Tissues and Cells: nucleus per cell.

Function:
heart contractions.
1. Types of tissues in the human
body and their functions: o Smooth muscle:
Involuntary, non-striated,
o Epithelial tissue: Covers
single nucleus. Function:
body surfaces, lines
movement of food, blood,
cavities, and forms glands.
and other substances in
Functions include
organs.
protection, absorption,
secretion, and filtration. 4. Role of connective tissue:
Connective tissue supports,
o Connective tissue:
connects, and protects organs. It
Supports and binds other
stores energy (adipose), transports
tissues. Includes bone,
nutrients (blood), and provides
cartilage, blood, and
structural support (bones and
adipose tissue. Functions
cartilage).
include structural support
and transport.

o Muscle tissue: Responsible Blood Cells and Homeostasis:

for movement. Three types:
1. Structure and function of blood
skeletal (voluntary
cells:
movement), cardiac (heart),
smooth (involuntary organs). o Red blood cells (RBCs):
Biconcave discs with no
o Nervous tissue: Transmits
nucleus. Function: transport
electrical signals throughout
oxygen via hemoglobin.
the body. Composed of
neurons and glial cells. o White blood cells (WBCs):
Larger cells with a nucleus.
2. Structure and function of
Function: immune response
epithelial tissue: Epithelial tissue
and defense against
has closely packed cells forming
pathogens.
continuous layers. Its functions
include protection (e.g., skin), o Platelets: Small cell
absorption (e.g., intestines), fragments without a
secretion (e.g., glands), and nucleus. Function: blood
filtration (e.g., kidneys). It can be clotting to prevent bleeding.
found in the skin, digestive tract,
and respiratory system. 2. Homeostasis in relation to blood:
The body maintains homeostasis
3. Comparison of muscle tissues: through mechanisms like
temperature regulation (via blood
o Skeletal muscle: Voluntary,
flow), pH balance (buffer systems),
striated, multi-nucleated
and blood volume regulation (via
cells. Function: movement
kidneys and the endocrine system).
of limbs.
3. Process of blood clotting
o Cardiac muscle:
(Hemostasis): When blood vessels
Involuntary, striated, single
are injured, platelets adhere to the
 site and release chemicals that o Articular cartilage:
activate clotting factors, leading to Reduces friction in joints.
the formation of a fibrin clot,
o Periosteum: Membrane
stopping blood loss.
covering the bone for
4. Role of RBCs in oxygen transport: protection and growth.
Red blood cells contain
o Medullary cavity: Contains
hemoglobin, which binds to oxygen
yellow bone marrow for fat
in the lungs and releases it in
storage.
tissues. The biconcave shape
increases surface area for gas 2. Role of the skeletal system: The
exchange. skeletal system provides structure,
protects vital organs (e.g., brain,
heart), facilitates movement (with
There are many types of cells in the human muscles), stores minerals (e.g.,
body, but here are two broad categories of calcium), and produces blood cells
cells based on their function and structure: in the bone marrow.

1. Prokaryotic cells: These cells lack 3. Bones in blood cell production:

a nucleus and membrane-bound The red bone marrow inside the
organelles. They are typically spongy bone of certain bones (e.g.,
smaller and simpler. Prokaryotic ribs, sternum, femur) is responsible
cells are mainly found in for hematopoiesis (production of
microorganisms like bacteria and blood cells).
archaea. These cells have a single,
4. Types of joints:
circular DNA molecule.
o Fibrous joints: Immovable
2. Eukaryotic cells: These cells have a
(e.g., sutures of the skull).
nucleus that contains the cell’s
genetic material and membrane- o Cartilaginous joints:
bound organelles like mitochondria, Slightly movable (e.g.,
the endoplasmic reticulum, and intervertebral discs).
Golgi apparatus. Eukaryotic cells
are more complex and are found in o Synovial joints: Freely
plants, animals, fungi, and protists. movable (e.g., knee, elbow).

Human Body Movements:

Skeletal System: 1. Define and provide examples of

body movements:
1. Structure of a long bone:
o Flexion: Decreasing the
o Diaphysis (shaft): Compact angle between body parts
bone for strength. (e.g., bending the elbow).
o Epiphyses (ends): Spongy o Extension: Increasing the
bone, with red marrow for angle between body parts
blood cell production. (e.g., straightening the
knee).
 o Abduction: Moving a limb posture by constantly adjusting
away from the body (e.g., tension to stabilize the body. Core
lifting the arm to the side). muscles are particularly important
for balance.
o Adduction: Moving a limb
toward the body (e.g., 3. Muscle fatigue: Muscle fatigue
bringing arms back to the occurs when muscles can no longer
sides). generate the necessary force, often
due to the accumulation of lactic
o Rotation: Turning a body
acid or depletion of ATP during
part around its axis (e.g.,
prolonged activity.
turning the head).

2. Role of muscular and skeletal

systems in movement: Muscles Nervous System:
contract to pull on bones, creating
1. Structure and function of a
movement at joints. The skeletal
neuron: Neurons consist of the cell
system provides leverage, while
body (contains nucleus), dendrites
muscles generate force to produce
(receive signals), and axon
movement.
(transmits signals). Neurons
3. Muscle contraction (Sliding transmit electrical signals via action
filament theory): Muscle potentials, facilitating
contraction occurs when myosin communication between the brain
filaments slide over actin filaments, and body.
shortening the sarcomere. This
2. CNS and PNS roles:
process requires ATP and calcium
ions. o CNS (Central Nervous
System): Brain and spinal
cord. Processes information
Muscular System: and coordinates responses.

1. Three types of muscle tissue: o PNS (Peripheral Nervous

System): Nerves outside the
o Skeletal muscle: Voluntary,
CNS. Carries signals to and
striated, multinucleated.
from the CNS.
Function: voluntary
movement. 3. Function of neurotransmitters:
Neurotransmitters are chemicals
o Cardiac muscle:
that transmit signals across
Involuntary, striated, one
synapses between neurons.
nucleus. Function: heart
Examples: dopamine (mood
contractions.
regulation), acetylcholine (muscle
o Smooth muscle: contraction).
Involuntary, non-striated,
one nucleus. Function:
involuntary movements Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems:
(e.g., digestion, blood flow).
1. Pathway of blood circulation:
2. Muscular system’s role in posture Blood flows from the body through
and balance: Muscles maintain the right atrium, to the right
 ventricle, then to the lungs (via functions optimally, reduces the risk
pulmonary arteries) for oxygenation. of injury, and improves breathing
Oxygenated blood returns to the left and digestion.
atrium, goes to the left ventricle,
2. Muscle imbalances and poor
and is pumped to the body via the
posture: Muscle imbalances can
aorta.
lead to poor posture (e.g., rounded
2. Function of hemoglobin in oxygen shoulders, forward head posture),
transport: Hemoglobin binds to increasing the risk of pain and injury.
oxygen in the lungs and releases it in
3. Spine’s role in posture: The spine
tissues, helping transport oxygen
maintains an upright posture by
efficiently through the bloodstream.
providing structural support.
3. Gas exchange in the lungs: Gas Misalignments or weaknesses can
exchange occurs in the alveoli lead to posture-related issues like
where oxygen diffuses into the back pain.
blood, and carbon dioxide diffuses
out to be exhaled.
Nutrition:
4. Cardiovascular regulation of
blood pressure: The heart's 1. Six essential nutrients and their
pumping action and the constriction functions:
or dilation of blood vessels regulate
blood pressure. The autonomic o Carbohydrates: Provide
nervous system and hormones like energy (e.g., bread, rice).
adrenaline also play a role. o Proteins: Build and repair
5. Arteries, veins, and capillaries: tissues (e.g., meat, beans).

o Arteries: Thick-walled, high- o Fats: Provide long-term

pressure vessels carrying energy and insulation (e.g.,
oxygenated blood away from oils, nuts).
the heart. o Vitamins: Regulate body
o Veins: Thinner walls, lower functions (e.g., vitamin C,
pressure, carry vitamin D).
deoxygenated blood back to o Minerals: Support various
the heart, with valves to bodily functions (e.g.,
prevent backflow. calcium, iron).
o Capillaries: Thin-walled, o Water: Hydrates and aids in
allow for exchange of gases, metabolism and waste
nutrients, and waste removal.
between blood and tissues.
2. Role of carbs, proteins, and fats in
energy: Carbohydrates provide
Body Posture: quick energy, proteins help build
and repair tissues, and fats supply a
1. Posture and its importance: long-term energy reserve.
Posture is the alignment of the body.
Good posture ensures that the body 3. Vitamins and minerals: Essential
for enzyme function, immune
 health, and metabolic processes. and power through
For example, calcium supports resistance.
bone health, and iron is necessary
o Endurance training:
for oxygen transport.
Enhances stamina and
4. Water’s role in homeostasis: cardiovascular efficiency,
Water helps regulate body often through activities like
temperature, transports nutrients running or cycling.
and waste, and maintains cellular
3. Fighting response in exercise: The
functions.
body’s "fight or flight" response
5. Balanced diet and its impact: A during exercise increases heart rate,
balanced diet provides all nutrients blood flow, and energy release to
in appropriate amounts, supporting prepare for physical activity.
overall health, growth, and disease
4. Benefits of regular exercise for
prevention.
muscles and bones: Exercise
6. Explain the difference between strengthens muscles and bones,
macronutrients and increases bone density, and
micronutrients: reduces the risk of osteoporosis.

• Macronutrients: These are 5. Exercise and mental health:

nutrients required by the body in Physical activity releases
large amounts for energy and endorphins, reduces stress, and
body functions. They include improves mood and cognitive
carbohydrates, proteins, and function.
fats.
6. Autonomic nervous system in
• Micronutrients: These are exercise: The autonomic nervous
nutrients needed in smaller system regulates the body's
amounts but are crucial for involuntary functions during
various bodily functions like exercise, such as heart rate and
enzyme production and immune respiratory rate.
support. They include vitamins
and minerals.

Exercise:

1. Effects of aerobic exercise on the

cardiovascular system: Aerobic
exercise increases heart rate and
strengthens the heart muscle,
improving cardiovascular efficiency
and endurance.

2. Strength vs. endurance training:

o Strength training: Focuses

on building muscle mass
1. Flexion: o Example: Moving the arm in
a circular motion (like a
o Definition: A decrease in the
windmill).
angle between two body
parts. 7. Dorsiflexion:

o Example: Bending the elbow o Definition: Movement of the

or knee. foot that decreases the
angle between the top of the
2. Extension:
foot and the leg.
o Definition: An increase in the
o Example: Pointing the toes
angle between two body
upward.
parts.
8. Plantarflexion:
o Example: Straightening the
elbow or knee. o Definition: Movement of the
foot that increases the angle
3. Abduction:
between the top of the foot
o Definition: Movement of a and the leg.
limb away from the midline
o Example: Pointing the toes
of the body.
downward (like pressing a
o Example: Raising the arms gas pedal).
or legs to the side.
9. Pronation:
4. Adduction:
o Definition: Rotation of the
o Definition: Movement of a forearm or foot so that the
limb toward the midline of palm or sole faces
the body. downward or backward.

o Example: Bringing the arms o Example: Turning the palm

or legs back toward the of the hand downward.
body.
10. Supination:
5. Rotation:
o Definition: Rotation of the
o Definition: Movement of a forearm or foot so that the
body part around its axis. palm or sole faces upward
or forward.
o Example: Turning the head
from side to side (like o Example: Turning the palm
shaking your head "no"). of the hand upward.

6. Circumduction: Additional Movements:

o Definition: Circular 1. Medial Rotation:

movement of a limb that
o Definition: Rotation of a
combines flexion, extension,
body part toward the midline
abduction, and adduction.
of the body.
 o Example: Rotating the o Example: Thumb touching
shoulder inward so the palm the pinky finger.
faces behind you.
8. Reposition:
2. Lateral Rotation:
o Definition: The opposite of
o Definition: Rotation of a opposition; moving the
body part away from the thumb and fingers back to
midline of the body. their neutral position.

o Example: Rotating the o Example: Moving the thumb

shoulder outward so the back to its starting position
palm faces forward. after touching the pinky

3. Elevation:

o Definition: Raising a body

part upward.
1. Types of Body Posture:
o Example: Lifting the
• Neutral Posture: Natural, balanced
shoulders (shrugging).
body alignment with the spine in a
4. Depression: neutral curve.

o Definition: Lowering a body • Good Posture (Upright): Proper

part downward. alignment with the head, shoulders,
and pelvis in balance.
o Example: Lowering the
shoulders after shrugging. • Slumped Posture: Rounded
shoulders and a hunched spine,
5. Inversion:
often due to poor sitting/standing
o Definition: Turning the sole habits.
of the foot inward.
• Kyphosis (Hunchback): Excessive
o Example: Turning the ankle outward curve of the upper spine.
so the bottom of the foot
• Lordosis (Swayback): Excessive
faces inward.
inward curve of the lower back.
6. Eversion:
• Scoliosis: Abnormal lateral
o Definition: Turning the sole curvature of the spine.
of the foot outward.
• Abdominal Ptosis: A downward
o Example: Turning the ankle displacement or sagging of the
so the bottom of the foot abdominal organs, often associated
faces outward. with weak abdominal muscles or
poor posture.
7. Opposition:
• Kypholordosis: A combination of
o Definition: Movement of the exaggerated curves in both the
thumb to touch the tips of thoracic (kyphosis) and lumbar
the fingers on the same (lordosis) regions of the spine, often
hand. due to muscle imbalances or poor
posture.