Laboratory # 2:

RESISTORS IN SERIES, IN PARALLEL AND BOTH

COMBINATIONS:

• Series circuits
A series circuit is a circuit in which resistors are arranged in a chain, so the current
has only one path to take. The current is the same through each resistor. The total
resistance of the circuit is found by simply adding up the resistance values of the
individual resistors: Equivalent resistance of resistors in series: R = R1 + R2 + R3 +...

• Parallel circuits
A parallel circuit is a circuit in which the resistors are arranged with their heads
connected together, and their tails connected together. The current in a parallel
circuit breaks up, with some flowing along each parallel branch and re-
combining when the branches meet again. The voltage across each resistor in
parallel is the same. The total resistance of a set of resistors in parallel is found
by adding up the reciprocals of the resistance values, and then taking the
𝟏 𝟏
reciprocal of the total: Equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel: 𝑹 = 𝑹𝟏 +
𝟏 𝟏
+ 𝑹𝟑 +...
𝑹𝟐

• Most electronic circuits consist of combination of series and parallel circuits

called seriesparallel circuits. When dealing with these circuits it is necessary to
reduce each combinationt an equivalent resistance. These are then added to the
series elements in the circuit todetermine the total resistance
 • To study series, parallel and series -parallel circuit connection of the
resistors in an electrical circuit.
• Determination of equivalent resistance of a series, parallel and series
parallel circuit and to verify the result by theoretical calculation.

• Resistors different value

• Circuit construction board
• Digital Multimeter
• Connecting wires

Construct the series circuit shown in the following figures

R1 R2 R3
FIGURE A

R1 R2 R3 R4
FIGURE B

a. Calculate the circuit’s total resistance (RT) and record in a proper table.
b. Measure the circuit’s resistance and record in the same table.
c. Calculate the percentage difference b/n calculated and measured values of RT
and record in
the same table. Show your calculation.
d. Remove the components for the circuit in figure a from your board and
construct the series
circuit shown in figure b.
e. Repeat steps a-c above

solution

Fig 1
RT=R1+R2+R3
𝑅𝑇 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑−𝑅𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
%𝑣 = × 100%
𝑅𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
R1 R2 R3 RTcalculated RTmeasured %Difference
2175k 1496K 6770K 10441K 10420K 0.201%
Fig 2
RT=R1+R2+R3+R4
𝑅𝑇 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑−𝑅𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
%𝑣 = × 100%
𝑅𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

R1 R2 R3 R4 RTcalculated RTmeasured %Difference

2175K 1496K 6770K 330.8K 10771K 10750K 0.202%

1. Construct the parallel circuit shown in figure

Fig 1
Fig 2
2. Calculate the circuit’s total resistance (RT) and record in the proper table.
Show your calculation.
3. Measure the circuit’s resistance and record in the same table.
4. Calculate the percentage difference between calculated and measured values
or RT and record in the same table. Show your calculation.
𝑅𝑇 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑−𝑅𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
%𝑣 = × 100%
𝑅𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

5. Remove circuit figure 1 from your board and construct the parallel circuit
shown in figure 2.
6. Repeat steps 2-4 above
Solution
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Fig 1 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝑻

𝑅𝑇 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑−𝑅𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
%𝑣 = × 100%
𝑅𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

R1 R2 R3 RTcalculated RTmeasured %Difference

2175K 1496K 6770 781K 784K 0.38%

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Fig 2 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + 𝑹𝟒
𝑹𝑻𝒕

𝑅𝑇 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑−𝑅𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
%𝑣 = × 100%
𝑅𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

R1 R2 R3 R4 RTcalculated RTmeasured %Difference

2175K 1496K 6770K 330.8 232.4K 232.7 0.13%
1. Construct the serious parallel circuit as shown below figure

2. Calculate the equivalent resistance at each junction in figure a. and record the
result in the appropriate columns in data table 2.1. Calculate also the total
resistance and record in the
same data table. Show your calculations.
3. Measure the equivalent resistance at each junction and the total circuit
resistance for figure a and record in the appropriate columns in data table 2.1.
4. Calculate the difference between the measured and calculated values.

Circuit junction R calculated R measured %diff

Series branch A-B
C-D
E-F
Parallel branch A-B 0.7115 MΩ 0.713 MΩ
C-D 1.2707 MΩ 1.271 MΩ
E-F 2.7617 MΩ 2.765 MΩ

1. What do you understand from the above experiments?

2. If you want to get the smallest resultant resistance from two or more
resistances,
which type of connection, do you choose?
3. If you want to get the largest resultant resistance from two or more resistances,
which type of connection, do you choose?
4. Describe the advantage & disadvantage of series connection.
5. Describe the advantage & disadvantage of paralle1 connection.
6. Is the real world load purely series, parallel or series-parallel type
Before lab 4 lets see short and open circuits

Open and short circuits

An open circuit is simply two isolated terminals not connected by an element of
any kind, as shown in fig. below
associated with an open
circuit must always be zero

terminals, but the current is always zero amperes.

IR3 = 0A
 VR3 =0V

A short circuit is a very low resistance, direct connection between twoterminals of

a network, as shown in Fig.below
 A short circuit happens when a low-resistance path forms unintentionally,
allowing excessive current to flow. This can cause a significant drop in voltage across
other components and can lead to overheating or damage.

it is connected too.

resistance of the short circuit is assumed to be essentially zero ohms and

V= IR = I (0Ω) = 0V

VR2 =0V

EXAMPLE:

VR1 = 0V
VR5 = 0V

Summary of Voltage and Current

o In an open circuit:Current: Zero (no flow)

o Voltage: Equal to the supply voltage across the open points.

In a short circuit:

o Current: Excessively high (limited only by the power source and

internal resistance)
o Voltage: Drops across the load (like a light bulb) to zero.

Understanding these concepts helps in troubleshooting and designing safe electrical

systems.
 conclusion

In conclusion, open and short circuits significantly impact current and voltage in
electrical systems. An open circuit, characterized by a break in the conductive
path, results in zero current flow and maintains the voltage across the open
points, effectively preventing any energy transfer. In contrast, a short circuit
creates a low-resistance path that allows excessive current to flow, often leading
to voltage drops elsewhere in the circuit and potential damage to components
due to overheating. Understanding these behaviors is crucial for diagnosing
issues, designing safe and efficient electrical systems, and ensuring proper
functionality. By mastering the dynamics of current and voltage in both
scenarios, engineers and technicians can enhance circuit reliability and safety..

Laboratory # 3:
OHM’S LAW

The rate of flow of electricity in a given circuit is called current, denoted as I, the
potential difference between the starting and the ending points of the circuit is known
as the voltage denoted as V and the opposition to the flow of current is called
resistance, denoted as R. According to Ohms law the ratio, V and I is always a
constant factor for a particular conductor when the temperature, length, and conductor
material is kept constant. This constant is called the Resistance that is characteristic of
the conductor used. This is denoted by the formula
Voltage/current=constant V/I=R
The unit of EMF is Volts, the unit of Current is Amperes and the unit of Resistance is
Ohms.Electricity is measured in these units. Ohms law has wide applications in
electrical circuits obeying Kirchhoff's Laws, heat generation, Chemical analysis
deposits, and most importantly for deriving Light energy.
Ohms law for DC circuit is R=V/I
since the current flow is a steady one, but for AC, the current flow is a fluctuating one
with some frequency, in such case the frequency is also taken into consideration, here
the Resistance of the circuit is called the Impedance represented by Z. Ohms Law
applies to the conductors whose resistance is independent of voltage. When an I,V
graph is drawn, it is seen the Ohms law is obeyed in the linear portion for ohmic
resistors, for non-ohmic resistance substances the I,V graph is bent and curved,
showing negative resistance properties like incandescent lamps where more voltage is
applied, more heat is generated and the resistance rises.

•To study ohm’s law and prove experimentally that current is proportional to the
voltage across a dc circuit and to show that the proportionality constant is equal to the
resistance of the circuit.
•To study relation between current and resistance in a dc & AC circuits for various
voltages across the circuit.

1.Digital Voltmeters dc and Ac

2.DC Power supply
3.Resistors variable in size
4.Circuit construction board
5.Connecting wires
Procedure:
1.Adjust the power supply to deliver 1V(or as close as possible) use separate dc
voltmeters for this adjustment.

2.Construct the dc circuit shown in diagram Figure a, and connect it to the 1Vpower
supply.
3.Measure the voltage drop across R1(VR1) and record in data table 3.1in the
appropriate column and record IT from the ammeter in IT(meas.) column.
4.Calculate IT and record in the appropriate column in data table 3.1. Show your
calculation.
5.Repeat step 3 and 4by increasing the power supply in steps of one volt
6.Substitute the values of R1in data table 3.4and calculate the corresponding circuit
currents &record this information in the appropriate column in data table 3.4
7.Read the corresponding circuit current (IT meas) and record this reading in the last
column in data table 3.4.
8.Repeat the steps1-7 for the AC circuit shown in figure b.
Table. 3.1
Source voltage VR1 unit volt I(calculate ) unit I(measure)
micro Ammpere
1 0.99 volt 0.2 microA
2 1.99 volt 0.4 microA
3 2.99 volt 0.6 microA
4 3.99 volt 0.8 microA
5 4.99 volt 1 microA
6 6 volt 1.208microA
7 7 volt 1.41microA
8 8 volt 1.61microA

Table 3.4
R in kΩ I(calculate) in microamper
329.6 kΩ 15.2microA
330 kΩ 15microA
1.774 kΩ 2818microA
6760 kΩ 0.74microA
996 kΩ 5.02microA

Review Question:
1.Draw the graph of ITVsVRT(calc.) on a millimeter paper.
2.Draw the graph of I TVs VRT(meas) on a millimeter paper.
3.What do you understand from your graph?
4.Does the graph linear or non linear?
5.If the graph is linear,what is the corresponding parameter in ITVs VRT.
6.Discuss the difference between your results when you use the dc & Ac sources.
7.Conclude any other relevant points based on this experiment.
• Linear: If the points fall on a straight line, the relationship between current and
voltage is linear. This is what you expect for a resistor that obeys Ohm's Law.

Parameter in IV vs VR (Linear Graph)

If the graph of current (I) vs voltage across the resistor (VR) is linear, the
corresponding parameter is the resistance (R) of the resistor.

• Ohm's Law: This linearity is a direct consequence of Ohm's Law, which states that
the voltage across a resistor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it.
The constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).

• Slope: The slope of the linear graph represents the resistance (R). You can calculate
the resistance using the formula:
R = ΔV/ΔI
where ΔV is the change in voltage and ΔI is the change in current.

Difference between DC and AC Sources

The behavior of a circuit with a resistor can differ slightly when using DC (direct
current) and AC (alternating current) sources. Here's a breakdown:

DC Source:
• Constant Voltage: A DC source provides a steady, unchanging voltage.
• Linear Relationship: With a DC source, the IV vs VR graph for a resistor is typically
linear. The resistance (R) remains constant, and Ohm's Law holds true.

AC Source:
• Varying Voltage: An AC source provides a voltage that changes with time, usually
in a sinusoidal pattern.
• Linear Relationship (Ideal Case): In an ideal scenario, the IV vs VR graph for a
resistor is still linear with an AC source. The resistance remains constant, and Ohm's
Law applies.

Important Considerations:
• Capacitance and Inductance: In a circuit with AC, capacitors and inductors can
influence the current and voltage relationship. Capacitors store charge, and inductors
resist changes in current. These components can cause a phase shift between current
and voltage, and the circuit's behavior might not be strictly linear.
• Frequency Dependence: With AC sources, the behavior of the circuit can be
frequency-dependent. For example, the resistance of a capacitor decreases as the
frequency increases.

Comparison of Measured and Calculated Values:

In applying the Superposition Theorem, we analyze a linear circuit by considering one
independent source at a time while turning off all other independent sources
(replacing voltage sources with short circuits and current sources with open circuits).
After calculating the individual contributions to currents and voltages across all
elements, we sum these contributions to find the total current and voltage.

Typically, the measured values obtained through practical circuit testing should
closely align with the calculated values derived from applying the Superposition
Theorem. Any discrepancies may arise due to measurement inaccuracies, component
tolerances, or non-ideal behaviors in real components.

Advantages of the Superposition Theorem over Nodal and Loop Analysis:

1. Simplicity for Multiple Sources:

- Superposition simplifies the analysis of circuits with multiple independent sources
by allowing one to focus on one source at a time, which can be easier than setting
up simultaneous equations required in nodal or loop analysis.

2. Intuitive Understanding:
It provides an intuitive understanding of how each source contributes to the overall
response of the circuit, which can be beneficial for educational purposes and
conceptual clarity.

3. Flexibility:
The theorem can be applied in conjunction with other methods, such as nodal or
loop analysis, allowing for a hybrid approach when necessary.

4. Less Mathematical Complexity:

For some circuits, especially those with simple configurations, using superposition
can lead to faster solutions without the need for complex algebraic manipulations.

When and Why to Choose the Superposition Theorem:

Where to Use:
The Superposition Theorem is best used in circuits with multiple independent
sources (voltage or current) where linear components (resistors, inductors,
capacitors) are present. It is particularly useful in AC circuit analysis when dealing
with sinusoidal sources.

When to Use:
- Use this theorem when you want to simplify your calculations and understand the
contribution of each source independently. It is ideal when the circuit has a
manageable number of sources, as excessive sources can complicate the analysis.

Why Choose This Theorem:

Choose the Superposition Theorem when you need clarity in understanding how
each source affects circuit behavior or when you want to avoid complex
simultaneous equations that arise in nodal or loop analysis. It is also beneficial
when teaching concepts of circuit analysis, as it reinforces fundamental principles
of linear systems.

Conclusion on Superposition Theorem:

The Superposition Theorem is a powerful tool for analyzing linear circuits,
particularly when multiple independent sources are present. It allows for a systematic
approach to understanding how each source affects the circuit independently, leading
to more straightforward calculations. The theorem's effectiveness is most apparent in
circuits with multiple sources where direct analysis could become complex.
 Laboratory # 4:
NETWORK ANALYSIS USING KIRCHHOFF'S THEOREM
 Theory:
 We will see the two basic Kirchhoff's law in the laboratory.
• Kirchhoff's Voltage Law ( KVL) : This law states that the algebraic sum of the
voltage
In any closed loop is always zero. That means , Sum Voltage drops in the loop
= Sum of voltage rises in the loop

• Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) : This law states that the algebraic sum of the
current at any junction, area ,distribution is always zero. That means , Sum
current entering the junction = Sum of current leaving the junction
 Objectives:
• To study the use of Kirchhoff's laws in analyzing current distribution in an
electrical circuit.
• To analyze the current distribution to find voltage drop across the various
components of an electrical circuit and to verify the results by calculation.

1. Resistors variable in size

2. Circuit construction board
3. Digital Voltmeter
4. Connecting wires
 Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit as shown below in figure a on the circuit construction board.

R1 R2

10V 5V

R4 R5
i

Data table 4.0

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
1.775KΩ 2210KΩ 81.1KΩ 6730KΩ 2.68KΩ

2. Measure the voltage drops across each resistors and record in datatable4.1
3. By applying Kirchhoff's voltage & current law, calculate the current distribution
and the
voltage drop across each circuit element. Show all steps in your calculation.
4. Put your calculated values in data table 4.1
5. Reverse the polarity of the 10V source and repeat steps 2-4 & Record your data in
data
table 4.2
Data table 4.1 :
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5
Measured 0.002 4.928 0.061 9.98 0.006
Calculated 0.00261 4.819

Data Table 4.2:

I1 I2 I3 I4 I5
Measured
Calculated

 Review Question:
1. How do the calculated values correspond to the measured values? Are there
differences? If there are any, analyze the difference.
2. Check that the algebraic sum of the currents at any node is zero.
3. Check that the algebraic sum of the voltages for any closed loop is zero.
4. State important conclusions from this experiment
solution

When comparing calculated values we observe that there is small difference.

𝑽 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑−𝑽𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
%𝑣 = × 100%
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

%V1=
%V2=
%V3=
%V4=
%V5=
Conclusions from the Experiment Using Kirchhoff’s Theorems

Validation of Kirchhoff’s Laws:

 The experiment confirmed that Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) holds true,
as the algebraic sum of currents at each node equaled zero. This reinforces
the principle that charge is conserved at junctions in electrical circuits.

 Kirchhoff Voltage Law (KVL) was also validated, as the sum of the voltages
around any closed loop in the circuit equaled zero, demonstrating that energy
is conserved in the circuit.

Effect of Component Values:

Variations in resistor values and other components directly impacted current

and voltage measurements, confirming that real components exhibit the
expected behavior predicted by Kirchhoff’s Laws when analyzed in
conjunction with Ohm’s Law.

Impact of Circuit Configuration:

The experiment highlighted the importance of series and parallel

configurations. In series circuits, the same current flows through all
components, while in parallel circuits, the voltage across each branch
remains constant. KCL and KVL helped illustrate these behaviors
effectively.

Error Analysis:

Discrepancies between calculated and measured values were observed,

emphasizing the significance of component tolerances, measurement
accuracy, and the presence of parasitic elements. This underlines the need
for careful measurement techniques and the consideration of real-world
factors in circuit analysis.

Application of Superposition:

The experiment demonstrated the principle of superposition. By

analyzing the circuit with one source at a time, the cumulative effect on
voltage and current could be validated, showcasing how KCL and KVL
can be used in conjunction with this principle for complex circuits.

Real-World Implications:
 The results illustrated how Kirchhoff’s Theorems can be applied to
troubleshoot and analyze real-world electrical systems, providing a
foundational understanding for engineers and technicians.

Limitation Awareness:

The experiment highlighted that Kirchhoff’s Laws are applicable for

linear and passive components and may not hold in non-linear scenarios
or at high frequencies where inductance and capacitance become
significant.

Summary

Overall, the experiment reinforced the validity of Kirchhoff’s Theorems in analyzing

electrical circuits, underscored the importance of accurate measurements, and
provided insights into circuit behavior under various configurations. These
conclusions are crucial for understanding and designing effective electrical systems.

Laboratory # 5:
NETWORK ANALAYSIS USING SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

Superposition theorem is one of those strokes of genius that takes a complex subject
and simplifies it in a way that makes perfect sense.The strategy used in the
Superposition Theorem is to eliminate all but one source of power within a network at
a time, using series/parallel analysis to determine voltage drops (and/or currents)
within the modified network for each power source separately. Then, once voltage
drops and/or currents have been determined for each power source working separately,
the values are all “superimposed” on top of each other (added algebraically) to find
the actual voltage drops/currents with all sources active;i.e,The current through or
voltage across any element of a linear, bilateral network is the algebraic sum of the
currents or voltages separately produced by each source of energy.

•To study circuit analysis using superposition theorem

•Electricity & Electronics construction board

•Resistors variable in size
•DC power supply unit
•Dc regulator if any
•Digital Multi meter
•Connecting wires

•PART a:-Calculated values

1.Construct the circuit shown in figure bellow.
 figure 5.1 a
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
1.773kΩ 5Ω 221.3Ω 322.6Ω 82kΩ

2.Calculate the current I1',I2',I3' andthevoltageV1’ ,V2’ & V3’acrosseach resistor

using ohm's (Kirchhoff's) law for the source V1 by sing the diagram shown below.

Figure 5.2 a
2. Calculate the currents I1",I2"&I3"& the voltageV1”,V2” & V3”across each resistor
using ohm's (Kirchhoff's) law for the source voltage V2 using the diagram shown
below.
3. Calculate the currents I1" ,I 2" & I3" & the voltage V1”,V2” & V3” across each
resistor
using ohm's (Kirchhoff's) law for the source voltage V2 using the diagram shown
below

Figure 5.3

4.Determine I1, I2, and I3and the voltage drops V1,V2& V3 for the network of figure
using the calculated results of steps 2 & 3 above & show the real direction of the
resultant current son figure a.
 5.Using the above result,calculate the power dissipated by each resistor. & record all
results in data table shown

V=V'+V"
I=I’+I”
P=IV

Table 5.1 calculated value of voltage(unit in volt) and current(unit in milliAmmpere)

I1’ I1” I1 I2’ I2” I2 I3’ I3” I3

4.32 0.009 4.329 0.0116 0.095 0.107 4.3 0.086 4.214
V1’ V1” V1 V2’ V2” V2 V3’ V3” V3
7.66 0.016 7.67 00 00 00 0.951 0.019 0.952
P1’ P1” P1 P2’ P2” P2 P3’ P3” P3
33.09mJ 0.0014mJ 33.2mJ 00 00 00 4.09mJ 0.007mJ 4.01mJ

PART b:-Measured values:

2.Construct the network of figure shown above figure and measure the voltages V1
these results with the results of part a.
3.Construct the network of figure a-1andmeasure the currents """I1,I2&I3& the
voltageV1”,V2” & V3”across each resistor compare these results with the result of
part a.
4.Construct the network of figurea-2and measure the currents """I1,I2&I3 & the
voltageV1”,V2” & V3”across each resistor compare the results with the result of part
a.
5. Determine I1, I2, and I3and the voltage drops V1,V2& V3 for the network of figure
ausing the measured results of steps 3& 4above & compare the results with part a.

I1’ I1” I1 I2’ I2” I2 I3’ I3” I3

4.3 0.009 4.326 0.0116 0.095 0.107 4.3 0.09 4.211
V1’ V1” V1 V2’ V2” V2 V3’ V3” V3
7.65 0.016 7.67 00 00 00 0.952 0.02 0.932
P1’ P1” P1 P2’ P2” P2 P3’ P3” P3
32.9mJ 0.14microJ 33.18 00 00 00 4.09 0.0018 3.92

Difference Between Results Using DC and AC Sources

DC Sources:
Steady-State Conditions: When using DC sources, the circuit reaches a steady-state
condition where voltages and currents are constant over time. This allows for
straightforward calculations of current and voltage using Ohm's Law and the
Superposition Theorem.
Simple Analysis: The analysis typically involves resistive elements, leading to clear
and predictable outcomes. The results from measurements are often consistent with
theoretical calculations due to the linearity of the components involved.
No Frequency Effects: There are no frequency-dependent behaviors, making it easier
to interpret results since reactance (inductive or capacitive) does not come into play.

AC Sources:
Time-Varying Signals: AC sources introduce time-varying voltages and currents,
which can lead to phase shifts between voltage and current. This necessitates using
complex numbers (phasors) for analysis, complicating calculations.
Frequency Dependency: The presence of reactive components (inductors and
capacitors) introduces frequency-dependent behaviors, such as impedance, which can
significantly alter the circuit's response compared to a DC analysis.
Potential for Resonance: In circuits with reactive components, AC sources can lead to
resonance phenomena, which can amplify certain frequencies and affect overall
circuit behavior.
Measurement Variability: When measuring AC signals, factors such as harmonics,
distortion, and measurement equipment limitations can introduce discrepancies
between theoretical and measured values.

Conclusions Based on This Experiment

Understanding Circuit Behavior: The experiment highlights the importance of

understanding both DC and AC circuit behavior. While DC analysis is straightforward,
AC analysis requires consideration of additional factors like phase angles and
impedance.
Importance of Component Characteristics: The experiment emphasizes that real-
world components may not behave ideally. Tolerances in resistors, inductors, and
capacitors can lead to variations in expected results, particularly in AC circuits.
Application of Theorems: Utilizing the Superposition Theorem effectively
demonstrates how individual sources contribute to overall circuit behavior. However,
it is crucial to remember that this theorem only applies to linear circuits.
Practical Measurement Techniques: The experiment underscores the importance of
accurate measurement techniques and tools. Discrepancies between calculated and
measured values can often be traced back to measurement errors or limitations in
equipment.
Further Exploration: Future experiments could explore non-linear components or
more complex circuits involving feedback loops. This could provide deeper insights
into circuit behavior beyond what is achievable with linear analysis.