Engaging research: Empowering ESL/EFL teachers to

teach pronunciation
Anastazija Kirkova-Naskova

To cite this version:

Anastazija Kirkova-Naskova. Engaging research: Empowering ESL/EFL teachers to teach pronuncia-
tion. Alice Henderson; Anastazija Kirkova-Naskova. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference
on English Pronunciation: Issues and Practices, pp.122-137, 2023, �10.5281/zenodo.8232364�. �hal-
04179644�

HAL Id: hal-04179644

https://hal.science/hal-04179644
Submitted on 10 Aug 2023

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est

archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents
entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non,
lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de
teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires
abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés.

Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

Kirkova-Naskova, A. (2023). Engaging research: Empowering ESL/EFL teachers to teach pronunciation. In A.
Henderson & A. Kirkova-Naskova (Eds.), Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on English
Pronunciation: Issues and Practices (pp. 122–137). Université Grenoble-Alpes. https://doi.org/
10.5281/zenodo.8232364.

Engaging research: Empowering ESL/EFL teachers to teach pronunciation

Anastazija Kirkova-Naskova
Ss. Cyril and Methodius University, Skopje

The ongoing debate about the research-practice link has raised the point that research advances
are far more progressive and teaching practice is failing to keep up. An important aspect that
has received little attention is understanding teachers’ classroom reality – a reality that for
many involves an ever-increasing workload, limited resources, and a lack of autonomy and
self-confidence. It is evident that teachers should be encouraged to address pronunciation in
their teaching more frequently. However, they also need support to navigate the personal and
institutional challenges.
This paper proposes a conceptual agenda which empowers teachers to learn how to reflect
on their pronunciation teaching practices. Current issues in pronunciation research relevant for
the teaching context are discussed, followed by an overview of the most effective research
findings that can be successfully applied in the classroom. These insights are then contrasted
with preliminary results from a qualitative study that investigates teachers’ experience with
pronunciation teaching. In the last section, ways of providing support for teachers’ learning
and professional development are explored.

Keywords: pronunciation research, pronunciation teaching, research-practice link, classroom

practices, professional development

This chapter is based on the plenary talk given by the author at the 7th International
Conference English Pronunciation: Issues and Practices (EPIP 7) held May 18–20,
2022 at Université Grenoble-Alpes, France. It is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of the license, please
go to: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
 Kirkova-Naskova
Engaging research to empower teachers

1 Introduction

Pronunciation is without doubt as important as any other language skill. Yet, with the rise of
communicative language teaching (CLT), its equal presence in coursebooks and in classrooms
has been overlooked, as traditional pronunciation activities did not fit ideally within the CLT
framework and new ones were not adequately implemented (Celce-Murcia et al., 2010). One
particular reason why L2 pronunciation will always matter to L2 learners is the fact that it is
not only a cognitive skill but it is also a motor skill. As such, it has a physical reality that results
in the speech produced by learners, which is often L1-accented. From a linguistic perspective,
having accented speech results in pronunciation that may lead to communication breakdowns.
From a social perspective, such speech may have social consequences on the learners, who
may experience stereotyping, bias, and discrimination in personal communication or in the
workplace (Lippi-Green, 1997).
Traditionally, foreign accent (FA) was treated as a by-product of L2 pronunciation and its
elimination was the end goal of pronunciation learning. However, three aspects lurked over
this conceptualisation, making it difficult for teachers to know what to do. Firstly, the
complexity of the FA phenomenon was difficult to grasp despite authors investigating the
predictors of FA (Piper & Cansin, 1988; Purcell & Suter, 1980) and factors affecting the degree
of FA (see overview in Piske et al., 2001). Secondly, globalisation processes led more and
more people to communicate in English as a lingua franca, which made it clear that L2
pronunciation does not always prevent successful communication. Thirdly, the diversity of
English varieties posed a serious problem when choosing a native variety as a reference model
for L2 learners. A conceptual breakthrough came with the work of Munro and Derwing (1995)
when they deconstructed the phenomenon of foreign accent and demonstrated that it consists
of three perceptual phenomena: accentedness (i.e., how different a pattern of speech sounds
when it is compared to the local variety), comprehensibility (i.e., how easy/difficult a listener
finds it to understand someone’s speech), and intelligibility (i.e., to what degree a listener
actually understands an utterance). Munro and Derwing’s (1995) oft-cited study was followed
by two influential developments, in 2000 and 2005. Jenkins (2000) observed interactions
between non-native speakers (NNS) and concluded that the assumption that L2 learners of
English communicate solely or even mostly with native speakers (NS) is not accurate; in fact,
NNSs are more likely to communicate with other NNSs than with NSs. She proposed a Lingua
Franca Core (LFC), i.e., a set of pronunciation features that are likely to cause breakdowns in
intelligibility (p. 158–160), hence, they could be given precedence in pedagogy. Furthermore,
Levis (2005) addressed the issue of pronunciation models and goals and made a distinction
between the Nativeness vs. Intelligibility Principle, suggesting that intelligibility is the way
forward; while it is possible to achieve native-like pronunciation in the foreign language
classroom, learners more importantly need to be understandable and to communicate
successfully despite a noticeable or a strong foreign accent.
Such a change in viewpoints has prompted a re-examination of traditional teaching
approaches. Pronunciation research has flourished with many studies investigating the
development of L2 pronunciation, the potential of various teaching methods and activities, as
well as various social and individual factors that affect successful speech acquisition. New
avenues in the interplay of speech phenomena have been explored to provide answers to
relevant questions such as:

• Is pronunciation instruction effective?

• Should the focus of pronunciation instruction be on the auditory mode (perception) or
the articulatory mode (production)?

123
 Kirkova-Naskova
Engaging research to empower teachers

• Which is more important, teaching segmental features or teaching suprasegmental

features?
• What kind of pronunciation techniques do teachers use in the classroom?
• What types of pronunciation tasks are most effective: controlled or spontaneous?
• How do teachers address pronunciation errors?
• Is pronunciation learned more effectively if taught separately or combined with the
other language skills?
• Is pronunciation integrated in coursebooks and national curricula?
• Do teachers teach pronunciation regularly? Do they feel competent to teach
pronunciation (Foote et al., 2011; Henderson et al., 2012; Macdonald, 2002)?

All in all, the results overwhelmingly show that pronunciation instruction is effective (see
Lee et al., 2015; Saito & Plonsky, 2019; Thomson & Derwing, 2015). However, are these
promising research findings applicable in the classroom?

2 Effective pronunciation teaching: Research findings and recommendations

In their comprehensive overview of 150 years of pronunciation teaching, Murphy and Baker
(2019) define emerging trends in empirical research about pronunciation teaching. They
classify the following macro-level themes: a) explorations on what features of English
phonology are necessary to teach; b) explorations on how to teach L2 pronunciation effectively;
and c) teachers’ cognitions (beliefs and knowledge) and learners’ views on pronunciation
instruction (p. 56–58). This paper only focuses on the second theme with its specific micro-
level subthemes (priorities, instruction, strategies), presenting positive research findings (from
a selection of empirical and review studies) and analysing their implications for the L2
classroom in §2.1–§2.4.

2.1 Priorities in pronunciation teaching

Establishing priorities in pronunciation teaching is the first logical step in helping teachers
make research-informed decisions. This includes shedding light on issues such as foreign-
accented speech, gravity of pronunciation errors, effectiveness of pronunciation instruction,
and L2 identity (teacher and learner).
Results from research studies investigating foreign-accented speech show that L2 speech
can be accented, yet remain intelligible and comprehensible (Munro 2008). This is an important
insight because it supports the view that accent reduction should not be the goal of
pronunciation teaching and learning. Various linguistic aspects also play different roles when
it comes to processing L2 speech. For instance, Trofimovich and Isaacs (2012) identified that
accent is related to aspects of phonology (rhythm, segmental accuracy, and syllable structure
accuracy), while comprehensibility is related to grammatical accuracy and lexical richness.
Research has also pointed out that some but not all phonological errors cause
communication breakdowns, especially when L2 speakers use English as a lingua franca (ELF)
in NNS–NNS interactions. Jenkins (2000), for instance, defined the core phonological errors
as LFC (here presented in a simplified way): all consonants except /r/, /t/, /θ/, /ð/, [ł], aspiration,
fortis/lenis consonant distinction due to their effect on vowel length, consonant clusters (initial
not simplified; medial/final simplified), vowel length contrasts, nuclear stress placement, and
division of speech. Many authors immediately recognised the practical potential of LFC and
explored ways applying it in the classroom (e.g., Walker 2010). Even so, more important was
the conclusion that in such interactions intelligibility should be prioritised; hence the

124
 Kirkova-Naskova
Engaging research to empower teachers

recommendation that the goal of pronunciation teaching and learning is acquiring intelligible
speech (Levis, 2018; McAndrews & Thompson, 2017).
Understanding the impact of pronunciation instruction was also given meticulous attention
in research studies. Results show that pronunciation instruction is indeed effective and should
be integrated in coursebooks and in teacher training programs (see Darcy, 2018; Derwing &
Munro, 2005; Derwing & Rossiter, 2003; Jones, 2016; Lee et al., 2015; McGregor & Reed,
2018; Saito & Plonsky, 2019; Thomson & Derwing, 2015)
As for developing acceptable L2 identity, studies show that raising awareness of native and
non-native varieties should also be addressed in the classroom, preferably through comparison
and discussion. Teachers still see native accents as necessary reference models; on the positive
side, there is a wider awareness and acceptance of non-native accent diversity (Červinková
Poesová & Lancová, 2021).
To summarise, these findings have the following classroom implications:

• teachers should accept intelligible L1-accented pronunciation;

• teachers should create opportunities for NNS–NNS interaction practice;
• teachers should promote intelligibility and positive attitude to non-native accents;
• teachers should teach pronunciation as frequently as all other language skills in any
educational context regardless of learners’ age and proficiency level.

As simplified as they seem, implementing these aspects in the teaching practice might
require a change in teachers’ mentality, especially in terms of diverging from the nativeness
principle, but also in prioritising pronunciation when necessary over other language skills.
Valuable pronunciation practice time should not be systematically sacrificed for other language
skills to be practised.

2.2 Choices to make in pronunciation instruction

Giving priority to pronunciation instruction in the classroom implies that teachers make
instantaneous choices and decisions about: 1) the type of phonological feature their students
struggle with and which needs to be taught and practised; 2) the most appropriate type of
approach they should adopt; and 3) the types of techniques/activities they should choose in
order to practise specific pronunciation features. The implications of research findings related
to these aspects are discussed in §2.2.1, §2.2.2, and §2.2.3.

2.2.1 Type of phonological feature

Addressing learners’ pronunciation difficulties is a daunting task – teachers cannot attend to

every potential mispronunciation but have to decide which aspects of pronunciation are most
important and which ones should be tackled at a later stage. This challenge has been
acknowledged by research, especially when it comes to which should be taught first, segmental
or suprasegmental features. Research findings show that neither should be neglected or given
precedence. In fact, the overall conclusion is that it is important to address both segmental and
suprasegmental features at once (broad framework suggested), with prosodic features
(suprasegmentals) given priority over segmental features when aiming for general
improvement in oral communication (Derwing et al, 1998; Levis & Muller Levis, 2018).
Moreover, teachers should select phonological features for instruction and practice based on
their learners’ goals, L1 backgrounds, and proficiency levels (Saito, 2012).
A concept that has been revisited in empirical research with regard to its effects on listeners
is the Functional Load Principle (Brown, 1988; Catford, 1987), or ranking phonemic contrasts

125
 Kirkova-Naskova
Engaging research to empower teachers

according to their frequency and importance in English pronunciation. High functional load
errors largely affect comprehensibility and accentedness, whereas low functional load errors
have only minimal impact on comprehensibility (Munro & Derwing, 2006). In addition, errors
with high communicative value help listeners distinguish between low- and mid-level
proficiency learners, while errors with low communicative value help listeners distinguish
between mid- and high-level proficiency learners (Suzukida & Saito, 2022).
An aspect of pronunciation that has also been given prominence in research is the relevance
of connected speech. For example, Cauldwell (2013, 2018) advocates teaching learners how to
decode rapid informal spontaneous speech, emphasising that it should be the goal of learning
listening and that it can also help to improve oral fluency.
From a teacher’s perspective, these findings indicate the following classroom implications:

• teachers should address segmental and suprasegmental features in a balanced way;

• teachers should assess learners’ pronunciation and identify learners’ goals;
• teachers should focus on errors that impede communication more frequently;
• teachers should explain connected speech phenomena as an example of where good
listening skills can go hand-in-hand with pronunciation work.

To make effective use of these implications, teachers are expected to have a certain level of
phonological competence and knowledge of key concepts. It is assumed that they are
sufficiently trained and skilled to teach pronunciation.

2.2.2 Type of pronunciation instruction

In terms of what type of instruction is most effective, many attempts have been made to test
different approaches. For example, Saito and Plonsky (2019) conclude that explicit
pronunciation instruction at a controlled level allows teachers to explain detailed phonetic
information, which enables learners to notice and practise the accurate production of segments,
syllables, prosodic, and temporal features of speech in a careful manner. Saito (2012) shows
that Focus on Form (FonF) instruction in meaning-oriented communicative contexts enables
learners to improve both during controlled and spontaneous practice (meaning that these
learners can more easily generalise their knowledge), while Focus on Forms (FonFs)
instruction yields improvement only in controlled contexts (with focus on accuracy via
mechanical drills and choral repetition) and does not allow learners to transfer what they learnt
in the classroom to outside of the classroom. Such approaches develop perceptual and noticing
skills in learners, and these seem to be as necessary as practising L2 productive skills, i.e.,
perception-based pronunciation instruction is equally important as production-based
instruction (Lee et al., 2020).
Concerning the communicative focus of L2 pronunciation, it has been shown, for instance,
that regardless of whether task-based pronunciation teaching directs attention either to form or
to meaning (depending on the task instructions), it leads to better accuracy in the long run (e.g.,
Mora & Levkina, 2017). Within the discourse-pragmatic approach (Pickering, 2018), findings
show that intonation (pauses, prominence, pitch) is easier to understand through discourse
contexts as opposed to isolated or partial utterances. Levis (2018) argues that in both ESL and
EFL contexts the intelligibility-based teaching approach (i.e., focus on pronunciation features
that affect intelligibility) is more appropriate.
These findings are particularly relevant for guiding teachers’ choices as they reflect on the
following classroom implications:

126
 Kirkova-Naskova
Engaging research to empower teachers

• teachers should be able to explain the sound system in detail but with simple language
appropriate to their learners’ age and proficiency level;
• teachers should vary activity types between controlled and communicative;
• teachers should work on both speech perception and speech production;
• teachers should integrate pronunciation through task- and project-based activities;
• teachers should work on pronunciation at both utterance and discourse level.

Perhaps these implications, if regularly implemented into the teaching practice, will seem
to impose a heavy burden onto teachers’ otherwise busy professional lives. They might need
to develop skills such as being resourceful, being creative with developing materials, and
becoming efficient time managers.

2.2.3 Type of pronunciation teaching technique

The effectiveness of various pronunciation teaching techniques has also been investigated,
because not all activities which are often recommended in coursebooks and practice resources
give favourable results and thus valuable classroom time may be wasted on them. One such
activity that has proven most beneficial is High Variability Phonetic1 Training (HVPT).
Research has shown that HVPT used with nonwords and real words is effective and results in
long-lasting improvement in learners’ pronunciation (Ortega et al., 2021; Thomson, 2018).
Another activity frequently employed in the classroom is the use of phonemic symbols or
keywords to focus on segmental differences. Both serve as effective reference labels for
developing and consolidating perceptual sound categories, as shown by Fouz-González and
Mompeán (2021).
The usefulness of critical listening has been confirmed, in terms of raising learners’
awareness of acceptable vs. unacceptable L2 speech (Couper, 2011). Its benefits are especially
enhanced if oral corrective feedback is provided in the form of reformulations (recasts and
explicit correction) and prompts for self-repair (elicitation, metalinguistic clues, clarification
requests, repetitions) – strategies which are favoured by learners (Lyster et al., 2013).
The potential use of technology for teaching and learning pronunciation has also been
examined. Research shows that technology-based activities such as shadowing (Foote &
McDonough, 2017) or Automated Speech Recognition (ASR) dictation (McCrocklin et al.,
2019), to name but a few, improve learners’ comprehensibility and fluency and promote
authentic language use.
In sum, such findings lead to the following classroom implications:

• teachers should use HVPT to enhance L2 sound discrimination;

• teachers should teach phonemic symbols to develop sound-to-symbol connections;
• teachers should record and analyse learners’ speech and give corrective feedback
frequently;
• teachers should integrate the use of online tools and resources, both in the classroom
and for self-learning.

To use these activities with learners , teachers are expected to first understand their benefits,
then familiarise themselves with step-by-step procedures, and finally employ them regularly in
L2 lessons.

1
The term ‘phonetic’ in HVPT is sometimes optionally replaced by ‘pronunciation’ (see Thomson, 2018) or
‘perceptual’ (see Qian et al., 2018).

127
 Kirkova-Naskova
Engaging research to empower teachers

2.3 Pronunciation strategies

Another avenue of research has considered the effectiveness of pronunciation strategy use. For
instance, Osbourne (2003) concluded that advanced ESOL learners employ self-monitoring
strategies to repair their mispronunciations by using imitation, paralanguage (speed, volume,
clarity), voice quality settings, and by focusing on individual sounds/clusters or syllable/words,
and on prosodic structure. Other studies show that high- and low-achieving learners use
different pronunciation learning strategies (PLSs) and these differ depending on the task
(Szyszka, 2021). Szyszka (2021) noted that the most frequently used PLSs by both groups of
learners were checking pronunciation in the dictionary and reading words and texts aloud.
Sardegna (2022) conducted a strategy-based instruction and tested its efficacy. She found out
that such instruction promotes learner autonomy and self-regulated learning – learners trained
to use pronunciation strategy protocols demonstrated: a) greater success when they practised
frequently; b) higher motivation to continue practising after instruction ended; and c) a high
sense of self-efficacy.
With obvious learning potential, these findings suggest the following classroom
implications:

• teachers should train learners to use various pronunciation learning strategies;

• teachers should teach their learners to use self-monitoring strategies;
• teachers should encourage autonomous learning.

Familiarising their learners with pronunciation learning and self-monitoring strategies may
be far from a simple task – it might, in fact, require devoting class time to train learners in the
appropriate use of strategies.

2.4 The reality clash: Teacher and learner challenges

Recent calls for more research-informed pronunciation practice (e.g., Derwing & Munro, 2015;
Pennington & Rogerson-Revell, 2019) and the ensuing re-evaluation of the research-practice
link have brought to light a frustrating state of affairs: even with such a wealth of findings, the
connections between L2 pronunciation research and L2 pronunciation teaching have become
more blurred, with “many interesting studies today [that] do not have clear implications for
teaching, and many practically oriented publications [that] show minor grounding in research”
(Levis, 2021, p. 18). In addition, research into L2 pronunciation has continued to advance with
impressive strides, while at the same time, there are few observable improvements in
developing and adapting teaching materials (in the form of publications, e.g., Jones, 2016; or
in the form of online resources, e.g., English Accent Coach 3.0 by Thomson, 2012–20232). In
other words, pedagogy is failing to keep pace with research progress.
Despite the latest attempts to narrow this gap by promoting publications that devote special
sections to practical applications of key research findings (e.g., Kirkova-Naskova et al, 2021;
Levis et al., 2022; Sardegna & Jarosz, 2023), pronunciation is still marginalised in the
classroom and teachers are left to rely on their own intuitions and experiences as L2 learners.
They struggle with real challenges (see Figure 1), including: a) difficulty grasping re-defined
concepts such as intelligibility, comprehensibility, and accent; b) dilemmas on which approach
to adopt given that there are so many (conflicting) ideas and techniques; c) a lack of
competence on how to integrate pronunciation features in general English lessons; d) not
knowing how to adapt materials to learners of different proficiency levels and ages; e) a lack

2
https://www.englishaccentcoach.com/

128
 Kirkova-Naskova
Engaging research to empower teachers

of self-assurance on how to assess their learners’ pronunciation; f) being uncertain about how
to give feedback on their learners’ pronunciation goals, given their varied linguistic experience
and developing L2 identities; and g) inability to cope with a lack of time.

Figure 1

Challenges Teachers Face

Another angle that needs to be considered is that applying research findings in the teaching
practice is not always straightforward, for example, the LFC and intelligibility. From teachers’
perspective, LFC was interpreted as a set of features that should be the only focus of
pronunciation instruction and was widely accepted by teachers as the much-needed tool that
would provide that quick fix to all problems. In fact, the LFC only lists the phonological errors
that are most likely to occur and cause misunderstanding when NNS of various L1 backgrounds
interact. It does not mean that all features are problematic for a given group of learners that
share the same L1. From learners’ perspective, the LFC diminished the importance of
practising pronunciation. Unless properly trained, learners do not easily comprehend the
complexity of the intelligibility concept and thus interpret the LFC and being intelligible as a
free pass to use ‘whatever’ pronunciation. As a result of such extremes, neither improvement
nor successful implementation are achieved, leaving teachers and learners struggling with L2
pronunciation issues. It seems that putting research-based classroom implications into effect,
as suggested in our analysis in §2.1–§2.3, is not a simple undertaking and demands teachers
devote substantial effort to familiarising themselves with current research findings and, maybe
more vitally, being creative and motivated to try out new ideas.

129
 Kirkova-Naskova
Engaging research to empower teachers

3 A case in point: Teachers’ views on their pronunciation teaching practices

3.1 Aims and a research question

In a larger on-going study, I am investigating teachers’ views on their formal pronunciation

instruction and current teaching practices. More specifically, the study explores: a) their
reflections on the relevance of pronunciation vis-à-vis nativeness/intelligibility principle; b)
their knowledge of the English sound system prior to university; c) their views on the formal
pronunciation instruction they received during their English Phonetics and Phonology
undergraduate course; d) the type of teacher training they received for teaching pronunciation;
and e) their current pronunciation teaching practices. The analysis presented below focuses on
the last section only, i.e., their practical experience with teaching pronunciation, addressing the
following research question:

RQ: What kind of practices do teachers employ when they teach pronunciation with
reference to: frequency of teaching; type of approach used; pronunciation
features taught; pronunciation activities used; and type of corrective feedback
given?

3.2 Participants, instruments and data analysis

Twenty-nine Macedonian teachers of English as a foreign language (F = 23; M = 6) had

participated in the study by April 2022. Their age ranges from 24–39 years old and their
teaching experience from 2–16 years. They work in varied teaching contexts: a) in state
schools (elementary and high); b) in private language schools (all levels); and c) a private
international school (elementary, middle, high). Qualitative data was elicited through semi-
structured interviews and then analysed with thematic category analysis. The participants were
coded MK01–MK29 for anonymity.

3.3 Preliminary results

At the beginning of the interviews, the participants were asked about their impressionistic view
on teaching pronunciation, in particular, whether they find it necessary to teach and whether
they find it teachable at all. All participants (n = 29) gave favourable responses to both
questions, indicating that they regarded pronunciation as a relevant language skill.
However, when asked how much class time on average they spent on teaching pronunciation
features, most of them replied that they sporadically address pronunciation in class (n = 13)
and a few responded that they regularly address pronunciation, especially with young learners
(n = 4). The rest of the participants specified the approximate time they usually spend on
pronunciation issues (n = 11), with 10 minutes on average. Those who mentioned that they do
not pay enough attention to pronunciation gave the following reasons: lack of time (n = 5) and
pronunciation not being addressed in the national curriculum (just one mention), therefore, not
being required to assess it (n = 3). The following remark by one participant best exemplifies
this viewpoint:

… Pronunciation is one of the most important elements of language learning but it's been
really neglected by us as teachers. First of all, because we don't want our students to feel
down if we correct them all the time about their pronunciation. Second, our pronunciation
is not as good as it should be I think, and third, the curriculum does not give us enough space

130
 Kirkova-Naskova
Engaging research to empower teachers

to teach pronunciation. We teach grammar, we teach reading, we teach writing, we teach

listening, but, teaching pronunciation is not accentuated in the programs. (MK05)

When pronunciation is addressed in the classroom, it is rarely addressed separately, e.g., a

whole lesson being devoted to explaining and practising pronunciation features (n = 5); it is
typically integrated in the L2 lesson (n = 24). This is mostly done when new vocabulary is
introduced (accurate pronunciation presented), when speaking is practised (mispronunciations
corrected), when reading is practised (mispronunciations corrected), or when listening is
practised (the focus being more on listening comprehension exercises in the coursebook than
discriminating sounds in speech). Apparently, they do not systematically teach pronunciation
and barely mention pronunciation aspects; the presentation of various pronunciation features
is rather unplanned. Only a selection of features are taught, predominantly word stress, then
vowels (long vs. short, /æ – e/), diphthongs, consonants (mainly /θ, ð, t, d/, i.e., consonants that
are difficult for Macedonian learners of English), intonation patterns (e.g., in tag questions or
the meaning of rising and/or falling tones), and the pronunciation of <-s> and <-ed>. Phonemic
symbols and letter-to-sound connections are seldom taught, as well as syllable division. It was
interesting to notice from their responses that they frequently used the term understandable to
mean intelligible and/or comprehensible.
The type of pronunciation activities that are practised is varied. When the focus is on specific
speech sounds, the activities are more controlled and include elicited imitation (listen and
repeat), individual sound identification/categorisation, minimal pairs for sound discrimination,
reading-aloud, dictation with phonemic symbols, and tongue twisters. When the aim is to make
the lesson more interactive and fun, then communicative activities are practised, such as games,
quizzes, and dialogues in the form of role-plays (not necessarily with a strong focus on
pronunciation practice). One participant mentioned organising a debate club and mock trial
courts (MK06), and another a drama studio (MK24) – these teachers use such activities to
address pronunciation issues in context. Several teachers sometimes use activities from a
coursebook (n = 13), few create materials or use other resources in addition to the coursebook
activities (n = 7), and some do not even have coursebooks, as in some schools teachers are
required to create their own materials and do not use coursebooks at all (n = 9). Those teachers
who use coursebooks but do not practise pronunciation activities in the coursebook, reported
that they do so because it is not required in the curriculum. Several teachers (n = 10) make use
of resources that are incidentally found online and the online resources they select are chosen
in relation to their learners’ age, including short stories, songs, listening activities, interactive
minimal pair activities, etc. Many teachers (n = 16) consult specific sites, for instance,
Kahoot!3, online dictionaries, Live Worksheets4, slam poetry websites – to name a few. One
teacher (MK23) reported that when she noticed that her learners struggled with a particular
pronunciation aspect, she would consult specialised teacher development sites; it is important
to point out here that this teacher enjoys institutional support in this respect (the institution
covers the subscription cost but this is only the case in the private international schools). Three
teachers reported not using online resources at all.
With respect to the ways they correct their learners’ pronunciation, the responses were
mixed. In general, the teachers use reformulations (predominantly explicit correction,
occasionally recasts) and prompts for self-repair (mainly repetition). Corrective feedback is
given mostly individually and immediately when the mistake is made. Some teachers prefer
giving delayed feedback (they wait for the learners to finish the task and then they clarify the

3
Kahoot! https://kahoot.com/
4
Life Worksheets https://www.liveworksheets.com/

131
 Kirkova-Naskova
Engaging research to empower teachers

mispronunciation either to the learner who made the mistake or as a general correction in front
of the whole group).
During the interviews teachers made unsolicited remarks: the majority reported forgetting
core pronunciation knowledge (phonetic/phonological rules). With this weakness in mind, they
observed that they would benefit from specialised courses for teaching pronunciation. Such
incidental findings ring alarm bells about teachers’ self-identified needs for systemic guidance
and opportunities for continuing professional development.
These preliminary results reveal some of what actually goes on in classrooms and provide
insight into an important aspect that has received little attention in research: genuinely
understanding classroom reality – a reality that assumes increased workload, limited resources,
and a lack of autonomy and self-confidence (see Figure 2). Such a constraining professional
context inevitably leads to teachers being discouraged to engage in teaching pronunciation and
who, in truth, need support to navigate the personal and institutional challenges. They also need
to be encouraged to address pronunciation issues in their teaching more frequently.

Figure 2

Professional Contextual Constraints Discouraging Teachers from Engaging to Teach

Pronunciation

4 Discussion

The findings presented in this analysis at least hint that perhaps one way of addressing teachers’
discouragement with regard to teaching pronunciation is to have researchers understand their
harsh reality and make their research more accessible and comprehensive – research should
empower teachers to develop a proactive approach to teaching pronunciation rather than a
reactive one. The ideal teacher profile is a competent teacher who is trained to teach
pronunciation and informed about the latest research evidence of what is effective. Equally
important, teachers should be skilled and confident to make more spontaneous decisions in the
classroom. This is, of course, easier said than done, but it is in truth achievable. Instead of

132
 Kirkova-Naskova
Engaging research to empower teachers

overwhelming teachers with a profusion of theoretical information, recommendations could be

made on how to take small steps of action. For instance, it is paramount that teachers be
equipped with a reasonable phonological know-how on which they can build their teaching
practice. Table 1 shows initial recommendations on how a teacher who is assumed to know
little about pronunciation teaching or feels discouraged about it might enhance their
competence and classroom routines over time.

Table 1

Approaching Pronunciation Teaching in the Classroom

Having the know-how Noticing the problem Addressing the problem

• Inform yourself about the • Observe your classroom • Foster intelligible

L2 sound system. context and start with one pronunciation for
• Do a diagnostic assessment pronunciation activity communication.
of your students’ speech. (research-grounded). • Encourage autonomous
• See what works best for learning and use of online
your students and build on resources.
that experience.

It is important to highlight that providing support, collaborating, and partnering are key
elements for nurturing a successful approach to pronunciation teaching.
In terms of the circulation of information, new knowledge needs to be regularly
disseminated and shared through various fora and publications. A perfect example of a
successful connection between research and practice are teachers’ associations. In particular,
the following deserve a special mention: the IATEFL Pronunciation Special Interest Group
(PronSIG), the TESOL Speech Pronunciation Listening Interest Section (SPLIS), and the
CATESOL Teaching of Pronunciation Interest group (TOP-IG).5 These associations boast a
community of enthusiasts who are active researchers and practitioners and who regularly
organise conferences and online webinars (both theoretical and practical), share professional
development content, publish their own journals6, as well as share pronunciation-related
teaching tips via podcasts, blogs, and social media reels. Furthermore, other good practices are
promoted via various platforms where resources for teachers and learners are available such as
(among others): Speech Accent Coach7 for practising L2 perception through HVPT exercises;
task banks, e.g., TBLT Language Learning Task Bank8; SLA Speech Tools9 website, which
offers a variety of tools for research and teaching; PhoTransEdit10 application for practising

5
IATEFL Pronunciation Special Interest Group – PronSIG https://pronsig.iatefl.org/
TESOL Speech Pronunciation Listening Interest Section – SPLIS https://www.tesol.org/
CATESOL TOP-IG: Teaching of Pronunciation Interest group https://www.catesol.org/
6
Speak Out! https://pronsig.iatefl.org/journal/
TESOL Quarterly https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15457249)
The CATESOL Journal http://www.catesoljournal.org/
7
https://www.englishaccentcoach.com/
8
https://tblt.indiana.edu/tasks/details.html?id=73
9
http://sla-speech-tools.com/
10
http://www.photransedit.com/

133
 Kirkova-Naskova
Engaging research to empower teachers

phonemic transcription, etc. Recently, publications with a specific focus on enhancing

teachers’ pronunciation knowledge – Liu et al. (2023) being a notable example – have captured
publishers’ attention. Practically-oriented publications with detailed descriptions of courses
with an integrated pronunciation component (Murphy, 2017) have also been available on the
market. These are examples of already successful practices that should continue to be
encouraged.
These achievements – in creating communities and resources – could be combined in an all-
inclusive multi-content platform that would serve as a reference point for researchers, teachers,
and learners. Such a platform – call it a Pronunciation Core - could serve as a medium for
teaching and learning English pronunciation. It would aim to provide professional help to
English language teachers by joining the two worlds of research and practice and narrowing
the existing gap, where ideas and practical suggestions based on research findings could be
offered, thus assisting teachers in making research-informed decisions and improving their
teaching practices. These recommendations could be written in non-technical, simple language
so that they address pre-service and in-service teachers’ immediate needs. The platform would
be an ideal spot where various points of interests could intersect: a) concepts explained; b)
research updates and practical implications shared; c) useful links and resources for the
classroom linked; d) typical features of diverse native and non-native accents described; e)
professional development instructional videos uploaded; f) social media networks built; etc.
Finally, one aspect that begs for urgent action is opening a conversation between researchers
and teachers, on the one hand, and coursework developers on the other. It is crucial that
pronunciation as a language skill is given equal treatment in published teaching materials. After
all, pronunciation should not be treated as an optional element in the classroom – it needs to be
part of every lesson so that teachers can accommodate to their learners’ needs.

5 Conclusion

This chapter examines aspects of the on-going debate on how to link pronunciation research
and practice. It evaluates effective research findings related to important pronunciation issues,
which pedagogy needs to take into consideration. It also considers their implications in the L2
classroom, especially from teachers’ point of view, and discusses the challenges they face in
their professional lives. In doing so, the paper has a two-fold aim: to invite researchers to reflect
on how they see pedagogy and to redefine how teachers approach research.
Future endeavours will reveal whether value-added relations are developed between these
two communities, who do not always have overlapping roles. Just as much as teachers need
support, in the form of highlighted research results and their incorporation into hands-on
materials, researchers also need directions from teachers as to which pedagogical issues are
more pressing and should be brought to their attention. Undoubtedly, more research should be
focused on innovation and practical application in designing actual output resources that can
be applied in the classroom. In addition, teachers should reflect on their teaching practice and
context in light of current research findings, so that they can inform themselves, build on their
existing knowledge, and strengthen their confidence to teach pronunciation. Such an approach
is useful in the long run and will empower teachers to make more spontaneous decisions in the
classroom about what and how to teach. In this way, they will be better able to help their
learners reach their goals. By bringing in a reasonable amount of structure, and affording
teachers enough opportunities for autonomous action, feelings of discouragement about
teaching pronunciation could be minimised and better practices could be promoted and
developed.

134
 Kirkova-Naskova
Engaging research to empower teachers

References

Brown, A. (1988). Functional load and the teaching of pronunciation. TESOL Quarterly, 22(4), 593–
606.
Catford, J. C. (1987). Phonetics and the teaching of pronunciation: A systematic description of English
phonology. In J. Morley (Ed.), Current perspectives on pronunciation: Practices anchored in theory
(pp. 87–100). TESOL.
Cauldwell, R. (2013). Phonology for listening: Teaching the stream of speech. Speech in Action.
Cauldwell, R. (2018). A syllabus for listening: Decoding. Speech in Action.
Celce-Murcia, M., Brinton, D., & Goodwin, J. M. (2010). Teaching pronunciation: A course book and
reference guide (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Couper, G. (2011). What makes pronunciation teaching work? Testing for the effect of two variables:
Socially constructed metalanguage and critical listening. Language Awareness, 20(3), 159–182.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09658416.2011.570347
Červinková Poesová, K., & Lancová, K. (2021). In A. Kirkova-Naskova, A. Henderson, & J. Fouz-
González (Eds.), English pronunciation instruction: Research-based insights (pp. 91–117). John
Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/aals.19.05cer
Darcy, I. (2018). Powerful and effective pronunciation instruction: How can we achieve it? The
CATESOL Journal, 30(1), 13–45. http://www.catesoljournal.org/wp-
content/uploads/2018/03/CJ30.1_darcy.pdf
Derwing, T. M., & Munro, M. J. (2005). Second language accent and pronunciation teaching: A
research-based approach. TESOL Quarterly, 39(3), 379–397. https://doi.org/10.2307/3588486
Derwing, T. M., & Munro, M. J. (2015). Pronunciation fundamentals: Evidence-based perspectives
for L2 teaching and research. John Benjamins.
Derwing, T. M., & Rossiter, M. J. (2003). The effects of pronunciation instruction on the accuracy,
fluency and complexity of L2 accented speech. Applied Language Learning, 13(1), 1–17.
Derwing, T. M., Munro, M. J., & Wiebe, G. (1998). Evidence in favour of a broad framework for
pronunciation instruction. Language Learning, 48(3), 393–410. https://doi.org/10.1111/0023-
8333.00047
Foote, J. A, & McDonough, K. (2017). Using shadowing with mobile technology to improve L2
pronunciation. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation, 3(1), 34–56.
https://doi.org/10.1075/jslp.3.1.02foo
Foote, J. A., Holtby, A. K., & Derwing, T. M. (2011). Survey of the teaching of pronunciation in adult
ESL programs in Canada, 2010. TESL Canada Journal, 29(1), 1–22.
https://doi.org/10.18806/tesl.v29i1.1086
Fouz-González, J., & Mompeán, J. A. (2021). Exploring the potential of phonetic symbols and
keywords as labels for perceptual training. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 43(2), 297–328.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263120000455
Henderson, A., Frost, D., Tergujeff, E., Kautzsch, A., Murphy, D., Kirkova-Naskova, A., Waniek-
Klimczak, E., Levey, D., Cunningham, U., & Curnick, L. (2012). English pronunciation teaching in
Europe survey: Selected results. Research in Language, 10, 5–27. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10015-
011-0047-4
Jenkins, J. (2000). The phonology of English as an international language. Oxford University Press.
Jones, T. (2016). Pronunciation in the classroom: The overlooked essential. TESOL Press.
Kirkova-Naskova, A., Henderson, A., & Fouz-González, J. (Eds.). (2021). English pronunciation
instruction: Research-based insights. John Benjamins.
Lee, J., Jang, J., & Plonsky, L. (2015). The effectiveness of second language pronunciation instruction:
A meta-analysis. Applied Linguistics, 36(3), 345–366. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amu040
Lee, B., Plonsky, L., & Saito, K. (2020). The effects of perception- vs. production-based pronunciation
instruction. System, 88, 102185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2019.102185
Levis, J. M. (2005). Changing contexts and shifting paradigms in pronunciation teaching. TESOL
Quarterly, 39(3), 369–377.
Levis, J. M. (2018). Intelligibility, oral communication, and the teaching of pronunciation. Cambridge
University Press.

135
 Kirkova-Naskova
Engaging research to empower teachers

Levis, J. M. (2021). Connecting the dots between pronunciation research and practice. In A. Kirkova-
Naskova, A. Henderson, & J. Fouz-González (Eds.), English pronunciation instruction: Research-
based insights (pp. 17–37). John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/aals.19.02lev
Levis, J. M., & Muller Levis, G. (2018). Teaching high-value pronunciation features: Contrastive stress
for intermediate learners. CATESOL Journal, 30(1), 139–160. http://www.catesoljournal.org/wp-
content/uploads/2018/03/CJ30.1_levis2.pdf
Levis, J. M., Derwing, T. M., & Sonsaat-Hegelheimer, S. (Eds.). (2022). Second language
pronunciation: Bridging the gap between research and teaching. Wiley Blackwell.
Lippi-Green, R. (1997). English with an accent: Language, ideology, and discrimination in the United
States. Routledge.
Liu, D., Jones, T., & Reed, M. (2023). Phonetics in language teaching. Cambridge University Press.
Lyster, R., Saito, K., & Sato, M. (2013). Oral corrective feedback in second language classrooms.
Language Teaching, 46(1), 1–40. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444812000365
Macdonald, S. (2002). Pronunciation – Views and practices of reluctant teachers. Prospect, 17(3), 3–
18. http://www.ameprc.mq.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/230061/17_3_1_MacDonald.pdf
McAndrews, M. M., & Thompson, R. (2017). Establishing an empirical basis for priorities in
pronunciation teaching. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation, 3(2), 267–287.
https://doi.org/10.1075/jslp.3.2.05mca
McCrocklin, S., Humaidan, A., & Edalatishams, E. (2019). ASR dictation program accuracy: Have
current programs improved? In J. Levis, C. Nagle, & E. Todey (Eds.), Proceedings of the 10th
Pronunciation in Second Language Learning and Teaching Conference (pp. 191–200). Iowa State
University. https://apling.engl.iastate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/221/2019/07/10th-Annual-
PSLLT-Proceedings-FINAL.pdf
McGregor, A., & Reed, M. (2018). Integrating pronunciation into the English language curriculum: A
framework for teachers. The CATESOL Journal, 30(1), 69–93. http://www.catesoljournal.org/wp-
content/uploads/2018/03/CJ30.1_mcgregor.pdf
Mora, J. C., & Levkina, M. (2017). Task-based pronunciation teaching and research: Key issues and
future directions. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 39(2), 381–
399. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263117000183
Munro, M. (2008). Foreign accent and speech intelligibility. In J. Hansen & M. L. Zampini (Eds.),
Phonology and second language acquisition (pp. 193–218). John Benjamins.
Munro, M. J., & Derwing, T. M. (1995). Foreign accent, comprehensibility and intelligibility in the
speech of second language learners. Language Learning, 45, 73–97. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-
1770.1995.tb00963.x
Munro, M. J., & Derwing, T. M. (2006). The functional load principle in ESL pronunciation instruction:
An exploratory study. System, 34(4), 520–531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2006.09.004
Murphy, J. (2017). Teaching the pronunciation of English: Focus on whole courses. University of
Michigan Press.
Murphy, J., & Baker, A. (2019). History of ESL pronunciation teaching. In M. Reed & J. M. Levis
(Eds.), The handbook of English pronunciation (pp. 36–65). Wiley Blackwell.
Ortega, M., Mora-Plaza, I., & Mora, J. C. (2021). Differential effects of lexical and non-lexical high-
variability phonetic training on the production of L2 vowels. In A. Kirkova-Naskova, A. Henderson,
& J. Fouz-González (Eds.), English pronunciation instruction: Research-based insights (pp. 327–
355). John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/aals.19.14ort
Osburne, A. G. (2003). Pronunciation strategies of advanced ESOL learners. International Review of
Applied Linguistics, 41, 131–143. https://doi.org/10.1515/iral.2003.005
Pennington, M. C., & Rogerson-Revell, P. (2019). English pronunciation teaching and research:
Contemporary perspectives. Palgrave Macmillan.
Pickering, L. (2018). Discourse intonation: A discourse-pragmatic approach to teaching the
pronunciation of English. University of Michigan Press.
Piper, T., & Cansin, D. (1988). Factors influencing the foreign accent. The Canadian Modern Language
Review, 44(2), 334–342. https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.44.2.334
Piske, T., MacKay, I., & Flege, J. (2001). Factors affecting degree of foreign accent in an L2: A review.
Journal of Phonetics, 29, 191–215. https://doi.org/10.1006/jpho.2001.0134

136
 Kirkova-Naskova
Engaging research to empower teachers

Purcell, E. T., & Suter, R.W. (1980). Predictors of pronunciation accuracy: A reexamination. Language
Learning, 30, 271–287. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1980.tb00319.x
Quian, M., Chukharev-Hudilainen, E., & Levis, J. (2018). A system for adaptive high-variability
segmental perceptual training: Implementation, effectiveness, transfer. Language Learning &
Technology, 22(1), 69–96. https://dx.doi.org/10125/44582
Saito, K. (2012). Effects of instruction on L2 pronunciation development: A synthesis of 15 quasi-
experimental intervention studies. TESOL Quarterly, 46(4), 842–854.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/43267893
Saito, K., & Plonsky, L. (2019). Effects of second language pronunciation teaching revisited: A
proposed measurement framework and meta-analysis. Language Learning, 69, 652–
708. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12345
Sardegna, V. G. (2022). Evidence in favour of a strategy-based model for pronunciation instruction.
Language Teaching, 55(3), 363–378. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444821000380
Sardegna, V., & Jarosz, A. (Eds.) (2023). English pronunciation teaching: Theory, practice and
research findings. Multilingual Matters.
Suzukida, Y., & Saito, K. (2022). What is second language pronunciation proficiency? An empirical
study. System, 106, 102754. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2022.102754
Szyszka, M. (2021). Pronunciation-learning strategies: A task-based perspective. In A. Kirkova-
Naskova, A. Henderson, & J. Fouz-González (Eds.), English pronunciation instruction: Research-
based insights (pp. 147–171). John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/aals.19.07szy
Thomson, R. (2018). High Variability [Pronunciation] Training (HVPT): A proven technique about
which every language teacher and learner ought to know. Journal of Second Language
Pronunciation, 4(2), 208–231. https://doi.org/10.1075/jslp.17038.tho
Thomson, R., & Derwing, T. M. (2015). The effectiveness of L2 pronunciation instruction: A narrative
review. Applied Linguistics, 36(3), 326–344. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amu076
Trofimovich, P., & Isaacs, T. (2012). Disentangling accent from comprehensibility. Bilingualism:
Language and Cognition, 15(4), 905–916. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728912000168
Walker, R. (2010). Teaching the pronunciation of English as a lingua franca. Oxford University Press.

About the author

Anastazija Kirkova-Naskova is an Associate Professor in English phonetics and morphology

in the Department of English Language and Literature, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in
Skopje, North Macedonia. She also teaches research methodology (MA level). Her research
interests include English pronunciation teaching and learning, foreign-accented speech, speech
perception, pronunciation learning strategies, and teacher cognition. Together with Alice
Henderson and Jonás Fouz-González, she co-edited English pronunciation instruction:
Research-based insights (John Benjamins, 2021). She was an assistant editor-in-chief for The
Journal of Contemporary Philology.

Email: akirkova@flf.ukim.edu.mk

137