BIOSPHERE

Biosphere is that part of lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere where plants

and human beings live. Biosphere contains all life forms on earth.
The biosphere consists of all the living organisms (the biotic component), energy
and physical environment (the abiotic component) and there are continuous
interactions between living organisms and physical environment and among the
living organisms themselves.
ECOLOGY
The term ecology is derived from the Greek word ‘oikos’ meaning ‘house’,
combined with the word ‘logy’ meaning the ‘science of’ or ‘the study of ’. Literally,
ecology is the study of the earth as a ‘household’, of plants, human beings,
animals and micro-organisms.
ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature, where living organisms interact
among themselves and also with the surrounding physical environment.
 Structure and functions of ecosystem:

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM:
Ecosystem varies greatly in size from a small pond to a large forest or a sea. Since
this system is too much big and complex to be studied at one time, it is convenient
to divide it into two basic categories, namely the terrestrial and the aquatic.
• Terrestrial Ecosystem:
The ecosystem which is found only on landforms is known as the terrestrial
ecosystem.
The main factor which differentiates the terrestrial ecosystems from the aquatic
ecosystems is the relative shortage of water in the terrestrial ecosystems and as a
result the importance that water attains in these ecosystems due to its limited
availability.
Ex: Forests, Grasslands, Deserts
• Aquatic Ecosystem:
An ecosystem which exists in a body of water is known as an aquatic ecosystem.
The aquatic ecosystems are mainly of two types, the freshwater ecosystems and
the marine ecosystems.
Ex: Fresh Waters, Saline Waters, Marine Waters

Ecotone:
A zone of junction between two or more diverse ecosystems.
For e.g. the mangrove forests.

Niche:
A description of all the biological, physical and chemical factors that a species
needs to survive, stay healthy and reproduce.
No two species have exact identical niches.
ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM:
Sun is the primary source of energy for all ecosystems on Earth. Of the incident
solar radiation less than 50 per cent of it is photosynthetically active radiation
(PAR).
Plants capture only 2-10 per cent of the PAR and this small amount of energy
sustains the entire living world. The energy of sunlight fixed in food production by
green plants is passed through the ecosystem by food chains and webs from one
trophic level to the next. In this way, energy flows through the ecosystem.

The Trophic Structure of Ecosystems:

The levels through which food energy passes from one group of organism to the
other group are called trophic levels.
 Food Chain:
The chain of transformation and transfer of food energy in the ecosystem from
one group of organism to another group through a series of steps or levels is
called food chain.

BIOMAGNIFICATION:
Biomagnification, also known as bio-amplification, is the process by which
substances become more concentrated in the bodies of consumers as one moves
up the food chain (trophic levels).
When chemicals or pesticides are let into rivers or lakes they are consumed by
aquatic organisms like fish, which in turn are consumed by large birds, animals or
humans. These harmful substances become concentrated in tissues, internal
organs as it moves up the food chain.
Effects of biomagnification:
a. High concentrations of DDT in some bird species caused failure of eggs by
thinning the shells.
b. PCBs can affect the immune system, fertility, child development and possibly
increase the risk of certain cancers.
c. Mercury poisoning interferes with the nervous system development in fetuses
and young children.
 NUTRIENT CYCLES:
The flow of energy in ecosystems is one-way. In contrast, the nutrients which are
needed to produce organic material are circulated round the system and are re-
used several times.
Another name of nutrient cycling is biogeochemical cycles (bio: living organism,
geo: rocks, air, and water).
a. Water Cycle:
• Water undergoes a cycle from the ocean to land and land to ocean.
• The hydrological cycle describes the movement of water on, in, and above the
earth.

• The distribution of water on earth is quite uneven. Many locations have plenty
of water while others have very limited quantity.
• The hydrological cycle is the circulation of water within the earth’s hydrosphere
in different forms i.e. the liquid, solid and the gaseous phases.
b. Carbon Cycle:
• Carbon cycle is mainly the conversion of carbon dioxide.
• This conversion is initiated by the fixation of carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere through photosynthesis.
• Such conversion results in the production of carbohydrate, glucose that may be
converted to other organic compounds.

c. The Phosphorus Cycle:

• The phosphorus cycle is an example of a sedimentary cycle which is easily
disrupted.
• Phosphates in the soil are taken into plants for protein synthesis and are passed
through the food chains of ecosystems.
• When plant and animal bodies and their excretory products decompose, the
phosphorus is released to the soil where it can either be taken back into plants
or washed out by rainfall into drainage systems which ultimately take it to the
sea.
• The phosphorus cycle can be easily disrupted by the use of phosphate fertilisers
in modern agriculture.
• Most manufactured phosphate fertilisers are produced from phosphate rocks
but are rapidly lost from the exchange pool to marine deposits as they are easily
leached from the soil.
 d. Oxygen Cycle:
• The cycling of oxygen is a highly complex process. Oxygen occurs in a number
of chemical forms and combinations.
• It combines with nitrogen to form nitrates and with many other minerals and
elements to form various oxides such as the iron oxide, aluminium oxide and
others.
• Much of oxygen is produced from the decomposition of water molecules by
sunlight during photosynthesis and is released in the atmosphere through
transpiration and respiration processes of plants.

e. Nitrogen Cycle:
• The nitrogen cycle is an example of a gaseous type.
• It is probably the most complete of the nutrient cycles.
• The reservoir pool is the atmosphere and the exchange pool operates between
organisms and the soil.
• Atmospheric nitrogen in the reservoir pool cannot be used directly by most
plants. It has to be made into a chemical compound such as a nitrate before it is
available to the exchange pool.
• Nitrates in the soil are absorbed by plants and pass through food chains.
• Ultimately they are released as ammonia when organic material is decomposed.
• The ammonia is changed back to nitrates by the action of bacteria.
BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is a combination of two words, Bio (life) and diversity (variety).
Biodiversity is formally defined by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) as:
“the variability among living organisms from all sources including, among others,
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of
which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of
ecosystems”.
 BIODIVERSITY OF INDIA:
• With only 2.4% of the world’s land area, its share of the global species diversity
is an impressive 8.1 per cent.
• This includes 45,500 recorded species of plants and 91,000 recorded species of
animals.
• There is diversity of ecological habitats like forests, grassland, wetlands, coastal
and marine ecosystems, and desert ecosystems.
• India is considered one of the world’s 17 “megadiverse” countries in terms of
biodiversity.
• India has four global biodiversity hot spots (Eastern Himalaya, Indo-Burma,
Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, and Sundaland).

• The principle criterion is endemism, first at the species level and then at higher
taxonomic levels such as genus and family. To qualify as a Megadiverse
Country, a country must:
1. Have at least 5000 of the world’s plants as endemics.
2. Have marine ecosystems within its borders.

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION:
Biodiversity is important for human existence. All forms of life are so closely
interlinked that disturbance in one gives rise to imbalance in the others. If species
of plants and animals become endangered, they cause degradation in the
environment, which may threaten human being’s own existence.
There are two approaches in biodiversity conservation:
1. In situ conservation: It is the approach of protecting an endangered plant or
animal species in its natural habitat, either by protecting or cleaning up the
habitat itself, or by defending the species from predators. Some methods under it
are:
• Biosphere Reserves
• National Parks
• Wild-life Sanctuaries
2. Ex-situ conservation: In this approach, threatened animals and plants are taken
out from their natural habitat and placed in special setting where they can be
protected and given special care.
Zoological parks, botanical gardens and wildlife safari parks serve this purpose.
 BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOT:
• The concept of biodiversity hotspots was given by Norman Myers. A
biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with a significant reservoir of
biodiversity that is threatened with destruction.
• These hot spots which cover less than 2% of the world’s land area are found to
have about 50% of the terrestrial biodiversity.

• Criteria for determining hot-spots:

Contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants (> 0.5 percent of the world's
total) as endemics (species found nowhere else on Earth).
Degree of threat, which is measured in terms of Habitat loss: Have lost at least
70 percent of its original habitat.

• There are 35 such hot spots of biodiversity on a global level.

Out of these, four are present in India. These are:
1. Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region (and that falling in
Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, China and Myanmar)
2. Indo-Burma: Includes entire North-eastern India, except Assam and
Andaman group of Islands (and Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia
and southern China)
3. Sundalands: Includes Nicobar group of Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia,
Singapore, Brunei, Philippines)
4. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: Includes entire Western Ghats (and Sri
Lanka).
 WETLANDS
Wetlands are defined as lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic eco-
systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is
covered by shallow water. The land area is saturated with water, either
permanently or seasonally, such that it takes on the characteristics of a distinct
ecosystem.
Under the Ramsar International Wetland Conservation treaty, wetlands are
defined as:
Article 1.1.: Wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural
or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh,
brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide
does not exceed six metres.
Article 2.1.: Wetlands may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the
wetlands, and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six metres at low
tide lying within the wetlands.
According to Ramsar Convention, three major classes are identified:
• Marine/Coastal Wetlands
• Inland Wetlands
• Human-made Wetlands
These are subdivided by the type of water: fresh / saline / brackish / alkaline;
further may be subdivided based on whether they are permanent or temporary.
 IMPORTANCE OF WETLANDS:
• While covering only 6% of the Earth's surface, wetlands provide a
disproportionately high number of ecosystem services, in addition to
maintaining biodiversity.
• For instance, wetlands also mitigate floods, protect coastal areas from storms,
improve water quality, recharge groundwater aquifers, serve as sinks, sources,
or transformers of materials, and produce food and goods for human use.
• Regional wetlands are integral parts of larger landscapes; their functions and
values to the people in these landscapes depend on both their extent and their
location. Each wetland thus is ecologically unique.

Indian wetlands are grouped as:

a. Himalayan wetlands: Ladakh and Zanskar (Pangong Tso, Tso Morad, Chantau,
Noorichan, Chushul and Hanlay marshes); Kashmir Valley (Dal, Anchar,
Wular, Haigam, Malgam, Haukersar and Kranchu lakes); Central Himalayas
(Nainital, Bhimtal and Naukuchital); Eastern Himalayas (Numerous wetlands in
Sikkim, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Manipur, Beels
in the Brahmaputra and Barak valley)
b. Indo-Gangetic wetlands: The Indo-Gangetic flood plain is the largest wetland
system in India, extending from the river Indus in the west to Brahmaputra in
the east. This includes the wetlands of the Himalayan terai and the Indo-
Gangetic plains.
c. Coastal wetlands: The vast intertidal areas, mangroves and lagoons along the
7500 km long coastline in West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra and Gujarat; Mangrove forests of
Sunderbans, Andaman and Nicobar Islands; Offshore coral reefs of Gulf of
Kutch, Gulf of Mannar, Lakshwadeep and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
d. Deccan: A few natural wetlands, but innumerable small and large reservoirs
and several water storage tanks in almost every village in the region.
 CAUSES OF WETLAND LOSS IN INDIA:
Human Causes:
i. Drainage for agriculture, forestry and mosquito control
ii. Dredging and stream channelization for navigation and food protection
iii. Filling for solid waste disposal, roads
iv. Conservation for aquaculture/mariculture
v. Construction of dykes, dams and seawalls for flood control
vi. Discharge of pesticide, herbicide, nutrients from domestic sewage
vii. Mining of wetlands for peat, coal, gravel, phosphate and other minerals
viii. Ground water abstraction
ix. Sediment diversion by dams, deep channels
x. Hydrological alterations by canals, roads and other structures
xi. Subsidence due to extraction of ground water oil, gas and other minerals
Natural Causes:
i. Subsidence
ii. Sea level rise
iii. Drought
iv. Hurricane and other storms
v. Erosion
vi. Biotic effects (natural as well as induced due to disturbances)

RAMSAR CONVENTION ON WETLAND:

✓ The Convention on Wetlands, signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, is an
intergovernmental treaty which provides the framework for national action and
international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and
their resources.
✓ There are presently 169 Contracting Parties to the Convention, with 2,234
wetland sites, totalling 215 million hectares, designated for inclusion in the
Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance.
✓ Ramsar Convention is the only global environment treaty dealing with a
particular ecosystem.
Ramsar Sites in India:
 Currently, two wetlands of India are in Montreux record:
Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) and
Loktak Lake (Manipur).

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

CLIMATE CHANGE AND POLLUTION:

Climate change is a long-term shift in weather conditions identified by changes in
temperature, precipitation, winds, and other indicators. Climate change can
involve both changes in average conditions and changes in variability, including,
for example, frequency of extreme events.

CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE:

✓ Any factor that causes a sustained change to the amount of incoming energy or
the amount of outgoing energy can lead to climate change. Factors that cause
climate change can be divided into two categories - those related to natural
processes and those related to human activity.
✓ Natural Causes:
✓ The Earth's climate can be affected by natural factors that are external to the
climate system, such as changes in volcanic activity, solar output, and the
Earth's orbit around the Sun.
✓ Of these, the two factors relevant on timescales of contemporary climate change
are changes in volcanic activity and changes in solar radiation.
✓ In terms of the Earth's energy balance, these factors primarily influence the
amount of incoming energy.
✓ Human Causes:
✓ Increase in the level of greenhouse gases has led to considerable heating of Earth
leading to global warming. During the past century, the temperature of Earth
has increased by 0.8o Celsius, most of it during the last three decades.
✓ Deforestation is the conversion of forested areas to non-forested ones. A number
of human activities contribute to it. One of the major reasons is the conversion
of forest to agricultural land so as to feed the growing human population.

GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING:

A. The term ‘Greenhouse effect’ has been derived from a phenomenon that occurs
in a greenhouse. In a greenhouse the glass panel lets the light in, but does not
allow heat to escape. Therefore, the greenhouse warms up, very much like inside
a car that has been parked in the sun for a few hours.
B. The sunlight which hits the Earth's surface is made up of high energy ultra-
violet and visible radiation. The energy emitted from the surface of the Earth is
infra-red or 'longwave radiation' and is less energetic than sunlight.
 The most important greenhouse gases:
a. carbon dioxide
b. methane
c. nitrous oxide
d. hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
e. hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
f. ozone
 OZONE HOLE AND GLOBAL WARMING:
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) play a role in both global warming and ozone-hole
formation.
• In the troposphere, they act as greenhouse gases. They absorb infra-red
radiation coming from the surface of the Earth and, by trapping this heat close
to the Earth they contribute to global warming. I
• n the stratosphere they are broken down by high intensity ultra-violet radiation
from the Sun into chlorine radicals and these have the ability destroy ozone.
• Other greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, do not have a
comparable role in ozone depletion.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND OCEANS:

a. Water has a very high specific heat capacity. This means that a lot of energy is
needed to increase its temperature. As the Earth is 71% water, energy from the
sun causes only small changes in the planet's temperature. This stops the Earth
getting too hot or too cold and makes conditions possible for life. Heat is stored
by the ocean in summer and released back to the atmosphere in winter. Oceans,
therefore, moderate climate by reducing the temperature differences between
seasons.

b. About a third of the carbon dioxide from fossil fuel burning is stored in the
oceans and it enters by both physical and biological processes:
1. Physical Process: Carbon dioxide dissolves more easily in cold water than in
warm water.
2. Biological Process: Carbon dioxide is also taken up by phytoplankton in
photosynthesis and converted into plant material. Land plants and marine
phytoplankton take up about the same amounts of carbon dioxide as each other
but marine phyto-planktons grow much faster than land plants.
c. By burning fossil fuels, we are releasing carbon about a million times faster than
natural biological cycles do. Forests and phytoplankton can't take up the carbon
dioxide fast enough to keep up with the increases in emissions and atmospheric
carbon dioxide levels have, therefore, risen dramatically over the past few
decades.

AGRICULTURE AND GLOBAL WARMING:

• Intensive ploughing of agricultural land and deforestation are also ways to
increase CO2 emissions.
• Soil contains a large amount of organic matter and is, therefore, also an
important carbon store. When the soil is intensively ploughed, more oxygen can
get into it. This extra oxygen increases the rate at which the organic matter is
broken down into CO2.
• Nitrous oxide (N2O) is produced biologically in soils, water and animal wastes.
Over the last two centuries, human activities have increased N2O concentrations
by 13%.
• The main sources of N2O are fossil fuel combustion, agricultural soil
management, industry and the use of nitrogen based fertilizers. The main
sources of methane (natural gas) (CH4) are ruminant livestock (cows and sheep)
and rice cultivation.
• Methane is produced by microscopic organisms which grow in anaerobic
conditions. Anaerobic means that there is no oxygen present. Anaerobic
conditions occur in waterlogged soils. Rice is grown in flooded fields so rice
paddies are an ideal environment for these methane producing organisms to
grow. About a third of the total amount of methane in the atmosphere comes
from agricultural sources.
• Other natural sources of methane are coal and petroleum fields.
 Carbon sequestration:
• It is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of
atmospheric CO2. It can be done in the following ways:
• Afforestation
• Wetland Restoration
• Sustainable Agriculture
• Growing Seaweed that can be used to produce bio-methane.
• Bio-char produced by pyrolysis of bio waste. It can be used as landfill and
increase soil fertility.
• Subterranean injection which involves injecting CO2 into depleted oil and gas
reservoirs and other geological features, or into the deep ocean.
• Iron Fertilization of Oceans encouraging the growth of planktons and thus
capturing CO2.

STRATOSPHERIC OZONE DEPLETION:

• A higher than normal concentration of Ozone molecules, called the Ozone layer,
is found in Stratosphere. It acts as a shield absorbing ultraviolet radiation from
the sun.
• UV rays are highly injurious to living organisms since DNA and proteins of
living organisms preferentially absorb UV rays, and its high energy breaks the
chemical bonds within these molecules.
• The thickness of the ozone in a column of air from the ground to the top of the
atmosphere is measured in terms of Dobson units (DU).
• 1 DU is equivalent to a layer of pure ozone molecules 0.01mm thick.
• However, due to addition of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in the atmosphere
because of Human activity, the equilibrium has been disturbed.
• CFCs were widely used as refrigerants. CFCs discharged in the lower part of
atmosphere move upward and reach stratosphere.
• The main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photo-dissociation
of man-made halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and foam-blowing
agents (CFCs, HCFCs, freons, halons) – popularly called as ODS (Ozone
Depleting Substance).

LAND DEGRADATION AND DESERTIFICATION:

Land degradation is caused by multiple forces, including extreme weather
conditions particularly drought, and human activities that pollute or degrade the
quality of soils and land utility. It negatively affects food production, livelihoods,
and the production and provision of other ecosystem goods and services.
 CONSEQUENCES OF LAND DEGRADATION:
✓ The potential impacts of desertification on health include:
✓ Higher threats of malnutrition from reduced food and water supplies;
✓ More water- and food-borne diseases that result from poor hygiene and a lack
of clean water;
✓ Respiratory diseases caused by atmospheric dust from wind erosion and other
air pollutants;
✓ Spread of infectious diseases as populations migrate.
CORAL REEFS:
Coral reefs are some of the most diverse ecosystems in the world, housing tens of
thousands of marine species. Thousands of identical polyps live together and form
a coral colony.
In many ways, reef-building corals are animals that act like plants, they stay in one
place and get some of their energy from the sun.
Coral reefs cover an area of over 280,000 km2 and are described as the
“rainforests of the seas” because of the biodiversity they support.
Coral reefs benefit the environment and people in numerous ways.
For example, they:
o Through the photosynthesis carried out by their algae, coral serve as a vital
input of food into the tropical/sub-tropical marine food-chain, and assist in
recycling the nutrients too.
o The reefs provide home and shelter to over 25% of fish and up to two million
marine species.
o They are also a nursery for the juvenile forms of many marine creatures.
o Protect shores from the impact of waves and from storm
 POLLUTION
Pollution is any undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of air, land, water or soil. Agents that bring about such an
undesirable change are called as pollutants.

a. AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution is the introduction of particulates, biological molecules, or other
harmful materials into Earth's atmosphere, causing damage, diseases and death to
living organisms.
Industry and transport are the largest sources of air pollutants and emission of
these pollutants results in high levels of particles and soot in the air and can cause
smog to form.
Natural air pollution:
• Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no
vegetation
• Methane, emitted by various sources.
• Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust.
• Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires
• Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) on warmer days. These VOCs react with
primary anthropogenic pollutants to produce a seasonal haze of secondary
pollutants. The VOC production from these species results in ozone levels up to
eight times higher than the low-impact tree species.
• Volcanic activity, which produces sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates
 Anthropogenic sources:
• Stationary sources include smoke stacks of power plants, factories and waste
incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices.
In developing and poor countries, traditional biomass burning is the major
source of air pollutants; traditional biomass includes wood, crop waste and
dung.
• Mobile sources include motor vehicles, marine vessels, and aircraft.
• Military resources, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and
rocketry
• Particulate matter from mining activities.

Types of Pollutants:
1. Primary Pollutants: These are emitted directly into the air from sources at the
Earth’s surface.
Examples are greenhouse gasses.
2. Secondary Pollutants: The regional gases can also react chemically in the
atmosphere to form other compounds which are known as secondary pollutants.
One of the main results of secondary pollution is photochemical smog.

Smog:
The word "smog" is the combination of the words smoke and fog. It was invented
around 1911 by the physician Harold Des Voeux.
 Acid Rain:
Clean rain is slightly acidic naturally but when the pH of rain falls below 5.6, we
call it acid rain. Emissions of the two air pollutants, nitrogen oxides (NOx) and
sulphur dioxide (SO2) are the main reasons for acid rain formation.
Acid rain affects all elements of the environment, surface- and ground-water, soils
and vegetation.
In Indian context, the Air Act 1981 governs the air pollution system in the country.

Government Initiatives to Combat Air Pollution:

1. Notification of National Ambient Air Quality Standards and sector-specific
emission and effluent standards for industries
2. Setting up of monitoring network for assessment of ambient air quality
3. Introduction of cleaner gaseous fuels like CNG, LPG etc and ethanol blending
4. Launching of National Air Quality Index (AQI)
5. Leapfrogging from BS-IV to BS-VI standards for vehicles by 1st April 2020
6. Banning of burning of biomass
7. Promotion of public transport network
8. Pollution Under Control Certificate
9. Issuance of directions under Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
10. Installation of on-line continuous (24x7) monitoring devices by 17 highly
polluting industrial sectors
11. Regulating the bursting of pollution-emitting crackers
12. Notification of graded response action plan for Delhi identifying source
wise actions for various levels of air pollution, etc.
Breathing clean air is a fundamental right of every Indian citizen. Therefore,
human health must become a priority when it comes to tackling air pollution.
 National Air Quality Index (AQI):
• It has been launched for monitoring the quality of air in major urban centres
across the country on a real-time basis and enhancing public awareness for
taking mitigative action.
• The AQI has been at present launched for 10 cities -- Delhi, Agra, Kanpur,
Lucknow, Varanasi, Faridabad, Ahmedabad, Chennai, Bangalore and
Hyderabad.
• Government proposes to extend the measurement of air quality to 22 state
capitals and 44 other cities with a population exceeding one million.
• There are six AQI categories, namely: Good, Satisfactory, Moderately polluted,
Poor, Very poor and Severe.
• The index considers eight pollutants -- PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3
and Pb).
• The likely health implications of the six categories would also be provided with a
colour code.

b. WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution may be defined as the presence of undesirable substances
(organic, inorganic, biological or radioactive) in water and such physical factors as
heat, which make it unfit and harmful for use by the human beings, animals and
marine life.
Sources of Water Pollution:
a. Domestic Sewage
b. Industrial Waste
c. Agricultural Waste
d. Off-shore Oil Drilling
e. Thermal Pollution
 Effects of Water Pollution:
The pollution of fresh and marine water has harmful effects on the environment,
human health and other organisms. Effects of different Sources of water pollution
can be discussed as under:
The domestic waste and sewage has the following effects:
• It can cause infectious diseases, such as typhoid, cholera, dysentery, jaundice,
etc.
• The presence of pathogens make it unfit for domestic use.
• The reduced oxygen level causes foul smell. The industrial wastes have the
following effects:
• The water cannot be used for domestic purposes.
• It has caused extinction of a number of marine species.
• It includes toxic metals (lead, mercury, zinc, copper, cadmium and chromium)
and toxic non-metals (arsenic, petrochemicals, acids, alkalis)

The agricultural wastes have the following effects:

• The water becomes turbid due to suspended impurities and is unfit for domestic
use.
• It causes respiratory and vascular damage by restricting the amount of oxygen
that reaches the brain.
• It can cause precipitation of proteins in the body resulting in the damage of the
liver.
• It reacts with respiratory system and causes acute suffocation by blocking the
respiratory tract.
 The marine pollution has the following effects:
• The nuclear wastes are disposed off in sealed containers in the deep seas. The
leakage can cause serious damage to flora and fauna in marine habitat.
• Oil spills cause frequent death of plankton, fish, coral reef, sea food and marine
birds. The oil spreads on water and forms a layer, which is harmful for marine
life.

Biological oxygen demand (BOD):

It is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed (i. e., demanded) by aerobic
biological organisms to break down organic material present in a given water
sample at certain temperature over a specific time period. BOD can be used to
gauge the effectiveness of wastewater treatment plants.

Eutrophication:
One of the main problems affecting coastal waters is the high levels of nitrogen
and phosphorous based pollutants entering the water. These pollutants come
mainly from human activities. Excessive discharge of nutrients into coastal water
results in accelerated phytoplankton growth.
Eutrophication is defined as ‘enhanced plankton growth due to excess supply of
nutrients’. Large growths of phytoplankton are known as blooms and these large
blooms can have undesirable effects.
Biomagnification (or Bioamplification):
It refers to an increase in the concentration of a substance as you move up the
food chain. This often occurs because the pollutant is persistent, meaning that it
cannot be, or is very slowly, broken down by natural processes. These persistent
pollutants are transferred up the food chain faster than they are broken down or
excreted.

Bioaccumulation:
It occurs within an organism, where a concentration of a substance builds up in
the tissues as it is absorbed faster than it is removed. Bioaccumulation often
occurs in two ways, simultaneously: by eating contaminated food, and by
absorption directly from water.
 POLLUTION DUE TO SOLID WASTES
• All waste that we generate can be categorized into three types – bio-degradable,
recyclable and the non-biodegradable.
• Solid wastes are generally composed of non-biodegradable and non-compostable
biodegradable materials.
• The latter refer to solid wastes whose bio-deterioration is not complete; in the
sense that the enzymes of microbial communities that feed on its residues cannot
cause its disappearance or conversion into another compound.
• Solid waste pollution is when the environment is filled with non-biodegradable
and non-compostable biodegradable wastes that are capable of emitting
greenhouse gases, toxic fumes, and particulate matters as they accumulate in
open landfills.
• These wastes are also capable of leaching organic or chemical compositions to
contaminate the ground where such wastes lay in accumulation.
• The concentration of solid wastes reacting to heat, moistures and air as they lay
exposed to the environment also cause greenhouse gas emissions.

Regulation of E-Waste in India:

✓ As per the survey carried out by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
during the year 2005, 1,46,800 MT of e-waste was generated in the country.
✓ The Ministry of Environment & Forests has notified e-waste (Management and
Handling) Rules, 2011 which have become effective from 1st May, 2012.
✓ These Rules provide for mandatory authorization of producer, collection center,
dismantler and recycler of e-waste; registration of dismantler and recycler of e-
waste from the State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control Committee
of Union territories; and ‘Extended Producer Responsibility’ under which
producers will be responsible for collection and channelization of e-waste
generated from the ‘end of life’ of their products to registered dismantler or
recycler.

RADIATION POLLUTION
• Radiation, that is given off by nuclear waste is extremely damaging to
organisms, because it causes mutations at a very high rate.
• At high doses, nuclear radiation is lethal but at lower doses, it creates various
disorders, the most frequent of all being cancer.
• Therefore, nuclear waste is an extremely potent pollutant and has to be dealt
with utmost caution.
• The natural sources of radiation pollution include cosmic rays, ultraviolet rays
and infra-red rays, which reaches the earth from the sun and other heavenly
bodies.
• It also includes radioactive rays from unstable atoms of uranium, thorium and
radium.
• The human-made radiations come from the use of radioactive materials, which
are widely used in the production of nuclear weapons, nuclear fuel and electric
power.

SOIL POLLUTION:
• Soil pollution is defined as the change in the physical, chemical and biological
conditions due to the presence of various toxic materials.
• Harmful substances are added to the soil through the surface run-off or through
leaching. Soils can be polluted by pathogenic organisms, organic and inorganic
chemicals and toxic metals.
• Some of the toxic chemicals from the polluted soils may enter the food chain and
then enter the body of humans and other organisms, causing serious health
problems.

NOISE POLLUTION:
• Sound, which is measured in decibels (dB), is a form of energy having wave
motion. Any sound, which is unwanted or unpleasant to our ears, is called noise.
• Thus any undesirable sound which adversely affects the physical and mental
health of its recipient is called noise pollution.
• The noise pollution can be due to natural processes or human activities.
• It is caused by industries, mining, transport vehicles, thunder, households,
defence sector, loudspeakers, supersonic jet aircrafts and others.
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND TREATIES
International environmental policies are in the form of treaties, multilateral
agreements, conventions and conferences. An overview of some of the major
multilateral agreements, treaties and conventions on environment obligations are
discussed below:

1971: CONVENTION ON WETLANDS OF INTERNATIONAL IMPORTANCE, ESPECIALLY

AS WATERFOWL HABITAT ("RAMSAR CONVENTION")
Ramsar Convention is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable
utilization of wetlands, i.e. to stem the progressive encroachment on and loss of
wetlands now and in the future, recognizing the fundamental ecological functions
of wetlands and their economic, cultural, scientific, and recreational value.

1972: STOCKHOLM DECLARATION:

United Nations Conference on the human environment held at Stockholm on 5th
and 6th June 1972, generally called as the Stockholm Conference, was the first
declaration of international protection of the environment. In the conference, 113
States, including India, participated and accepted the declaration.

1973: CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENDANGERED SPECIES OF

WILD FLORA AND FAUNA (CITES):
The Conference aimed to control or prevent international commercial trade in
endangered species or products derived from them.
1979: CONVENTION ON LONG-RANGE TRANSBOUNDARY AIR POLLUTION:
The convention opened for signature in 1979 and entered into force in 1983.
The aim of the Convention is that Parties shall endeavour to limit and, as far as
possible, gradually reduce and prevent air pollution including long-range
transboundary air pollution.

1982: NAIROBI DECLARATION

Nairobi Declaration was adopted at Nairobi for celebrating the 10th Anniversary
of the Stockholm conference on human Environment in 1972.

1985: VIENNA CONVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF OZONE LAYER

It became an important legal basis for taking international action to protect the
Earth’s stratospheric ozone layer.

1987: MONTREAL PROTOCOL ON SUBSTANCES THAT DEPLETE THE OZONE LAYER

The Montreal Protocol is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone
layer by phasing out the production of a number of substances believed to be
responsible for ozone depletion.
The treaty is structured around several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that
have been shown to play a role in ozone depletion.
All of these ozone depleting substances contain either chlorine or bromine
(substances containing fluorine-only do not harm the ozone layer).

1987: OUR COMMON FUTURE: REPORT OF THE WORLD COMMISSION ON

ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT ("BRUNDTLAND REPORT")
The concept of 'sustainable development' was crystallized in the 1987 report of
the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development - The
Brundtland Commission - which drew upon long established lines of thought that
had developed substantially over the previous 20 years.
The Brundtland Commission's characterization of 'sustainable development' is
development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

1989: BASEL CONVENTION ON THE CONTROL OF TRANSBOUNDARY MOVEMENTS

OF HAZARDOUS WASTES AND THEIR DISPOSAL
It is an international treaty that was designed to reduce the movements of
hazardous waste between nations, and specifically to prevent transfer of
hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries (LDCs).
It does not, however, address the movement of radioactive waste.

1992: AGENDA 21
Agenda 21 is a comprehensive blueprint of action to be taken globally, nationally
and locally by organisations of the UN, governments, and major groups in every
area in which humans affect the environment. The number 21 refers to the 21st
century.
 1992: FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE (UNFCCC)
• UNFCCC is an international environmental treaty produced at the Earth
Summit in 1992.
• The treaty aims at reducing emissions of greenhouse gas in order to combat
global warming.
• Its stated objective is "to achieve stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations
in the atmosphere at a low enough level to prevent dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system."
• The treaty as originally framed set no mandatory limits on greenhouse gas
emissions for individual nations and contained no enforcement provisions; it is
therefore considered legally non-binding.

1992: CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

A. The Convention on Biological Diversity is an international treaty that was
adopted at the Earth Summit in 1992.
B. The Convention has three main goals:
a. Conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity);
b. Sustainable use of its components;
c. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
C. It also covers the rapidly expanding field of biotechnology through Cartagena
Protocol on Biosafety, addressing technology development and transfer, benefit-
sharing and biosafety issues.
D. Importantly, the Convention is legally binding; countries that join it are obliged
to implement its provisions.
 1997: PROTOCOL TO THE UNFCCC ("KYOTO PROTOCOL")
• The Kyoto Protocol is an agreement made under the UNFCCC.
• Countries that ratify this protocol commit to reduce their emissions of carbon
dioxide and five other greenhouse gases (Methane, Nitrous Oxide, Sulphur
Hexafluoride, Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons), or engage in
emissions trading if they maintain or increase emissions of these gases.

1998: ROTTERDAM CONVENTION

The objectives of the Rotterdam Convention are:
• to promote shared responsibility and cooperative efforts among Parties in the
international trade of certain hazardous chemicals in order to protect human
health and the environment from potential harm; and
• to contribute to the environmentally sound use of those hazardous chemicals, by
facilitating information exchange about their characteristics, by providing for a
national decision-making process on their import and export and by
disseminating these decisions to Parties.
The Convention creates legally binding obligations for the implementation of the
Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure.
2000: THE CARTAGENA PROTOCOL ON BIOSAFETY ("CARTAGENA PROTOCOL")
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an
international agreement which aims to ensure the safe handling, transport and
use of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology
that may have adverse effects on biological diversity, taking also into account risks
to human health.
2001: CONVENTION ON PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS ("STOCKHOLM
CONVENTION")
Stockholm Convention is an international legally binding agreement on persistent
organic pollutants. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds
that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and
photolytic processes.
Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS) and the International
Programme for Chemical Safety (IPCS) prepared a list, known as the Dirty Dozen,
including eight organochlorine pesticides: aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin,
heptachlor, mirex and toxaphene; two industrial chemicals: hexachlorobenzene
(HCB) and the polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) group; and two groups of industrial
by-products: dioxins and furans.

2010: THE NAGOYA PROTOCOL

It is an international agreement which aims at sharing the benefits arising from
the utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way, including by
appropriate access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant
technologies, taking into account all rights over those resources and to
technologies, and by appropriate funding.
It was adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological
Diversity at its tenth meeting on 29 October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan.
The Strategic Plan consists of 20 new biodiversity targets for 2020, termed the
‘Aichi Biodiversity Targets’.
 2013: MINAMATA CONVENTION ON MERCURY
An international treaty designed to protect human health and the environment
from anthropogenic emissions and releases of mercury and mercury compounds.

UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT- RIO+20

The future we want – The Head of government of the various states assembled at
Rio de Janeiro in 2012 to mark the 20 years of the Earth Summit.
They recognized that opportunities for people to influence their lives and future,
participate in decision-making and voice their concerns are fundamental for
sustainable development.
The summit emphasized on Green economy in the context of sustainable
development and poverty eradication.

ECOLOGY RELATED LEGISLATIONS IN INDIA

The legislative provisions developed as a follow-up to such national policies are
listed below:

INDIAN FOREST ACT, 1927

This Act recognises forest dwellers' rights and makes conservation more
accountable. The Act basically does two things:
(i) Grants legal recognition to the rights of traditional forest dwelling communities,
partially correcting the injustice caused by the forest laws, and
(ii) Makes a beginning towards giving communities and the public a voice in forest
and wildlife conservation.
 The law recognises three types of rights:
a. Land Rights
b. Use Rights
c. Right to Protect and Conserve
The Act also categorises forests into three categories:
a. Reserve forest
b. Protected forest
c. Village forest

WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT, 1972

The act provides for the protection of wild animals, birds and plants and matters
connected with them, with a view to ensure the ecological and environmental
security of India.
The act constitutes a National Board for Wildlife that provides guidelines for
framing policies and advising Central and State Government on promotion of
wildlife conservation and controlling poaching and illegal trade of wildlife and its
products; Making recommendations for setting up and managing national parks,
sanctuaries and other protected areas.
It also sets up National Tiger Conservation Authority.
Five kinds of protected areas can be notified in the Act. These are:
1. Sanctuaries
2. National Parks
3. Conservation Reserves
4. Community Reserves
5. Tiger Reserves
 THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT 1986
The Environment Protection Act, 1986 was constituted on 19 Nov, 1986, to
provide for the protection and improvement of environment and for matters
connected with environment that lays down the standards, policies and act of
environmental degradations and policies for improvement of environment and
prevention of human beings from environmental hazards.

BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY ACT, 2002

• The government passed the biodiversity act to conserve and promote
sustainable use of biological diversity and to regulate the access to biological
resources of the country with equitable share in benefits.
• It sets up National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity Board
(SBB) and Biodiversity Management Committees.
• Besides, it aims to respect and protect knowledge of local communities
traditional knowledge related to biodiversity and secure sharing of benefits with
local people as conservers of biological resources and holders of knowledge and
information relating to the use of biological resources.
• Besides, it also has provisions for notifying heritage sites by State Government
in consultation with local body.

NATIONAL GREEN TRIBUNAL ACT, 2010

• The Act enables creation of a special tribunal to handle the expeditious disposal
of the cases pertaining to environmental issues.
• The Tribunal has Original Jurisdiction on matters of “substantial question
relating to environment” & “damage to environment due to specific activity.”
• Tribunal is competent to hear cases for several acts such as Forest
(Conservation) Act, Biological Diversity Act, Environment (Protection) Act,
Water & Air (Prevention & control of Pollution) Acts etc.
• Also have appellate jurisdiction related to above acts after establishment of
Tribunal within a period of 30 days of award or order received by aggrieved
party.

IMPORTANT POLICY MEASURES TOWARDS ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION AND

CONSERVATION
COASTAL REGULATION ZONE
As per the government notification, the coastal land up to 500m from the High
Tide Line (HTL) and a range of 100m along banks of creeks, estuaries, backwater
and rivers subject to tidal fluctuations, is called the Coastal Regulation Zone(CRZ).
CRZ along the country has been placed in four categories.
It includes only the inter-tidal zone and land part of the coastal area and does not
include the ocean part.
The notification regulates setting up and expansion of industries or processing
plants, construction activity, dumping of waste, mining etc. in the said CRZ.
It does not impose any restrictions of fishing activities.
Objectives of setting up CRZ are:
• Protection of livelihoods of traditional fisher folk communities
• Preservation of coastal ecology
• Promotion of economic activity that have necessarily to be located in coastal
regions.
 ECO-SENSITIVE ZONES (ESZS):
• ESZs are areas around Protected Areas (such as National Parks and Wildlife
Sanctuaries) to prevent ecological damage caused due to developmental
activities.
• ESZs are ecologically important areas notified under the Environment
Protection Act to be protected from industrial pollution and unregulated
development.
• The purpose of declaring ESZs is to create some kind of “shock absorbers” to
the protected areas by regulating and managing the activities around such
areas.
• Activities permitted in the areas include ongoing agriculture and horticulture
practices by local communities, rainwater harvesting, organic farming, adoption
of green technology and use of renewable energy sources.
• The width of the ESZ and type of regulation may vary from protected area to
area.
• However, as a general principle, the width of the ESZ could go up to 10 kms
around the protected area.
NATIONAL WILDLIFE CONSERVATION PROJECTS:
Last few decades have seen emergence of human encroachment to an extent that
has never been seen before. This is one of the greatest threats to India's wildlife.
In order to overcome the result of human encroachment many national parks as
well as protected areas have been established so far and the first came in 1935.
The following are the major conservation projects ongoing in India:

PROJECT TIGER:
It was launched on April 1, 1973.
The project aims at tiger conservation in specially constituted tiger reserves
representative of various bio-geographical regions throughout India.
The project was based on a 'core-buffer' strategy.
The core areas were freed from all sorts of human activities and the buffer areas
were subjected to 'conservation oriented land use'.
Starting from nine reserves in 1973-74 the number has grown up to 53(2022).

PROJECT ELEPHANT:
Project Elephant (PE), a centrally sponsored scheme, was launched in February
1992 to provide financial and technical support to major elephant bearing states
in the country for protection of elephants, their habitats and corridors.
It also seeks to address the issues of human-elephant conflict and welfare of
domesticated elephants.
PROJECT SNOW LEOPARD:
Snow Leopard is globally endangered species as well as the most important
flagship species of the mountain region.
The project will be operational in five Himalayan States viz. Jammu & Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh with active
support from wildlife institute of India and the Mysore based Nature Conservation
Foundation.
Species such as Snow Leopard, Asiatic Ibex, Tibetan Argali, LadakhUrial, Chiru,
Takin, Serow and Musk Deer will particularly benefit from this project.

ACTION PLAN FOR VULTURE CONSERVATION IN INDIA:

The population of three species i.e. White-backed Vulture, Slender billed Vulture
and Long billed Vulture in the wild has declined drastically over the past decade.
The decline of Gypsgenus in India has been put at 97% by 2005.
Because of the evidence of widespread and rapid population decline, all three
vulture species were listed by IUCN, the World Conservation Union, in 2000 as
‘Critically Endangered’.
Experiments showed that captive vultures are highly susceptible to Diclofenac,
and are killed by kidney failure leading to gout within a short time of feeding on
the carcass of an animal treated with the normal veterinary dose.
There have been major initiatives for complete ban on the use of Diclofenac and
finding a suitable substitute for the same.
The Supreme Court has also given instructions for phasing out of Diclofenac.
 INDIAN RHINO VISION 2020:
The greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) is listed as Vulnerable
on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Wild populations of the species, currently number approximately 3,270
individuals, are found in northern India and Nepal. Close to 85% of the total
population occurs in India, with about 75% in the state of Assam.
The goal is to attain a wild population of at least 3,000 greater one-horned rhinos
in the Indian state of Assam - spread over seven protected areas - by the year
2020.

NATIONAL ACTION PLAN ON CLIMATE CHANGE

The Government of India released in 2008 India’s first National Action Plan on
Climate Change (NAPCC) outlining existing and future policies and programs
addressing climate mitigation and adaptation.
The plan identifies eight core “national missions” running through 2017.
1. National Solar Mission: The plan includes:
• Specific goals for increasing use of solar thermal technologies in urban areas,
industry, and commercial establishments;
• A goal of increasing production of photovoltaic to 1000 MW/year;
• A goal of deploying at least 1000 MW of solar thermal power generation.

2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency

3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
4. National Water Mission
5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem
 6. National Mission for a “Green India”
7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change

Government is contemplating adding four new missions to NAPCC:

Wind energy:
• Modelled on National Solar Mission
• To be serviced by Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
• To produce 50,000-60,000 MW of power by 2022
Human health:
• Assess impact of climate change on human health
• Build up capacities to respond to these
• Being looked after by Health Ministry

Coastal resources:
• Prepare integrated coastal resource management plan
• Map vulnerabilities along the entire shoreline
• Environment Ministry to look after the mission
Waste-to-energy:
• Incentivise efforts towards harnessing energy from waste
• Lower dependence on coal, oil, gas
• Make power production a more earth-friendly process
 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS
The UN Open Working Group, responsible for crafting the sustainable
development goals (SDGs) has released Sustainable Development Goals in July,
2014 at its 13th and final session. The UN general assembly (UNGA) adopted these
goals in 2015.

There are 17 goals and 169 targets to be achieved by 2030.

Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere
Goal 2: End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote
sustainable agriculture
Goal 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages
Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote life-long
learning opportunities for all
Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
Goal 6: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation
for all
Goal 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for
all
Goal 8: Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and
productive employment and decent work for all.
Goal 9: Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable
industrialization and foster innovation
Goal 10: Reduce inequality within and among countries
Goal 11: Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and
sustainable
Goal 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
Goal 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts
Goal 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for
sustainable development
Goal 15: Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems,
sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land
degradation and halt biodiversity loss
Goal 16: Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development,
provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive
institutions at all levels
Goal 17: Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global
partnership for sustainable development: finance, technology, capacity building,
trade, policy and institutional coherence, data monitoring and accounting etc.