), value system (axiology) and other topics.[10][11][12][13]

Common themes
Indian philosophies share many concepts such as dharma, karma, samsara, dukkha, renunciation, meditation, with almost all of them focusing on the ultimate
goal of liberation of the individual from dukkha and samsara through diverse range of spiritual practices (moksha, nirvana).[14] While many sutra texts
explicitly mention that the work leads to moksha, Indian philosophy is not exclusively concerned with moksha.[15]

They differ in their assumptions about the nature of existence as well as the specifics of the path to the ultimate liberation, resulting in numerous schools that
disagreed with each other. Their ancient doctrines span the diverse range of philosophies found in other ancient cultures.[16]

Hindu traditions
Some of the earliest surviving Indian philosophical texts are the Upanishads of the later Vedic period (1000–500 BCE),
which are considered to preserve the ideas of Brahmanism. Indian philosophical traditions are commonly grouped
according to their relationship to the Vedas and the ideas contained in them. The origins of Jainism remain enigmatic,
with scholarly consensus divided between pre-Vedic roots, parallel development alongside Vedic civilization or post-
Vedic emergence. The historical presence of its 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanatha in the 8th-7th century BCE provides one
of the earliest anchors of the tradition.[17] Despite the accepted historicity of Parshvanath, the historical claims such as
the link between him and Mahavira, whether Mahavira renounced in the ascetic tradition of Parshvanatha, and other
biographical details have led to different scholarly conclusions.[18] Doubts about Parshvanatha's historicity are also
supported by the oldest Jain texts, which present Mahavira with sporadic mentions of ancient ascetics and teachers
without specific names (such as sections 1.4.1 and 1.6.3 of the Acaranga Sutra).[19]. Even the early archaeological finds,
such as the statues and reliefs near Mathura, lack iconography such as lions and serpents.[20][21] Buddhism also
originated at the end of the Vedic period. These traditions drew upon already established Brahmanical concepts, states
Wiltshire, to communicate their own distinct doctrines.[22]

Hindu philosophy classify Indian philosophical traditions as either orthodox (āstika) or heterodox (nāstika), depending
on whether they accept the authority of the Vedas and the theories of brahman and ātman found therein.[5][6] Besides Hindu philosophy has a diversity of
these, the "heterodox" schools that do not accept the authority of the Vedas include Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivika and traditions and numerous saints and
Charvaka.[23][24][25] scholars, such as Adi Shankara of
Advaita Vedanta school.
This orthodox-heterodox terminology is a scholarly construct found in later Indian sources (and in Western sources on
Indian thought) and not all of these sources agree on which system should be considered "orthodox".[26][27] As such
there are various heresiological systems in Indian philosophy.[7] Some traditions see "orthodox" as a synonym for "theism" and "heterodox" as a synonym for
atheism.[28] Other Hindu sources argue that certain systems of Shaiva tantra should be considered heterodox due to its deviations from the Vedic tradition.[29]

One of the most common list of Hindu orthodox schools is the "six philosophies" (ṣaḍ-darśana), which are:[30]
 Sāṃkhya (school of "Enumeration"), a philosophical tradition which regards the universe as consisting of two independent realities: puruṣa
(the perceiving consciousness) and prakṛti (perceived reality, including mind, perception, kleshas, and matter) and which describes a
soteriology based on this duality, in which purush is discerned and disentangled from the impurities of prakriti. It has included atheistic authors
as well as some theistic thinkers, and forms the basis of much of subsequent Indian philosophy.
Yoga, a school similar to Sāṃkhya (or perhaps even a branch of it) which accepts a personal god and focuses on yogic practice.
Nyāya (the "Logic" school), a philosophy which focuses on logic and epistemology. It accepts four kinds of Pramā (valid presentation): (1)
perception, (2) inference, (3) comparison or analogy, (4) word or testimony.[31] Nyāya defends a form of direct realism and a theory of
substances (dravya).
Vaiśeṣika (the school of "Characteristics"), closely related to the Nyāya school, this tradition focused on the metaphysics of substance, and
on defending a theory of atoms. Unlike Nyāya, they only accept two pramanas: perception and inference.
Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā (the school of "Prior Investigation" [of the Vedas]), a school which focuses on exegesis of the Vedas, philology and the
interpretation of Vedic ritual.
Vedānta ("the end of the Vedas", also called Uttara Mīmāṃsā), focuses on interpreting the philosophy of the Upanishads, particularly the
soteriological and metaphysical ideas relating to Atman and Brahman.
Sometimes these six are coupled into three groups for both historical and conceptual reasons: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya-Yoga, and Mīmāṃsā-Vedānta. Each
tradition also included different currents and sub-schools. For example, Vedānta was divided among the sub-schools of Advaita (non-dualism), Visishtadvaita
(qualified non-dualism), Dvaita (dualism), Dvaitadvaita (dualistic non-dualism), Suddhadvaita (pure non-dualism), and Achintya Bheda Abheda (inconceivable
oneness and difference).

The doctrines of the Vedas and Upanishads were interpreted differently by these six schools, with varying degrees of overlap. They represent a "collection of
philosophical views that share a textual connection", according to Chadha 2015.[32] They also reflect a tolerance for a diversity of philosophical interpretations
within Hinduism while sharing the same foundation.[33]

Hindu philosophers of the orthodox schools developed systems of epistemology (pramana) and investigated topics such as metaphysics, ethics, psychology
(guṇa), hermeneutics, and soteriology within the framework of the Vedic knowledge, while presenting a diverse collection of interpretations.[34][35][36][37] The
commonly named six orthodox schools were the competing philosophical traditions of what has been called the "Hindu synthesis" of classical
Hinduism.[38][39][40]

All these systems are not the only "orthodox" systems of philosophy, as numerous sub-schools developed throughout the history of Hindu thought. They are
however the most well known Hindu philosophical traditions.

In addition to the six systems, the Hindu philosopher Vidyāraṇya (ca. 1374–1380) also includes several further Hindu philosophical systems in his Sarva-
darśana-saṃgraha (A Compendium of all the Philosophical Systems):[8]

Paśupata, a school of Shaivism founded by Nakulisa

Shaiva Siddhantha, a theistic and dualistic school of Shaivism, which is influenced by Samkhya, and expands the Samkhya system further.
Pratyabhijña (the school of "Recognition"), which defends an idealistic monism and part of the Kashmir Shaivism tradition of Tantric Shaivism
Pāṇini Darśana, a tradition focusing on Sanskrit linguistics and grammar which also developed the theory of sphoṭavāda under Bhartṛhari, a
theory which places speech and sound at the center of its metaphysics.
Raseśvara, an alchemical school which advocated the use of mercury as a way to attain enlightenment.

Śramaṇic traditions
Several non-Vedic traditions of thought also flourished in ancient India and they developed their own philosophical
systems. The Śramaṇas included various traditions which did not accept the Brahmanical religion of the Vedas. These
non-Vedic schools gave rise to a diverse range of ideas about topics like the atman, atomism, ethics, materialism,
atheism, agnosticism, free will, asceticism, family life, ahimsa (non-violence) and vegetarianism.[41] Notable
philosophies that were a part of Śramaṇa family were Jainism, early Buddhism, Charvaka, Ajñana and Ājīvika.[42]

Indian Śramaṇa tradition had one of its earliest known prominent exemplar as Parshvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankar in 9th
century BCE.[43][44] It became prominent in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, and even more so during the Mauryan period
(c. 322–184 BCE). Jainism and Buddhism were especially influential. These traditions influenced all later forms of
Indian philosophy who either adopted some of their ideas or reacted against them.[45]

Jain philosophy
Jain philosophy is the oldest Indian philosophy that separates body (matter) from the soul (consciousness) completely.[46]
Each individual soul is inherently endowed with infinite knowledge and boundless bliss. However, since infinity its true
Parshvanatha led the shramana
nature has remained veiled due to ignorance, causing it to mistakenly identify with the physical body. This
order in 9th century BCE
misidentification leads to suffering and the accumulation of karma. As karma accumulates, the soul becomes bound to
the cycle of birth and rebirth, perpetuating a continuous journey of suffering and ignorance, until it ultimately attains
liberation through self-realization (atma-anubhuti).[47] Jainism lays down the path for the soul to realize its true nature by right faith and active awareness of the
self (bhedvigyān) as an unchanging eternal gnāta (knower) and drashtā (witness) distinct from its ignorant activities like thoughts, passions, etc.[48]

Jainism experienced a resurgence after Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara, revitalized and unified the ancient teachings of the Śramaṇic tradition, originally
established by Rishabhadeva, the first Jain Tirthankara, millions of years prior.[49] Historians outside of the Jain tradition date Mahavira to the 6th century BCE,
roughly contemporaneous with the Buddha.[17] This timeline would place the historical Parshvanatha approximately 250 years earlier, in the 9th century
BCE.[50]
Jainism is a Śramaṇic religion and rejected the authority of the Vedas. However, like all Indian religions, it shares the
core concepts such as karma, ethical living, rebirth, samsara and moksha. Jainism places strong emphasis on asceticism,
ahimsa (non-violence) and anekantavada (relativity of viewpoints) as a means of spiritual liberation, ideas that
influenced other Indian traditions.[51]

Jainism strongly upholds the individualistic nature of soul and personal responsibility for one's decisions; and that self-
reliance and individual efforts alone are responsible for one's liberation. According to the Jain philosophy, the world
(Saṃsāra) is full of hiṃsā (violence). Therefore, one should direct all efforts towards the attainment of Ratnatraya,
which are Samyak Darshan (right perception), Samyak Gnana (right knowledge) and Samyak Chàritra (right conduct),
the key requisites to attain liberation.[52]

Buddhist philosophy
Buddhist philosophy refers to several traditions which can be traced back to the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, the Rishabhadeva, believed to have
Buddha ("awakened one"). Buddhism is a Śramaṇa religion, but it contains novel ideas not found or accepted by other lived over a million years ago, is
Śramaṇa religions, such as the Buddhist doctrine of not-self (anatta). Buddhist thought is also influenced by the thought considered the founder of Jain
of the Upanishads.[53] religion in the present time cycle.

Buddhism and Hinduism mutually influenced each other and shared many concepts, however it is now difficult to
identify and describe these influences.[54] Buddhism rejected the Vedic concepts of Brahman (ultimate reality) and Atman
(soul, self) at the foundation of Hindu philosophies.[55][56][57][58]

Buddhism shares many philosophical views with other Indian systems, such as belief in karma – a cause-and-effect
relationship, samsara – ideas about cyclic afterlife and rebirth, dharma – ideas about ethics, duties and values, impermanence
of all material things and of body, and possibility of spiritual liberation (nirvana or moksha).[59][60] A major departure from
Hindu and Jain philosophy is the Buddhist rejection of an eternal soul (atman) in favour of anatta (non-Self).[56][61][62][63][64]
After the death of the Buddha, several competing philosophical systems termed Abhidharma began to emerge as ways to
systematize Buddhist philosophy.[65]

Schools of thought
The main traditions of Buddhist philosophy in India (from 300 BCE to 1000 CE) can be divided into Mahayana schools and
non-Mahayana schools (sometimes called Śrāvakayāna schools, Nikaya Buddhism, "Mainstream" Buddhism or Hinayana,
"inferior" or "lesser" vehicle, a term used only in Mahayana to refer to non-Mahayana traditions).[66] The Mahayana schools
accepted the Mahayana sutras and studied the works of Mahayana philosophers like Nagarjuna. The non-Mahayana schools The Buddhist philosophy is
drew their philosophical doctrines from the Tripitaka and on the Abhidharma treatises. based on the teachings of the
Buddha.
Śrāvakayāna schools (non-Mahayana):

The Mahāsāṃghika ("Great Community") tradition (which included numerous sub-schools, all are now extinct). A key doctrine of this tradition
was the supramundane and transcendent nature of the Buddha (lokottaravada).
The schools of the Sthavira ("Elders") tradition:

Vaibhāṣika ("Commentators") also known as the Sarvāstivāda-Vaibhāśika, was an Abhidharma tradition that composed the "Great
Commentary" (Mahāvibhāṣa). They were known for their defense of the doctrine of "sarvāstitva" (all exists), which is a form of eternalism
regarding the philosophy of time. They also supported direct realism and a theory of substances (svabhāva).
Sautrāntika ("Those who uphold the sutras"), a tradition which did not see the northern Abhidharma as authoritative, and instead focused
on the Buddhist sutras. They disagreed with the Vaibhāṣika on several key points, including their eternalistic theory of time, their direct
realism and their realist theory of nirvana.
Pudgalavāda ("Personalists"), which were known for their controversial theory of the "person" (pudgala) which is what undergoes rebirth
and attain awakening. They are now extinct.
Vibhajyavāda ("The Analysts"), a widespread tradition which reached Kashmir, South India and Sri Lanka. A part of this school has
survived into the modern era as the Southeast Asian Theravada tradition. Their orthodox positions can be found in the Kathavatthu. They
rejected the views of the Pudgalavāda and of the Vaibhāṣika among others.
Mahāyāna traditions:

The Mahāyāna ("Great Vehicle") movement (c. 1st century BCE onwards) included new ideas and scriptures (Mahayana
sutras). These philosophical traditions differ significantly from other schools of Buddhism, and include metaphysical
doctrines which are not accepted by the other Buddhist traditions. Mahayana thought focuses on the universal altruistic ideal
of the bodhisattva, a being who is on the path to Buddhahood for the sake of all living beings. It also defends the doctrine that
there are limitless number of Buddhas throughout limitless numbers of universes. These Indian traditions are the main source
of modern Tibetan Buddhism and of modern East Asian Buddhism.

The main Indian Mahayana schools of philosophy are:

Madhyamaka ("Middle way" or "Centrism") founded by Nagarjuna. Also known as Śūnyavāda (the emptiness
doctrine) and Niḥsvabhāvavāda (the no svabhāva doctrine), this tradition focuses on the idea that all
phenomena are empty of any essence or substance (svabhāva).
A Japanese depiction of
Yogācāra ("Yoga-praxis"), an idealistic school which held that only consciousness exists, and thus was also
Nagarjuna, one of the greatest
known as Vijñānavāda (the doctrine of consciousness).
Buddhist philosophers and
The Dignāga-Dharmakīrti tradition is an influential school of thought which focused on epistemology, or founder of Madhyamaka
pramāṇa ('means of knowledge'). They generally followed the doctrine of Vijñānavāda.
 Some scholars see the Tathāgatagarbha ("Buddha womb/source") or "buddha-nature" texts as constituting a third "school" of Indian
Mahāyāna thought.[67]
Vajrayāna (also known as Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Secret Mantra, and Tantric Buddhism) is often placed in a separate category due to its
unique tantric theories and practices.
Many of these philosophies were brought to other regions, like Central Asia and China. After the disappearance of Buddhism from India, some of these
philosophical traditions continued to develop in the Tibetan Buddhist, East Asian Buddhist and Theravada Buddhist traditions.[68][69]

Ājīvika philosophy
The philosophy of Ājīvika was founded by Makkhali Gosala, it was a Śramaṇa movement and a major rival of
early Buddhism and Jainism.[71] Ājīvikas were organised renunciates who formed discrete monastic communities
prone to an ascetic and simple lifestyle.[72]

Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable
and probably lost. Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ajivikas in the secondary sources of ancient
Indian literature, particularly those of Jainism and Buddhism which polemically criticized the Ajivikas.[73] The
Ājīvika school is known for its Niyati doctrine of absolute determinism (fate), the premise that there is no free will,
that everything that has happened, is happening and will happen is entirely preordained and a function of cosmic Monastic life has been a part of all Indian
philosophy traditions. Mendicant caves of
principles.[73][74] Ājīvika considered the karma doctrine as a fallacy.[75] Ājīvikas were atheists[76] and rejected the
extinct Ājīvikas in Bihar.[70]
authority of the Vedas, but they believed that in every living being is an ātman – a central premise of Hinduism
and Jainism.[77][78]

Ajñana philosophy
Ajñana was one of the nāstika or "heterodox" schools of ancient Indian philosophy, and the ancient school of radical Indian skepticism. It was a Śramaṇa
movement and a major rival of early Buddhism and Jainism. Their ideas are recorded in Buddhist and Jain texts. They held that it was impossible to obtain
knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions; and even if knowledge was possible, it was useless and
disadvantageous for final salvation. They were sophists who specialised in refutation without propagating any positive doctrine of their own.

Charvaka philosophy
Charvaka (Sanskrit: चार्वाक; IAST: Cārvāka), also known as Lokāyata, is an ancient school of Indian materialism.[79] Charvaka holds direct perception,
empiricism, and conditional inference as proper sources of knowledge, embraces philosophical skepticism and rejects ritualism and
supernaturalism.[80][81][82][83][84] It was a popular belief system in ancient India.[a]

The etymology of Charvaka (Sanskrit: चार्वाक) is uncertain. Bhattacharya quotes the grammarian Hemacandra, to the effect that the word cārvāka is derived
from the root carv, 'to chew' : "A Cārvāka chews the self (carvatyātmānaṃ cārvākaḥ). Hemacandra refers to his own grammatical work, Uṇādisūtra 37, which
runs as follows: mavāka-śyāmāka-vārtāka-jyontāka-gūvāka-bhadrākādayaḥ. Each of these words ends with the āka suffix and is formed irregularly". This may
also allude to the philosophy's hedonistic precepts of "eat, drink, and be merry".

Brihaspati is traditionally referred to as the founder of Charvaka or Lokāyata philosophy, although some scholars dispute this.[86][87] During the Hindu
reformation period in the first millennium BCE, when Buddhism was established by Gautama Buddha and Jainism was re-organized by Parshvanatha, the
Charvaka philosophy was well documented and opposed by both religions.[88] Much of the primary literature of Charvaka, the Barhaspatya sutras, were lost
either due to waning popularity or other unknown reasons.[89] Its teachings have been compiled from historic secondary literature such as those found in the
shastras, sutras, and the Indian epic poetry as well as in the dialogues of Gautama Buddha and from Jain literature.[89][90] However, there is text that may belong
to the Charvaka tradition, written by the skeptic philosopher Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa, known as the Tattvôpaplava-siṁha, that provides information about this school,
albeit unorthodox.[91][92]

One of the widely studied principles of Charvaka philosophy was its rejection of inference as a means to establish valid, universal knowledge, and metaphysical
truths.[93][94] In other words, the Charvaka epistemology states that whenever one infers a truth from a set of observations or truths, one must acknowledge
doubt; inferred knowledge is conditional.[95]

Comparison of Indian philosophies

The Indian traditions subscribed to diverse philosophies, significantly disagreeing with each other as well as orthodox Indian philosophy and its six schools of
Hindu philosophy. The differences ranged from a belief that every individual has a soul (self, atman) to asserting that there is no soul,[56][61][62][63][96] from
axiological merit in a frugal ascetic life to that of a hedonistic life, from a belief in rebirth to asserting that there is no rebirth.[97]
 Comparison of ancient Indian philosophies
Mahayana Samkhya/
Ājīvika Early Buddhism Charvaka Jainism Vedanta
Buddhism Yoga

Affirms, but not

everything is caused
by karma.[97][99]
Karma Denies[75][98] Affirms Denies[97] Affirms[97] Affirms Affirms
Karma is only one of
the constraints.
(Niyama)

Samsara,
Rebirth
Affirms Affirms[100] Affirms Denies[101] Affirms[97] Affirms[102] Affirms[103]

Affirms, but rejects

extreme asceticism in
Affirms middle Affirms as
Ascetic life Affirms favor of a more Denies[97] Affirms Affirms as Sannyasa[107]
moderated version,
way Sannyasa[107]
the "Middle Way".[106]

Theistic school: Affirms, Vaishnavite

Affirms and Shaivite
Rituals, Affirms, optional[108] optional[110]
Bhakti
Affirms (Mahayana Denies Affirms, optional[109] Others:
Schools:
(Pali: Bhatti) rites) Affirm, Others:
Deny[111][112][113][114][115] Deny
Acts of violence
which are purposeful
have karmic Affirms as
consequences. highest virtue,
Buddhism does not Affirms as highest virtue, but Just War
Strongest proponent
explicitly prohibit Affirmed in but Just War affirmed affirmed
of non-violence;
Ahimsa and ordinary people (lay numerous Vegetarianism Vegetarianism
Affirms Vegetarianism to avoid
Vegetarianism people) from eating Mahayana encouraged, but encouraged,
violence against
sutras choice left to the but
meat[116] However, animals[118]
goods that contribute Hindu[119][120] choice left to
the
to or are a result of
violence should not Hindu[119][121]
be traded.[117]
Buddhists believe in
neither absolute free Advaita and
will, nor Vishishtadvaita: Deny
Will is a
determinism.[124] It through theory of
Free will Denies[74] preaches a middle
dependent Affirms Affirms
vivartavada and
Denies
arising
doctrine of dependent determinism, Dvaita
arising - Vedanta: Affirms
pratītyasamutpāda.

Affirms Advaita: Affirms[127][128]

Maya Affirms[125] Affirms Denies Affirms Denies
(prapañca)[126] Dvaita: Denies
An atmavada is
taught in
Buddha-nature
Atman (Soul, sources, but it
Self)
Affirms Denies[56][61][62][63][96] is rejected in Denies[129] Affirms[130] Affirms Affirms
other
Mahayana
sources

Advaita denies a creator

god and states that
avidya (ignorance) is the Samkhya:
Creator god Denies Denies[131] Denies Denies Denies source of creation, Denies, Yoga:
Affirms
Dvaita: Affirm[132]
Others: Deny[133][134]
Advaita Vedanta: Six
[37][36]

Pratyakṣa,
Anumāṇa,
Upamāṇa, Three:
Pratyakṣa,
Epistemology Pratyakṣa, Pratyakṣa, Pratyakṣa, Arthāpatti, Pratyakṣa,
Pratyakṣa[92] Anumāṇa,
(Pramana) Anumāṇa, Śabda Anumāṇa[37][135] Anumāṇa Anupalabdi, Anumāṇa,
Śabda[37] Śabda, Dvaita and Śabda
Vishishtadvaita: Three
Pratyakṣa,
Anumāṇa,
Śabda
Affirm: Vedas,
Affirms: Affirm: Vedas, Upanishads
Epistemic
Denies: Vedas Affirms: Tripitaka[136] Tripitaka, Denies: Affirms: Jain Agamas Upanishads and and Yoga:
authority Denies: Vedas Mahayana Vedas Denies: Vedas
sutras Bhagavad-Gita,[b] Bhagavad-
Gita,[c]

Siddha,[140] Advaita: Jivanmukti[141]

Salvation
(Soteriology) Samsdrasuddhi[138] Nirvana[139] Buddhahood Denies Nirvana Dvaita, theistic: Jivanmukti[142]
Videhamukti

Metaphysics The Buddha of the Anti- Material Anekāntavāda[144] Advaita: Samkhya:

(Ultimate early texts does not foundationalism elements Brahman[145][146][147] Purusha and
Reality) focus on (Madhyamaka), Dvaita: God and various Prakriti, Yoga:
metaphysical Idealism Jivatmans Purusha,
questions but on (Yogacara) Ishvara,
ethical and spiritual Prakriti
training and in some
 cases, he dismisses
certain metaphysical
questions as
unhelpful and
indeterminate
Avyakta, which he
recommends should
be set aside. The
development of
systematic
metaphysics arose
after the Buddha's
death with the rise of
the Abhidharma
traditions.[143]

Political philosophy
The Arthashastra, attributed to the Mauryan minister Chanakya, is one of the early Indian texts devoted to political philosophy. It is dated to 4th century BCE
and discusses ideas of statecraft and economic policy. The Kural text, attributed to Valluvar and dated to around 5th century CE, deals with ahimsa and morality,
extending them to political philosophy and love.[148]: 7–16 [149]: 156–168

The political philosophy most closely associated with modern India is the one of ahimsa (non-violence) and Satyagraha, popularised by Mahatma Gandhi
during the Indian struggle for independence. In turn it influenced the later independence and Civil Rights movements, especially those led by Martin Luther
King Jr. and Nelson Mandela. Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar's Progressive Utilization Theory[150] is also a major socio-economic and political philosophy.[151]

Integral humanism was a set of concepts drafted by Upadhyaya as political program and adopted in 1965 as the official doctrine of the Jan Sangh.

Upadhyaya considered that it was of utmost importance for India to develop an indigenous economic model with a human being at center stage. This approach
made this concept different from Socialism and Capitalism. Integral Humanism was adopted as Jan Sangh's political doctrine and its new openness to other
opposition forces made it possible for the Hindu nationalist movement to have an alliance in the early 1970s with the prominent Gandhian Sarvodaya movement
going on under the leadership of J. P. Narayan. This was considered to be the first major public breakthrough for the Hindu nationalist movement.

Influence
In appreciation of subtlety and truth of the Indian philosophy, T. S. Eliot wrote that the great philosophers of India "make most of the great European
philosophers look like schoolboys".[152][153] Arthur Schopenhauer used Indian philosophy to improve upon Kantian thought. In the preface to his book The
World As Will And Representation, Schopenhauer writes that one who "has also received and assimilated the sacred primitive Indian wisdom, then he is the best
of all prepared to hear what I have to say to him."[154] The 19th-century American philosophical movement Transcendentalism was also influenced by Indian
thought.[155][156]

See also
List of Indian philosophers
Affectionism
Ancient Indian philosophy
Hindu philosophy
M. Hiriyanna
Indian art
Indian logic
Indian psychology
Svayam bhagavan
Trikaranasuddhi

Notes
a. "Aside from nontheistic schools like the Samkhya, there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-
supernatural system is/was the so-called Charvaka school."[85]
b. Freschi 2012: The Vedas are not deontic authorities and may be disobeyed, but still recognized as an epistemic authority by a Hindu.[137]
Such a differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions.
c. Freschi 2012: The Vedas are not deontic authorities and may be disobeyed, but still recognized as an epistemic authority by a Hindu.[137]
Such a differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions.
d. Freschi 2012: The Vedas are not deontic authorities and may be disobeyed, but still recognized as an epistemic authority by a Hindu.[137]
Such a differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions.
e. Freschi 2012: The Vedas are not deontic authorities and may be disobeyed, but still recognized as an epistemic authority by a Hindu.[137]
Such a differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions.
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Further reading
Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965). The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary Balcerowicz, Piotr (2015). Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and
(https://archive.org/details/practicalsanskri00apteuoft) (4th Rev. and Jainism (https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ)
Enlarged ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0567-4. (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 368. ISBN 9781317538530.
Chattopadhyaya, D. P. (ed.). History of Science, Philosophy and Hiriyanna, M. (1995). Essentials of Indian Philosophy. Motilal
Culture in Indian Civilization. Vol. 15-volum + parts Set. Delhi: Banarsidas. ISBN 978-81-208-1304-5.
Centre for Studies in Civilizations. Jain, Dulichand (1998). Thus Spake Lord Mahavir. Chennai: Sri
Dasgupta, Surendranath (1922–1955). A History of Indian Philosophy Ramakrishna Math. ISBN 81-7120-825-8.
(https://www.indianculture.gov.in/reports-proceedings/history-indian- Michaels, Axel (2004). Hinduism: Past and Present. New York:
philosophy-vol-i). Vol. 1–5. London: Cambridge University Press. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08953-1.
Vol. 1 (https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.96713) | Vol. 2 (ht
Radhakrishnan, S. (1929). Indian Philosophy, Volume 1 (https://archiv
tps://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57593) | Vol. 3 (https://arch
e.org/details/Sarvepalli.Radhakrishnan.Indian.Philosophy.Volume.1-
ive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57392) | Vol. 4 (https://archive.org/d
2). Muirhead library of philosophy (2nd ed.). London: George Allen
etails/dli.ernet.231099) | Vol. 5. (https://archive.org/details/AHistory
and Unwin.
OfIndianPhilosophyVol5/page/n1/mode/2up)
Stevenson, Leslie (2004). Ten theories of human nature. Oxford
Gandhi, M. K. (1961). Non-Violent Resistance (Satyagraha) (https://arc University Press. 4th edition.
hive.org/details/nonviolentresist00gand). New York: Schocken
Books.

External links
Surendranath Dasgupta. A History of Indian Philosophy | HTML (vol. 1) (https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/a-history-of-indian-philosop
hy-volume-1/index.html) | (vol. 2) (https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/a-history-of-indian-philosophy-volume-2/index.html) | (vol. 3) (http
s://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/a-history-of-indian-philosophy-volume-3/index.html) | (vol. 4) (https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/
a-history-of-indian-philosophy-volume-4/index.html) | (vol. 5) (https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/a-history-of-indian-philosophy-volume
-5/index.html), ebook at Wisdomlib.org
Surendranath Dasgupta. Indian Idealism (https://archive.org/details/Indian.Idealism.by.Surendranath.Dasgupta) at archive.org
A recommended reading guide from the philosophy department of University College, London: London Philosophy Study Guide – Indian
Philosophy (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/Indian.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210723102517/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/p
hilosophy/LPSG/Indian.pdf) 23 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine
Articles at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (https://www.iep.utm.edu/category/traditions/indian/)
Indian Psychology Institute (http://ipi.org.in) The application of Indian Philosophy to contemporary issues in Psychology
The Essentials of Indian Philosophy by Mysore Hiriyanna (https://archive.org/details/Mysore.Hiriyanna-The.Essentials.of.Indian.Philosophy) at
archive.org
Outlines of Indian Philosophy by Mysore Hiriyanna (https://archive.org/details/Mysore.Hiriyanna-Outlines.of.Indian.Philosophy) at archive.org
Indian Philosophy by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (2 Volumes) (https://archive.org/details/Sarvepalli.Radhakrishnan.Indian.Philosophy.Volume.1
-2) at archive.org
History of Philosophy – Eastern and Western Edited by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (2 Volumes) (https://archive.org/details/Radhakrishnan-Hist
ory.of.Philosophy-Eastern.and.Western-Volume.1-2) at archive.org
Indian Schools of Philosophy and Theology (https://web.archive.org/web/20180228042935/https://www.jiva.org/indian-schools-of-philosophy-
and-theology/) (Jiva Institute)

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